02 Kinematics PHY1012F-drg2021

PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS KINEMATICS
KINEMATICS In One Dimension
1
MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

We shall standardise on the following sign conventions:
The positive end of the x-axis points to the right;

The positive end of the y-axis points upwards.
2

We shall standardise on the following sign conventions:
Positions left of the y-axis have negative x values;

Positions right of the y-axis have positive x values.
Positions below the x-axis have negative y values;
Positions above the x-axis have positive y values.
y x > 0; y > 0
x < 0; y > 0
x = 0; y > 0
0 x
x < 0; y = 0
x > 0; y < 0
x < 0; y < 0
3

We shall standardise on the following sign conventions
for representing directions:
Vectors pointing to the right (or up) have +ve directions;
Vectors pointing to the left (or down) have –ve directions.
v 0
a0 x
NB: The signs represent the directions.

The magnitudes of vectors can never be negative!
4

In 1-d the relationship between acceleration and velocity
simplifies to…
When a is zero, velocity remains constant.

If a and v have the same sign, the object is speeding up.
If a and v have opposite signs, the object is slowing down.
5
POSITION GRAPHS
Plotting a body’s position on a vertical axis against time
on the horizontal axis produces a position-vs-time graph,
or position graph…
1 frame per minute
v
0 100 200 300 400 x (m)
x (m)
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 t (min)
6
POSITION GRAPHS
Plotting a body’s position on a vertical axis against time
on the horizontal axis produces a position-vs-time graph,
or position graph…
1 frame per minute
v
0 100 200 300 400 x (m)
x (m)
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 t (min)
7
INTERPRETING POSITION GRAPHS

It is essential to remember that motion graphs are abstract
representations of motion – they are NOT pictures!
The following graph represents the motion of a car along a
straight road… Describe the motion of the car.
x (km)
After
The
At
During
40
t =car
0
30
min
the
reaches
min
the
car
first
the
car
is30
car
the
10
starts
min
km
stops
origin
the
to
moving
the
for
value
once
10
right
back
of
more
minxofchanges
at
to
the
atathe
80
position
origin.
right.
min.
from
20 km
+10 −20
kmtotothe left
km, of indicating
the origin.that the car is
10
moving to the left.
0 t (min)
20 40 60 80
–10
–20
8
UNIFORM MOTION
Straight-line motion in which equal displacements occur
during any successive equal-time intervals is called
uniform motion. s (m)
t = 6 s
Motion diagram: 6
4 s = 4 m
Position graph: 2
vavg  s 0 t (s)
t 0 2 4 6
vavg = slope of position graph
9
UNIFORM MOTION
Straight-line motion in which equal displacements occur
during any successive equal-time intervals is called
uniform motion. s (m) t = 4 s
Motion diagram: 6
4
Position graph: 2 s = 6 m
vavg  s 0 t (s)
t 0 2 4 6
vavg = slope of position graph
An object’s straight line motion is uniform if and only if

its velocity vx (or vy) is constant and unchanging.
10
POSITION GRAPHS OF UNIFORM MOTION

x (m)
Body A is travelling to the A
right at constant speed…
x (m)
t (s)
Body B is… travelling to

the left/right and is going
B slower/faster than A.
t (s)
(Assume same axes scales.)
11

Summary:
Zero slope  zero velocity. (Object is stationary.)
Steeper slopes  faster speeds.
Negative slope  negative velocity (ie vx is left/vy is down).
The sign (negative or positive) refers only to the direction
of the velocity, and has nothing to do with its magnitude.
12

Summary:
Zero slope  zero velocity. (Object is stationary.)
Steeper slopes  faster speeds.
Negative slope  negative velocity (ie vx is left/vy is down).
The sign (negative or positive) refers only to the direction
of the velocity, and has nothing to do with its magnitude.
The slope is a ratio of intervals, x/t, not coordinates, x/t.
Remember: Position graphs are abstract representations!
We are concerned with the physically meaningful slope
[in m/s], not the actual slope of the graph on paper.
13
x (m)
0 t (s)
0 1 2 3 4
Describe carefully (and quantitatively) the motion of the

basketball player depicted by this position graph.
14
THE MATHEMATICS OF UNIFORM MOTION

s (m)
 s sf − si sf
vs = =
t tf − t i s
si
sf = si + v s t
t
(For uniform motion) t (s)
ti tf
The velocity of a uniformly moving object tells us the

amount by which its position changes during each second.
15
MULTI-REPRESENTATIONAL PROBLEM-SOLVING
Bob leaves home in Chicago at 09:00 and travels east at a
steady 100 km/h. Susan, 680 km to the east in Pittsburgh,
leaves at the same time and travels west at a steady 70 km/h.
Where will they meet?
Bob
16
Physical representation:
vB vS
Chicago aB = 0 meet aS = 0 Pittsburgh
17
Pictorial representation:
axB = 0 axS = 0
x
0 x1B, vxB, t1 x0S, vxS, t0
x0B, vxB, t0 x1S, vxS, t1
x0B = 0 km vxB = +100 km/h t0 = 0 h t1 is when x1B = x1S

x0S = +680 km vxS = –70 km/h x1B = ?
18
Graphical representation:
x (km)
Susan
600
400
200
Bob
0 t (h)
0 tmeet
19
Mathematical representation: sf = si + vst

x1B = x0B + vxB(t1 – t0) = vxBt1
x1S = x0S + vxS(t1 – t0) = x0S + vxSt1
They meet when x1B = x1S i.e. vxBt1 = x0S + vxSt1
x0S 680 km
 t1 = = = 4.0 hours
v xB − v xS 100 km/h − (−70 km/h)
x1B = vxBt1 = (100 km/h)(4.0 h) = 400 km east of Chicago

20
ConcepTest©
x
The position graph shows the P
motion of two objects P and Q.
At which time or times (if any) Q
do the two objects have the
same speed? t (s)
0 1 2 3 4
A 1s
B 2s
C 3s
D somewhere between 3 s and 4 s
E never
21
INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY
Adjusting the time interval between “movie frames” of
the horizontally orbiting tennis ball alters the average
velocity vectors and the information they convey…
v6
v5 v7
v4 v0
v3 v1
v2
23
Adjusting the time interval between “movie frames” of
the horizontally orbiting tennis ball alters the average
velocity vectors and the information they convey…
The longer the time

interval, the less “real” v3
the representation: v2
(Especially if the
“background” information v0
is removed.)
v1
24
Conversely, the shorter the time interval, the more the
vectors tend to show us what the ball is really doing at
any one instant – rather than merely depicting “average”
behaviour for that time interval.
As t gets smaller and
smaller, vavg = s t
approaches a limit – a
constant value representing
the instantaneous velocity
at that point in time.
Mathematically: v s  lim s  ds
t → 0  t dt
25
DERIVATIVES
ds
v s  lim s  ds The limit, dt , is called
t → 0  t dt the derivative of s with respect to t.
In general (using an arbitrary function as a template),

if u = ctn, to find the derivative of u (with respect to t)…
du = ctnn–1 1. Multiply the expression by t’s existing index.
dt 2. Subtract 1 from the index.
The derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives:
d ( u + w ) = du + dw E.g. s = ut + 1 2 at 2
dt dt dt
ds = 1ut 1−1 + 2  1 at 2 −1
dt 2
i.e. v = u + at
26
The same process of shrinking the time interval to
determine the instantaneous velocity at one particular
time can also be applied to linear motion.
In this case, however, it is more helpful to make use of a

position graph rather than a motion diagram…
27
The motion diagram represents an object whose speed
is NOT constant, but increases uniformly each second:
1 frame per second
v
s (m)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
s (m)
16
(Plotting uniformly
accelerated motion 12
s
against time results in a 8
parabolically-shaped
4
position graph.) s
0 t (s)
0 2 4 6 8
28
The ratio st gives the average velocity, vavg , for that
particular time interval, represented graphically by the
slope of the dotted line.
s (m)
The larger t, the

less detailed the
s s
information…
s
t
t t
t (s)
29
Conversely, if we let the time interval either side of time t
shrink towards the limit (t→0), we get the instantaneous
velocity at time t.
s (m)
On a position graph
this corresponds to
the slope of the
tangent to the curve
at time t. s
Mathematically:
v s  lim s  ds t t (s)
t → 0  t dt t
30
INSTANTANEOUS vs AVERAGE VELOCITY

Note that (for uniform acceleration) the average velocity
for a whole time interval is the same as
the instantaneous
velocity at time t in the s (m)
middle of the interval…
…as illustrated by the

parallel slopes of the
dotted lines on the
position graph.
t (s)
t
31
ConcepTest©
y vy
A
0 t 0 t
vy
Which velocity graph goes with
the position graph above? B
0 t
vy
C 0 t
32
POSITION GRAPHS → VELOCITY GRAPHS

Velocity is equivalent to the slope of a position graph.
x (m) E.g. A car travels along a
10 straight road…
0 t (s)
2 4 6 8 For the first 3 s the
–10 x slope
velocity
t
–20 is x = −20 − 10 m = −10 m/s
t 3−0s
vx (m/s)
5
0 t (s)
2 4 6 8
–10
33

10 straight road…
0 t (s)
2 4 6 8 Between 3 s and 4 s the
–10 slope
velocity
−20 − ( −20 ) m
–20 is x = = 0 m/s
t 1s
vx (m/s)
5
0 t (s)
2 4 6 8
–10
34

10 straight road…
0 t (s)
–10 x slope
velocity
0 − ( −20 ) m
–20
t is x = = 5 m/s
t 8−4s
vx (m/s)
5
0 t (s)
2 4 6 8
–10
35

10 straight road…
0 t (s)
–10 slope
velocity
–20 increases steadily
from zero to 7 m/s.
vx (m/s)
8
0 t (s)
2 4 6 8
36

10 straight road…
0 t (s)
2 4 6 8 From 3 s to 6 s the
–10 slope
velocity
–20 remains a steady 7 m/s.
vx (m/s)
8
0 t (s)
2 4 6 8
37

10 straight road…
0 t (s)
–10 slope
velocity
–20 quickly decreases to 0…
…and remains there.
vx (m/s)
8
0 t (s)
2 4 6 8
38
FINDING POSITION FROM VELOCITY

In the previous chapter we showed that a body’s position
can be determined from its velocity using sf = si + v t .
Graphically, the change in position (s = vt) is given by

the “area” “under” a velocity graph:
vs (m/s) During the time

8 interval 2 s to 8 s
v the body travels a
4
t distance
0 t (s) vt = 8 m/s  ( 8 − 2 ) s
2 4 6 8
 s = 48 m
39

In the previous chapter we showed that a body’s position
can be determined from its velocity using sf = si + v t .
Graphically, the change in position (s = vt) is given by

the “area” “under” a velocity graph:
vs (m/s) Even if the velocity

8 varied (uniformly)
during the time
4
s1 s3
interval, s could still
0
s2
t (s)
be determined by
2 4 6 8 summing the “bits”:
s = s1 + s2 + s3
40

If the velocity varies non -uniformly during the interval…
…we can approximate the motion with
a series of constant velocity intervals.
vs (m/s) The total area under the

graph is approximately
(vs)1 s = s1 + s2
(vs)2 s = ( v s ) 1 t + ( v s ) 2 t
s1 s2 2
t t s =  ( v s ) k t
k =1
t (s)
ti tf
41

Once again we apply calculus, shrinking the t’s to
obtain more and more accurate approximations…
s = s1 + s2 + + s N = ( v s ) 1 t + ( v s ) 2 t + + ( v s ) N t
N
vs (m/s) i.e. s =  ( v s ) k t
k =1
until, as t → 0,
N tf
s1 s = lim  ( v s ) k t   v s dt
s2 s4 t → 0 k =1 ti
s3
tf
ti tf
t (s)
So sf = si +  v s dt
ti
42
INTEGRALS
tf
 v s dt is called the integral of vs dt from ti to tf.
ti Since it has two definite boundaries (ti and tf), it is
known as a definite integral.
In general (using an arbitrary function as a template),

ctf n+1 ct i n+1
tf t
n +1 f
= ct = −

n
ct dt
t n+1 ti
n+1 n+1
i
The integral of a sum is the sum of the integrals:

tf tf tf
 ( u + w ) dt =  udt +  w dt
ti ti ti
43
DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION FOR DUMMIES
To differentiate u = ctn …
du = ctn –1 1. Multiply the expression by t’s existing index.

dt 2. Subtract 1 from the index.
To integrate u = ctn …
tf 1. Add 1 to t’s index.
ctn +1 tf
 udt = n +1 2. Divide the expression by the new index.
t ti
i 3. Evaluate the integral at the upper limit, and...
4. subtract the lower limit value of the integral.
 ct f n+1   ct i n+1 
=  − 
 n+1   n+1 
44

A body which starts at position xi = 30 m at time ti, moves
according to vx = (– 5t + 10) m/s.
Where does the body turn around?
At what time does the body reach the origin?
vx (m/s)
10
0 t (s)
2 4 6
–10
–20
45

A body which starts at position xi = 30 m at time ti, moves
according to vx = (– 5t + 10) m/s.
Where does the body turn around?
At what time does the body reach the origin?
t t t t
xf = xi +  v x dt = 30 +  ( −5t + 10 ) dt = 30 −  5t dt +  10 dt
0 0 0 0
t t t
5 2 5 2 5 2 5 2
 10 dt = 10t 0 = 10t − 0 = 10t
t
 5t dt = 2 t 0 = 2 t − 2 0 = 2 t and
0 0
( 2 )
 xf = 30 + 10t − 5 t 2 m Substitute t = 2 and solve for x.
Substitute x = 0 and solve for t.
46
ConcepTest©
Which velocity graph or graphs

goes with this acceleration graph?
The particle is initially moving to
the right and eventually to the left.
A B C D
47
VELOCITY GRAPHS → ACCELERATION GRAPHS

Acceleration is equivalent to the slope of a velocity graph.
vx (m/s)
6 E.g. A car travels along a
straight road…
0 t (s)
slope
acceleration
–6
is v = 6 − 0 m/s = 1 m/s 2
ax (m/s2) t 6−0s
1
0 t (s)
3 6 9 12
–1
–2
48
VELOCITY GRAPHS → ACCELERATION GRAPHS

Acceleration is equivalent to the slope of a velocity graph.
vx (m/s)
6 E.g. A car travels along a
straight road…
0 t (s)
3 6 9 12 For the last 6 s the
slope
acceleration
–6
is v = −6 − 6 m/s = −2 m/s 2
ax (m/s2) t 12 − 6 s
1
0 t (s)
3 6 9 12
–1
–2
49
SUMMARY OF GRAPHS OF MOTION

Constant +ve velocity Increasing +ve velocity Decreasing +ve velocity
s s s
t t t
vs vs vs
vfs vis
vis
vis vfs
t t t
as as as
0 t
0 t 0 t
50
SUMMARY OF GRAPHS OF MOTION

Constant –ve velocity Increasing –ve velocity Decreasing –ve velocity
s s s
t t t
vs vs vs
vis t vfs t
0 t
vfs vis
as as as
0 t
0 t 0 t
51
KINEMATIC EQUATIONS OF CONSTANT a

vs (m/s)
By definition,
 v s v f s − v is vfs
as = = vs =
t t
½as(t)2 ast
Hence: vfs = vis + ast vis
vist vis
t (s)
ti tf
t
sf = si + “area” “under” v-graph between ti and tf.
Hence: sf = si + vist + ½as(t)2
And, substituting t = (vfs – vis )/as: vfs2 = vis2 + 2ass
52
PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY FOR CONSTANT

ACCELERATION KINEMATICS PROBLEMS
Use the particle model. Make simplifying assumptions.
Draw a physical representation (motion diagram).
Draw a pictorial representation.
Draw a graphical representation if appropriate.
Use a mathematical representation (using the equations

of motion with appropriately modified subscripts) to solve.
Assess your solution: Is it complete? Is it reasonable?
53
A student is running at a constant speed of 5 m/s in an attempt

to catch a Jammie Shuttle. When she is 11 m from the bus, it
pulls away with a constant acceleration of 1 m/s2.
From this point, how long does it take her to catch up to the
bus if she keeps running with the same speed?
vW aW = 0
x
vJ aJ
54

vW aW = 0
x
vJ aJ
55

Pictorial representation:
x
axW axJ (m)
0 x0J, v0xJ, t0 x1J, v1xJ, t1
x0W, v0xW, t0 x1W, v1xW, t1
x0W = 0 m v0xW = v1xW = +5 m/s axW = 0 m/s2 x1W = x1J = ?

x0J = +11 m v0xJ = 0 m/s axJ = +1 m/s2 v1xJ = ?
t0 = 0 s t1 = ? is when x1W = x1J
56

x (m)
Graphical representation:
40
30
20
J
10
W
0 t (s)
57

Mathematical representation: sf = si + vist + ½as(t)2
(x1)W = (x0)W + (v0x)W t + ½ (ax)W t2 = 0 + 5t + (½  0  t2) = 5t

(x1)J = (x0)J + (v0x)J t + ½ (ax)J t2 = 11 + 0t + (½  1  t2) = 11 + ½t2
She catches the shuttle when (x1)W = (x1)J

i.e. 5t = 11 + ½t2
½t2 – 5t + 11 = 0
 t = 3.3 s or t = 6.7 s
58
FREE FALL
The motion of a body moving under the influence of
gravity only, and no other forces, is called free fall.
(We often ignore air resistance for slow-moving, massive
objects.)
Consequently…
Two objects dropped from the same height in
the absence of air resistance will hit the
ground simultaneously, at the same speed.
Any two objects in free fall experience
the same acceleration, afree fall .
59
FREE FALL
Notes: g = 9.80 m/s2 is magnitude of the acceleration due
to gravity. It is therefore never negative!
In our convention, afree fall = –g.
g = 9.80 m/s2 is the average value for the surface of
the Earth.
“Free fall” refers also to objects which have been
projected upwards – not only to those which are
literally falling downwards.
60
ConcepTest©
Imagine you are sitting inside the (windowless) ball which is
tossed up into the air, and consider only the interval from after
the ball is launched to before it is caught…
Which of the following statements is true?
A On the way up you’d be pressed against the floor;
on the way down you’d be pressed against the roof.
B On the way up you’d be pressed against the floor;
on the way down you’d be “floating” in free fall.
C Both on the way up and on the way down you’d be “floating” in
free fall, but you’d still know the difference between going up
and coming down.
D You wouldn’t know the difference between “floating” going up
and “floating” coming down, but you’d know when you were at
the top (i.e. when v = 0).
E You wouldn’t know whether you were coming or going!
61
FREE FALL
y
A kingfisher hovers 30 m directly above a
boy with a catapult. If the boy launches a
stone straight up at 25 m/s, how long
does the stone take to hit the bird?
y1, v1y, t1
y0 = 0 m t 0 = 0 s
y1 = +30 m
ay
v0y = +25 m/s
ay = –g = –10 m/s2
t1 = ? (= t)
0 y0, v0y, t0
62
FREE FALL
vy (m/s) does the stone take to hit the bird?
25
20
15
10
5
0 t (s)
1 2 3
–5
63
FREE FALL
y
does the stone take to hit the bird?
y1, v1y, t1
y1 = y0 + v0yt + ½ay(t)2
y0 = 0 m t 0 = 0 s
y1 = 30 m 30 = 0 + 25t + ½ (–10)t2
ay
v0y = 25 m/s 5t2 – 25t + 30 = 0
ay = –g = –10 m/s2 t2 – 5t + 6 = 0
t1 = ? (= t) (t – 2)(t – 3) = 0
0 y0, v0y, t0  t = 2 s or t = 3 s ?!
64
FREE FALL
stop/start A kingfisher hovers 30 m directly above a
v3 v4
v2 v5 does the stone take to hit the bird?
v1
a
v0
65
FREE FALL
vy (m/s) does the stone take to hit the bird?
25
20
15
10
5
0 t (s)
1 2 3
–5
66
MOTION ON AN INCLINED PLANE

vs
The acceleration down
as
(i.e. parallel to) this
frictionless plane which
a is inclined at an angle 
 to the horizontal is…
afree fall
as = g sin
= g 
a⊥

Sign chosen by inspection.
a
(In cases where the
acceleration points left,
v as = –g sin )
67
INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION
For non-uniformly accelerated motion we can define
instantaneous acceleration similarly to the way we
defined instantaneous velocity…
vs (m/s)
Graphically, as the slope of the

tangent to the velocity curve at
a specific instant of time t.
t (s)
t
v s dv s
Mathematically, as a s  lim =
t → 0  t dt
68
KINEMATICS
Learning outcomes:
At the end of this chapter you should be able to…
Interpret, draw and convert between position, velocity
and acceleration graphs.
Use an explicit problem-solving strategy for kinematics

problems.
Apply appropriate mathematical representations

(equations) in order to solve numerical kinematics
problems.
69

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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS KINEMATICS

KINEMATICS In One Dimension

MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

The positive end of the x-axis points to the right;

MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

Positions left of the y-axis have negative x values;

MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

NB: The signs represent the directions.

MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

When a is zero, velocity remains constant.

INTERPRETING POSITION GRAPHS

An object’s straight line motion is uniform if and only if

POSITION GRAPHS OF UNIFORM MOTION

Body B is… travelling to

POSITION GRAPHS OF UNIFORM MOTION

POSITION GRAPHS OF UNIFORM MOTION

Describe carefully (and quantitatively) the motion of the

THE MATHEMATICS OF UNIFORM MOTION

The velocity of a uniformly moving object tells us the

x0B = 0 km vxB = +100 km/h t0 = 0 h t1 is when x1B = x1S

Mathematical representation: sf = si + vst

x1B = vxBt1 = (100 km/h)(4.0 h) = 400 km east of Chicago

The longer the time

In general (using an arbitrary function as a template),

In this case, however, it is more helpful to make use of a

The larger t, the

INSTANTANEOUS vs AVERAGE VELOCITY

middle of the interval…

…as illustrated by the

POSITION GRAPHS → VELOCITY GRAPHS

POSITION GRAPHS → VELOCITY GRAPHS

POSITION GRAPHS → VELOCITY GRAPHS

POSITION GRAPHS → VELOCITY GRAPHS

POSITION GRAPHS → VELOCITY GRAPHS

POSITION GRAPHS → VELOCITY GRAPHS

FINDING POSITION FROM VELOCITY

Graphically, the change in position (s = vt) is given by

vs (m/s) During the time

FINDING POSITION FROM VELOCITY

Graphically, the change in position (s = vt) is given by

vs (m/s) Even if the velocity

FINDING POSITION FROM VELOCITY

vs (m/s) The total area under the

FINDING POSITION FROM VELOCITY

In general (using an arbitrary function as a template),

The integral of a sum is the sum of the integrals:

DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION FOR DUMMIES

du = ctn –1 1. Multiply the expression by t’s existing index.

FINDING POSITION FROM VELOCITY

FINDING POSITION FROM VELOCITY

Which velocity graph or graphs

VELOCITY GRAPHS → ACCELERATION GRAPHS

VELOCITY GRAPHS → ACCELERATION GRAPHS

SUMMARY OF GRAPHS OF MOTION

SUMMARY OF GRAPHS OF MOTION

KINEMATIC EQUATIONS OF CONSTANT a

Hence: sf = si + vist + ½as(t)2

And, substituting t = (vfs – vis )/as: vfs2 = vis2 + 2ass

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY FOR CONSTANT

Use the particle model. Make simplifying assumptions.

Draw a physical representation (motion diagram).

Draw a pictorial representation.

Draw a graphical representation if appropriate.