April 20, 2021

TOPIC: THERMAL ENERGY

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SUB-TOPIC:
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

OBJECTIVES:
We are learning how to:
1. Distinguish between temperature and heat
2. Use different scales to measure temperature

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Thermal energy is often called heat energy or heat. The terms heat and
temperature are connected but they do not mean the same thing.

Click here to see the differences between heat and temperature

Heat is a form of energy. Like all energy, it is measured in joules. Heat

energy flows from a hotter body to a colder body.

Temperature is a measure of how hot (or cold) something is. When a body
gains heat energy, its temperature rises and when it loses heat energy, its
temperature falls.

Click here to watch Neil deGrasse Tyson on Heat vs Temperature

HEAT TRANSFER

Here is what you need:

● Two tea cups
● Hot water (but not too hot to place your finger in)
● ice-cold water

Here is what you should do:

1. Three-quarter fill a tea cup with hot water.
2. Three-quarter fill a tea cup with ice-cold water.

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 3. Place your finger into each tea cup in turn and note that the water is hot in
one and cold in the other.
4. Leave the tea cups to stand on the table for about an hour.
5. Near the end of the hour, place your finger into each tea cup in turn.
6. Is the difference between hot and cold is as great as it was at the start of the
hour?
7. What has happened to the water in each of the tea cups?

When objects are at different temperatures, there is a temperature gradient between

them. Heat energy is lost by the hotter object and heat energy is gained (absorbed)
by the colder object until their temperatures are equal.

The Celsius scale

Temperature is measured using a thermometer. The units of temperature
most commonly used are degrees Celsius. The unit has the symbol 0C.

The Celsius scale is also sometimes called the centigrade scale. The Celsius
scale was devised by the Swedish astronomer, Anders Celsius, in the
eighteenth century.

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On the Celsius scale, pure water freezes at 0 0C and boils at 100 0C, at normal
atmospheric pressure. These two temperatures are referred to as fixed
points.

The Kelvin Scale

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Although the Celsius scale is widely used in science, it has one drawback.
The melting point and boiling point of some substances are below zero
degrees Celsius and therefore must be written as negative values.

In order to avoid this problem, a new scale was devised by Lord Kelvin. This
scale started at the lowest possible temperature, which is -273.16 0C. This
temperature is referred to as absolute zero. To make conversions between
the two scales easier, the start of the Kelvin scale, which is zero Kelvin (0 K),
is taken to be -273 0C.

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Notice that the unit is Kelvin and NOT the degree Kelvin, and it is written as K
and NOT 0K. The Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature.

Click here to watch video on the three main temperature scales

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KEY TERMS
● Thermal energy: a form of energy
● Heat: a form of energy
● Temperature: a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles
in a substance.
● Thermometer: an instrument used to measure temperature
● Celsius: a unit of temperature
● Kelvin: a unit of temperature

Use the words “heat” or “temperature” to complete the

following sentences.
1. When a body receives _______________ energy, its
________________ increases.

2. _______________ is a form of energy while

______________ is a measure of how hot or cold a body is.

3. When an object is cooled, its _____________ falls because

it loses ______________.

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4. The ______________ of a pond increases during the day
because it receives ______________ from the sun.

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SUB-TOPIC: THERMOMETERS

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OBJECTIVES:
We are learning how to:
1. distinguish between temperature and heat
2. Use a thermometer to measure temperature.

MEASURING TEMPERATURE
The thermometers most commonly used in the laboratory and elsewhere are
called liquid-in-glass thermometers. They consist of a sealed length of
capillary tube with a bulb at one end.

For a quick look at how liquid-in-glass thermometers are made,

click here

There are two liquids commonly used in these thermometers: alcohol

(ethanol) which is commonly dyed red, and mercury, which is silver in colour.

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Mercury-in-glass clinical thermometer.

Alcohol-in-glass laboratory thermometer

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Care must be taken when using liquid-in-glass thermometers to obtain
accurate readings.

When a liquid is placed in a narrow tube, the surface or meniscus is not flat,
but curved.

The reading on an alcohol-in-glass thermometer is always taken from the

position of the bottom of the meniscus.

The reading on a mercury-in-glass thermometer is always taken from the

position of the top of the meniscus.

Is there a difference between the

alcohol-in-glass thermometer
and the mercury-in-glass
thermometer?
Click here to find out.

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 READING A THERMOMETER ACCURATELY

Click here to see experiment

Here is what you need:

● Thermometer
● Five beakers containing water at different temperatures

Take special care when using hot water.

Here is what you should do:

1. Place the thermometer into a beaker containing water.
2. Leave it for a few minutes.
3. Record the temperature on the thermometer.
4. Repeat steps 1-3 for beakers containing water at different temperatures.

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A thermocolour thermometer consists of a strip of a special type of
substance called liquid crystal. Some liquid crystals change colour
with temperature and are described as thermochromic.

A simple thermocolour thermometer can be used to show the

temperature of a device such as a refrigerator, an oven door or

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even the rooms in which these devices are. It can also be
placed on a person’s forehead to measure their body
temperature.

What is the reading on each of the following thermometers to the

nearest half of a degree Celsius

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SUB-TOPIC: HEAT TRANSFER (CONDUCTION)

OBJECTIVES:
We are learning how to :
1. Compare types of heat transfer
2. Describe conduction as the process by which heat is
transferred through solids.

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 HEAT TRANSFER
Click here to see a "COOL"
video on HEAT TRANSFER

For heat to be transferred, there has to be a difference in temperature between

two points. There are three different methods of heat transfer.
● Conduction is the main process by which heat is transferred through
solids
● Convection is the main process by which heat is transferred through
liquids and gases
● Radiation is the process by which heat can be transferred across open
spaces, including the vacuum of outer space.

In real situations, however, heat is often transferred by a combination of these

processes.

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Conduction
In solids, the particles are held in fixed positions. They cannot change positions,
but they do vibrate.

When a solid is heated, the

particles vibrate more
energetically. The particles jostle
neighbouring particles and in this
way energy due to the increased
vibration of the particles is passed
through the solid. This process is called conduction. All solids conduct heat
to some extent, but some solids are much better conductors of heat than others.

DO ALL SOLIDS CONDUCT HEAT ENERGY AT

THE SAME RATE ?

Click here to see a heat conduction in metals

experiment

Here is what you need:

● Rods of metals and non-metals (such as copper, iron, glass, wood)
● Candle wax
● Boiling water
● Cardboard

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 ● Small beaker

Here is what you should do:

1. Melt candle wax in a small beaker using an electric heater.
2. Dip one end of each rod into the wax so that it is covered in wax.
3. Make holes in a square of cardboard. Make the holes just big enough to push
the rods through.

Be careful during and after the

heating process. Follow the
rules.

4. Put the rods in the water so that the wax coated ends are out of the water.
5. On which rod did the wax melt first?
6. On which rod did the wax melt last?
7. Which material is the best conductor of heat?
8. Which material is the poorest conductor of heat?

All metals are good conductors of heat while most nonmetals are poor
conductors. Poor conductors of heat are called thermal insulators and include
● Glass
● Plastic
● Wood

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 ● Water
● Air

KEY TERMS
Heat transfer: the transfer of heat from one place to another.

Conduction: the main process by which heat is transferred

through solids.

Convection: the main process by which heat is transferred

through fluids (liquids and gases).

Radiation: the main process by which heat is transferred

through a vacuum such as space.

Heat conductors: objects that transfer heat energy easily.

Thermal insulators: objects that do not transfer heat energy

easily.

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 Although diamonds are non-metals, they
are the best heat-conducting solids known.
Diamonds conduct heat five times faster
than copper.

So, can anything conduct heat faster than diamond?

What's inside the world's fastest conductor of heat? Click here

to find out.

Explain why a toasting fork is made of metal but has a wooden

handle?

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SUB-TOPIC: METALS AS CONDUCTORS OF HEAT

OBJECTIVES:
We are learning how to :
1. Compare types of heat transfer
2. Explain why metals are good conductors of heat in terms of
their structure.

Why are metals good conductors of heat?

The reason why metals are good conductors of heat can be explained by
considering their structure.

A metal consists of a framework of tiny particles. Between these particles are

even smaller particles called electrons. These electrons are described as
delocalised because they are not held in one place.

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Metals have
mobile
electrons
called
delocalised
or free
electrons.

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Tap here to learn why metals conduct heat so well.

When a metal is heated, the particles vibrate more

energetically, just like the particles in a solid but, in addition to this, heating
increases the kinetic energy of the delocalised electrons. The delocalised
electrons move quickly and are able to transfer energy through the metal very
quickly.

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 DO ALL METALS CONDUCT HEAT EQUALLY
AS WELL ?

Click here to see a heat conduction in metals

experiment

KEY TERM:
METAL: A type of material with delocalised electrons.

Some results for an activity described in the video are given in the
table.

METAL TIME TAKEN FOR PIN TO FALL

Aluminium 45 s
Brass 83 s
Copper 26 s
Iron 125 s
Zinc 136 s

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a. How can you decide which metal is the best conductor heat?

b. State the order in which these metals conduct heat starting with the best
conductor.
c. Chromium is a better conductor than iron but not as good as brass.
Suggest the time it would have taken for the pin attached by wax to fall
from the strip of chromium.

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SUB-TOPIC: HEAT TRANSFER (CONVECTION)

OBJECTIVES:
We are learning how to :
1. Compare the types of heat transfer
2. Describe convection as the main process by which heat is
transferred through liquids and gases.

CONVECTION
The particles in liquids and gases are too far apart for conduction to take place
effectively. Heat is mainly transferred through liquids and gases by another
process called convection.

When the particles in a liquid or gas are heated, they move about more
quickly. The particles spread out and so are further apart from each other.

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The volume of the liquid increases a small amount while the volume of a gas
increases by a large amount.

Since the density of a substance is equal to its mass divided by its volume, it
follows that when the volume of a liquid or gas increases, its density
decreases. This decrease in density is the cause of convection. The less
dense substance rises above the more dense substance.

Click here to see Convection taking place within a building

CONVECTION IN LIQUIDS
It is possible to observe convection taking place in water by introducing a
coloured chemical or dye to it.

CONVECTION IN WATER

Click here to see convection current in water

Here is what you need:

● Beaker
● Tripod stand
● Drinking straw
● Small crystal of potassium manganate (VII)
● Small candle or other heat source.

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Here is what you should do:
1. Place cold water into the beaker until it is almost full and place it on the
tripod.
2. Stand the drinking water straw near the edge of the beaker and carefully
drop a small crystal of potassium manganate (VII) down the straw so it
sits in the corner of the beaker.
3. Gently warm the water around the crystal of potassium manganate (VII)
and observe how the purple colour of this chemical passes through the
water.
4. Continue careful heating until all the water is purple.
5. Draw a diagram to show how the colour passes through the water in the
beaker.

The particles responsible for the colour are carried by the water as it moves.

When the water around the coloured crystal at the bottom of the beaker is
heated, it becomes less dense and rises, carrying some of the coloured
particles with it. Cooler water from the top of the beaker falls down to replace
it. Overall, the water rises as it gets warm and falls as it cools. This
movement is called a convection current.

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 Convection currents occur on a
massive scale in the ocean and in
the atmosphere and are important
factors in determining the climate.

Different temperatures at different

points in the oceans and atmosphere result in the formation of
convection currents.

In the ocean, convection currents help to circulate nutrients from the

ocean floor into shallow water where they promote growth of organisms.

Click to see short video on SEA AND LAND BREEZES

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 1. With the help of a suitable
diagram, explain how heat is
transferred through water in a
heated pan.

2. Describe what convection currents you would expect

to notice in the air in a kitchen when there is a hot stove
at one side of the kitchen.

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SUB-TOPIC: CONVECTION IN GASES

OBJECTIVES:
We are learning how to :
1. Compare the types of heat transfer
2. Explain convection in gases in terms of changes in density.

Convection takes place in gases exactly the same way as in liquids.

Birds of prey know all about convection

currents. They spread their wings and rise
up on the air that has been warmed by the
land.

To discover a bird's secret to soaring

extra high, tap here.

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 TO SHOW THAT WARM AIR RISES

Tap here to see a demonstration

Here is what you need:

● A sheet of cartridge paper
● Scissors
● Needle
● Cotton
● Small candle

Here is what you should do:

1. Draw a snake on a piece of cartridge paper by drawing a spiral line out

from the centre. Do not make the snake too thin.
2. Cut out the snake so that it is in the form of a spiral.
3. Thread a piece of cotton through the head of your snake. Tie a big knot
at the end to stop the cotton falling through the hole and tie the other
end to the end of a pencil.
4. Hold the snake above a small candle flame. (do not place the flame
too close to the snake).
5. Describe and explain what happens to your snake.

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It is important to appreciate that during convection, it is not heat that is
rising but the heated liquid or gas. The heat energy increases the
kinetic energy in the particles in the liquid or gas. As the kinetic energy
increases, the density of the fluid decreases and the less dense fluid
moves above the more dense fluid.

In the atmosphere, convection currents are responsible for winds. The

sun does not heat the atmosphere directly. The sun heats the surface of
the Earth and this in turn heats the air above it. When the air above the
Earth’s surface is heated, it expands, its density decreases and it rises,
creating an area of low pressure. Cool, denser air moves in from the
surrounding areas of high pressure to replace the rising air.

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 A smoke box consists of a box
that has two chimneys. A
candle is burned under one
chimney while smoke from
smouldering paper is introduced
at the other. The smoke box
has a glass front so the movement of the smoke can be observed.

a. Explain why smoke from the paper is drawn into the box.

b. Would the same thing happen if the candle was not burning?
Explain your answer.

Do not tap here to see the answer.

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SUB-TOPIC: HEAT TRANSFER - RADIATION

OBJECTIVES:
We are learning how to :
1. Compare the types of heat transfer
2. Describe radiation as the process by which heat is transferred
across a vacuum.

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 RADIANT HEAT

Radiation and heat transfer to the

atmosphere

The Earth and other planets are separated from the sun by the vacuum of
space. A vacuum contains nothing; no solids, no liquids, no gases. How does
heat, therefore, travel from the sun to the Earth and other planets? There is a
third way in which thermal energy can be transferred called RADIATION.

What is radiation?
Radiation, more correctly called ‘thermal radiation’ to distinguish it from
‘nuclear radiation’ is the transfer of thermal energy as electromagnetic,
infrared radiation.

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Thermal radiation (infrared radiation) travels at the speed of light and does not
need atoms and molecules to transmit the energy; it can travel through a
vacuum. Thermal radiation can be detected by observing the rise in
temperature it causes when it falls on objects and by infrared cameras. All
objects give out thermal radiation, but hotter objects give out more thermal
radiation than cooler objects.

ABSORPTION OF RADIANT HEAT

Infrared absorption and emission demonstration. Tap

here.

The investigation of radiant heat can be investigated using two metal plates,
one painted matt black and the other polished to a shiny mirror-like surface or
painted with white gloss paint.

Procedure:
1. In a cool, shady place, fix a
cork to the underside of each
plate using wax, which will melt
in the direct sunlight.
2. Put the two plates out in the
direct radiant heat of the sun
and observe.

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Observations:
The cork on the black surface falls off first. This demonstration shows that the
black surface absorbs radiant heat more quickly than the shiny or white
surface.
You feel cooler if you wear light-coloured or shiny clothes in the hot summer.
These clothes are poor absorbers of radiant heat energy from the sun. If you
wear black or dull and dark coloured clothes, or sit in a dark coloured car, the
greater absorption of radiant heat energy will make you much hotter.

EMISSION OF RADIANT HEAT

Procedure
1. Mount a thick sheet of
copper with one surface
painted dull black and the other
highly polished in a metal
clamp stand.
2. Heat it with several bunsen
burners to make it very hot.
3. Remove the burners.
4. Carefully bring the back of your hands up near the two surfaces of the plate
and observe. (the back of your hands are very heat sensitive).

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Observations:
The dull black surface feels hotter even though it is at the same temperature
as the shiny surface. This shows that the dull black surface is emitting more
radiant heat than the shiny one.

Applications:
Many machines need to lose heat and are often fitted with cooling fins to
help radiate the heat away. For example, a car radiator, a motorcycle
engine and a large transformer have cooling fins for this purpose. Heat is
radiated more quickly if
a. The fins are painted a dull black colour
b. The fins have the largest surface area possible.

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SOLAR WATER HEATERS

Tap here to learn about the solar water heater

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REFLECTING RADIANT HEAT
Click here to learn how radiant barriers work.

A concave reflector or mirror can be used to concentrate radiant heat from the
sun. This can be tested by directing the focussed radiation onto the bulb of a
thermometer or even by using it to heat food. It is important to realise that
although light is focussed on the same spot, it is not the light that produces
most of the heating effect, but rather, the invisible radiant heat from the Sun.

Buildings are often painted white in hot

countries because the white surface
reflects most of the radiant heat from the
sun as well as the light. A firefighting
suit and a space suit are sometimes
covered with a shiny metallic surface.
Sensitive metallic equipment in space
probes are protected from radiant heat
energy from the sun by shiny metal foil. The shiny surface reflects the invisible
radiant heat and so prevents the radiation reaching and being absorbed by the
person and or equipment behind it.

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 EVIDENCE OF THE
NATURE OF RADIANT
HEAT
What is infrared radiation?

● Radiant heat is absorbed by all objects and surfaces causing a

temperature rise, but dull black or matt surfaces absorb it most quickly.

● Radiant heat is also radiated by all objects and surfaces causing a

temperature fall and dull black surfaces are the best radiators.

● When someone walks between you and a warm fire, the sensation of
heating on your skin is immediately stopped at the moment the fire is
hidden and just as quickly returns when the person has passed by. This
tells us that the radiant heat travels very quickly, in fact, almost
instantaneously.

● Radiant heat energy coming from the sun must have travelled through
space to reach us, so this form of heat does not need a medium to travel
in or molecules to carry the heat energy.

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 ● Radiant heat energy can also be reflected in the same way light can,
and is often emitted by sources such as the sun and fires which also
emit light radiation at the same time.

● Radiant heat energy is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum of

radiation. This is a family of many kinds of radiation, all of which have
certain common properties that link them together. Radiant heat energy
is called INFRARED radiation and belongs next to red light in the
electromagnetic spectrum.

● Infrared radiation is itself invisible to the human eye, but can be detected
by its heating effect and thermal images can be recorded on infrared
sensitive film. The thermal images obtained from buried bodies in
disaster areas are formed from the infrared radiation emitted by the
warm bodies.

What is infrared radiation?

Click here for practice questions on heat

transfer

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