Name: Stephen T.

Adair
Student ID Number: 2060329784
Email Address: adair.steve@gmail.com
Course Name: Old Testament Theology
Course Number: TH-683-ISR203
Assignment Number: Assignment 5
Audio Number: N/A
Project Number: N/A
Date of seminar (if applicable): N/A
Course instructor for seminar (if applicable):
Location of seminar (if applicable): N/A
**The Module Number, Audio Number (if applicable), and Project Number (if
applicable) must be accurate in order to process the lesson and record the grade. The
correct information is stated in the Course Study Guide.
---------------------------------------------------------------
Study Guide Code/Date/Version
found on the first page of the Study Guide: 20101112
Degree Program: MA in Biblical Studies
Address: PO Box 2132
City: Mossel Bay
State: Western Cape
Zip: 6500
Country: South Africa
Telephone: +27 44 690 5133
--------------------End of Coversheet--------------------

PLEASE TYPE THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THIS LESSON SUBMISSION AS

THEY APPEAR IN YOUR STUDY GUIDE HERE
Select one option below and submit as Assignment 5. Students who wish to prepare
research papers on different topics should contact the professor for permission to pursue
the alternative project.
Option One: The Divine Warrior.
Using sources of your choice from The Divine Warrior Motif in the Old Testament
and the Ancient Near East section of the bibliography, write a formal research paper
of at least 2500 words on this topic: One of the more interesting biblical claims is
that God fights as a warrior. This claim can be seen in the following passages: Exodus
14:14; 14:25; 15: 3; Numbers 22:23; Deuteronomy 3:22; 4:20; Joshua 5:13-15; 10:14;
23:3-10; 2Chronicles 20:29; Nehemiah 4:20; Psalm 24:8; Isaiah 37:35-36; 59:16-17;
Ephesians 6:11-13; Revelation 2:16; 19:11-16. The divine warrior motif has received
substantial interest because of the violence that it assumes for God. Some authors
have found comfort in the Bible’s claim that God fights for His people. Others have
questioned whether the divine warrior motif should be replaced by a more modern
concept of deity. Research the academic discussion about the divine warrior motif.
Note the theological presuppositions behind the sources that you use, and discuss
why different scholars evaluate the motif as they do. Then discuss the lessons that
you draw from the divine warrior motif. Sources not included in the course
bibliography may be used, and the paper will be evaluated partly on the basis of its
use of the academic discussion.

Option Two: Prophecy and the Theophanic Vision of God.

Using sources of your choice from the Prophecy and the Theophanic Vision of God
section of the bibliography, write a formal research paper of at least 2500 words on
this topic:
One key feature of the Old Testament is the frequency of theophanies in the text.
Among other passages, the following passages have been seen by some authors as
theophanies: Genesis 3:8; 4:14; 12:7; 18:1-8; 28:12-13; 31:11-13; Exodus 19:18;
24:9-10; 33:18-20; 40:34-38; Numbers 11:25; 12:6-8; 22:31; Joshua 5:13-15; Judges
13:22-23; 1 Kings 22:19; 2 Kings 6:17; Job 38:1; Is. 6:1-5; Ezekiel 1:1-28; 10:1; and
Daniel 7:13. Theophanies are central to Old Testament theology because prophets
claimed to have based their authority either on seeing visions of God or hearing a
message from Him.
Research the varieties of encounters that Israel’s prophets had with God. Then
summarize and evaluate the ways that these encounters have been understood in
the academic debate. Sources not included in the course bibliography can be used,
and the paper will be evaluated partly on the basis of its interaction with the
academic discussion.

Option Three: Zion and Holy Mountain Imagery.

Using sources of your choice from the Zion and Holy Mountain Imagery section of
the course bibliography, write a formal research paper of at least 2500 words on the
following topic. One of the more pervasive themes both in the biblical text and the
ancient Near East is the holy mountain motif. In the biblical text, it appears in the
Tower of Babel, Ararat, Bethel, Sinai, Jerusalem, and Zion passages. Holy mountain
passages include the following: Genesis 12:8; 13:3; 28:19; 31:13; 35:1-16; Exodus
4:27; 15:17; 1 Samuel 7:15-17; 10:3; 2 Samuel 5:7; 1 Kings 8:1; 12:29-13:32; 2 Kings

Page 2 of 27
2:2-3; 10:29; 19:31; 23:4-19; 2 Chronicles 1:13; Psalm 2:6; 9:11; 14:7; 48:1-2; 50:1-2;
74:2; 87:1-2; 125:1-2; 132:13; Isaiah 2:2; 4:1-6; 15:1-2; Jeremiah 8:19; Ezekiel 28:11-
18; 40-48; Joel 3:21; Amos 4:4; Micah 1:1-4. Since this is a pervasive theme, it has
been the topic of considerable academic attention. Research and write a formal
paper tracing the academic discussion about this theme and evaluate its significance
for Old Testament theology. Sources not included in the bibliography may be used,
and the paper will be graded partly on the basis of its interaction with the academic
debate.

Option Four: Blessing, Curses, and Treaty Vocabulary in the Pentateuch and the
Prophets.
Using sources of your choice from the Blessing, Curses, and Treaty Vocabulary
section of the bibliography, research and write a formal paper of at least 2500 words
on the following topic: The idea of God cursing someone is no longer very popular in
academia. Yet the motif of blessing and curses is an important part of the
international treaty pattern. The exegetical implications of the treaty parallels have
been discussed at length. Research the implications of blessing and curses for
understanding the Old Testament text in the context of the treaty motif. Key
passages for the blessing and curses motif include the following texts: Exodus 2:9;
5:2; 20:6; Deuteronomy 5:10; 6:5; 7:7-13; 10:12-15; 11:1; 11:13; 13:3; 19:9; 30:6;
Joshua 22:5; 23:11; Judges 5:31; Malachi 1:2. Then discuss the continuing
implications of the blessing and curses motif. Sources not included in the
bibliography may be used, and the paper will be evaluated partly on the basis of its
interaction with the academic debate.

Page 3 of 27
INTRODUCTION

“God, who, at sundry times and in divers manners, spoke in times past to the fathers by the

prophets, last of all, in these days, hath spoken to us by his Son”1; so opens the letter to the

Hebrews, underscoring the scriptural record of many occasions when mere mortals

encountered the divine. Such occurrences are called a “theophanies”, from the Greek term

θεοφἀνεια, which is derived from the noun θεός (“God”) and the verb φἀνειν (“to show”)2

Theophanies are a prominent feature of the Old Testament narrative3, and are central to Old

Testament theology because many of the spiritual leaders and prophets claimed to base their

authority on tangible encounters with God.

This paper seeks to explore the varieties of encounters that Israel’s spiritual leaders and

prophets had with God, and to summarize and evaluate the ways that these encounters have

been understood in the academic debate [Good opening and layout here].

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Before embarking on a discussion of “Prophecy and the Theophanic Vision of God”, it is

prudent to clearly define the major terms that will be employed. Key terms are as follows:

Prophet is a person whose relationship with God is so intimate that he or she is able to

discern God’s purpose and guidance for particular situations or circumstances, which may be

related to the past, the present or the future4. The prophet is set apart, called and sent by God

Himself (Jer 1:5; 7:25; Heb 1:1)5. Scripture employs the term “prophet” for many spiritual

leaders including Abraham (Gen. 20:7), Moses (Deut. 18:15-22), Samuel (1 Sam. 3:20),

1
The Douay-Rheims Bible, American Edition, John Murphy Company, 1899 Hebrews 1:1.
2
Niehaus, J. J., “God at Sinai: Covenant and Theophany in the Bible and Ancient Near East Studies in
Old Testament Biblical Theology”, Zondervan, 1995, p17.
3
Ryken, L., Wilhoit, J., Longman, T., Duriez, C., Penney, D., & Reid, D. G., “Dictionary of Biblical
Imagery”, InterVarsity Press, 2000, p857.
4
Ryken, L., Wilhoit, J., Longman, T., Duriez, C., Penney, D., & Reid, D. G., “Dictionary of Biblical
Imagery”, InterVarsity Press, 2000, p671
5
Ryken, L., Wilhoit, J., Longman, T., Duriez, C., Penney, D., & Reid, D. G., “Dictionary of Biblical
Imagery”, InterVarsity Press, 2000, p671.

Page 4 of 27
Elijah (1 Kings 18:36), Elisha (1 Kings 19:16) and David (Acts 2:29-35) [Good biblical

content concerning the nature of the Prophet!].

Theophany is a tangible encounter between a human and God which may take several forms,

including audible and/or visible manifestations, with God assuming a number of differing

forms (human, cloud, fire, radiant light, storm, burning bush etc.). Because the word

“theophany” incudes the Greek term φἀνειν (“to show”), scholars often restrict theophany to

those encounters in which a visual manifestation occurs. However, this restriction may be

regarded as too restrictive for the following reasons:

• Ancient Greek use of φἀνειν (“to show”) and related words such as φνρός (visible,

clear, evident), and ἐπιφάνεια (appearance or revelation), can mean both visible6, but

can also mean illumination, evident7, clear8, public9, to make one’s presence known10,

and can apply to either visual or spiritual perception11.

• Septuagint, New Testament and extra biblical use of these words frequently refers not

to a direct visual manifestation of God, but to evidence of His presence through

divine intervention in earthly circumstances (e.g. Num. 6:25) , strengthening of faith

(Luke 1:76-80), and pertains to the sanctuary as a representation of God’s earthy

presence12.[Valid etymological construct relating the nature of a theophany]

6
Schneider, G., Balz, H., “Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament”, William B. Eerdmans
Publishing Company, 1990.
7
Ibid.
8
Ibid.
9
Ibid.
10
Danker, F. W., “Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian
Literature” (BDAG), Third Edition, The University of Chicago Press, 2000.
11
Kittel, G., Bromiley, G. W., Friedrich, G., “Theological dictionary of the New Testament”, Vol. 9,
Eerdmans. 1964, p2.
12
Brown, C., “New Testament Dictionary of Theology”, Volume 3, Paternoster Press, 1992, pp318-
319.

Page 5 of 27
 • In some cases it is not clear whether theophanic vision is physical, whereby some

manifestation of God is seen physically, or imaginary, where a manifestation of God

is seen in a dream or a spiritual vision13.

TYPES OF THEOPHANY

Divine Appearances to Individuals

Divine appearances to individuals are common in the Old Testament narrative, beginning

with several divine encounters recorded with Adam and Eve, in which God gave initial

instructions to mankind (Gen. 1:28-30; Gen. 2:15-17), during the search for a companion for

Adam (Gen. 2:19-25), and in judgement following mankind’s first sin (Gen. 3:8-24).

On several occasions God revealed himself to Abraham, including appearances to promise to

give the land of Canaan to his offspring (Gen. 12:7), to reaffirm the promise (Gen. 15:17), to

bring assurance that Sarah would conceive and to warn him of his decision to judge Sodom

and Gomorrah (Gen. 18:1).

Later God reaffirmed His promise to bless Abraham’s descendants through a number of

appearances to Isaac (Gen. 26:24; 28:12-13; 35:1, 9; 48:3) and to Jacob (Gen. 26:24; 28:12-

13; 35:1, 9; 48:3).

Amongst Old Testament characters, Moses is the person most closely associated with

theophanic vision. God first appeared to Moses within the burning bush (Ex. 3:1-6), and made

subsequent appearances at Sinai (Ex. 24:1-18), at “the Tent of Meeting” pitched outside the

camp (Ex. 33:11; cf. Num. 14:14; Deut. 34:10) where Moses met with God “face to face, as

one speaks to a friend” (Ex. 33:11) and at an undisclosed location where God caused His

13
For example, in each of the following references, the manifestation of God is through a dream or
vision: 1 Ki. 22:20-22, Is. 6:1-4, Eze. 1:26-28; 8:2-4, Dan. 7:9-10.

Page 6 of 27
goodness to pass in front of Moses (Ex. 33:18-23) [Good content on these theophanic

manifestations].

Other Old Testament figures experienced divine encounters at key stages in the lives,

including Samuel (1 Samuel 3:1-14), Solomon (1 Ki. 3:5), Elijah (1 Ki. 19:11-18), Micaiah (1

Ki. 22:19), Isaiah (Is. 6:1-4), Ezekiel (Ez. 1:26-28; cf. 8:2-4), and Daniel (Dan. 7:9-10).

Finally, other individuals including Hagar (Gen. 16, 21), Abraham (Gen. 22), Balaam (Numb.

22), Gideon (Judg. 6), Manoah and his wife (Judg. 13), Zechariah (Zec. 3), had encounters

with a supernatural being sometimes referred to as the “angel of the Lord”. On occasions this

angelic being speaks as if He were divine (e.g. Gen. 31:11-13; Jg. 2:1-3) and human reaction

occasionally implies encounter with God (Gen. 16:11-13; Jg. 13:22). This has led to several

theologians to consider “the angel of the Lord” as a form of theophanic vision, with some

identifying these events to be a pre-incarnate appearance of Jesus14 [Yes: The pre-incarnate

view of the Savior is accurate].

Divine Appearances to Israel

Divine appearances in the Old Testament were not confined to individuals, but at times God

appeared to large groups of people. Examples of such appearances are found in the pillar of

cloud and the pillar of fire which accompanied the Israelites on their journey to the Promised

Land (Ex. 13:21-22; 14:24; 33:9-10; 34:5). God’s glory was revealed his glory in the cloud

which covered the tent of meeting (Ex. 16:10; 24:15), filled the tabernacle (Ex. 40:34-38) and

filled the temple (1 Ki. 8:10-12).

After leaving Egypt, the Israelites camped at Sinai where God revealed His presence through

fire, thunder, lightning and a dense cloud. As smoke billowed up from the mountain, the

14
Finestone, D., “Is the Angel of Jehovah in the Old Testament the Lord Jesus Christ?”, Bibliotheca
Sacra, Vol. 95, 1938, pp372-377.

Page 7 of 27
people heard a trumpet-like blast and the mountain trembled violently (Ex. 19:16-19),

moreover, they heard the voice of the Lord in audible form (Ex. 19:19).

Theophanic vision occurring to more than one individual is significant because it is carries a

greater weight of evidence that the occurrence was real and actual, rather than invented,

imagined or delusional [Yes: This is good (Luke 24:15-32)].

FORMS OF THEOPHANY

Audible Theophany

Samuel experienced an encounter with God which has been described alternatively as a

“prophetic call”15 or an “auditory dream theophany”16. Although the narrative makes it clear

that Samuel’s experience occurred while he was awake, this falls with the ancient concept of

the auditory dream paradigm [Yes: This is good]17. Although most commentators maintain a

visual aspect18 to Samuel’s experience19, this is pure speculation20 and could simply imply a

real, tangible encounter with the divine rather than a dream21.

15
Youngblood, R. F., “1-2 Samuel”; in Gaebelein, F. E., “The Expositor's Bible Commentary -
Volume 3: Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 & 2 Samuel”, Zondervan Publishing House, 1992,
p520.
16
Gnuse R., “A Reconsideration of the Form-Critical Structure in I Samuel 3: An Ancient Near
Eastern Dream Theophany”, Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, vol. 94, no3, 1982,
pp379-390.
17
Matthews, V. H., Chavalas, M. W., & Walton, J. H., “The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old
Testament”, Electronic ed., 1 Sam 3:10, InterVarsity Press., 2000.
18
Based upon 1 Sam. 3:10 where God is said to have “came and stood there”.
19
See for instance, Youngblood (1992); Baldwin, J., “Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries: 1 & 2
Samuel”, InterVarsity Press, 2003, p63; Payne, D. F., “The Daily Study Bible: Samuel”, The Saint
Andrew Press/Westminster Press, 1982, Frolov, S., “The Turn Of The Cycle: 1 Samuel 1-8 In
Synchronic And Diachronic Perspectives”, Walter de Gruyter, 2004, p112; p23; Klein, R. W., “Word
Biblical Commentary, Volume 10: 1 Samuel”, Electronic Edition, Word Books, 1998.
20
There is nothing in the text that confirms a visual appearance; for instance there is no description of
what Samuel actually saw, there is nothing that describes the form of the divine manifestation, and
there is no description of Samuel’s reaction to any visible manifestation.
21
Wiersbe, W. W., “Bible Exposition Commentary: Old Testament Wisdom and Poetry Bible
Knowledge”, David C Cook, 2004, p216.

Page 8 of 27
Theophany in the Form of Inanimate Visual Manifestation

Probably the most renowned theophanic experience is that of Moses and the burning bush

(Ex. 3:2-6). On this occasion the divine appearance was both visual and audible.

The earliest traditions of the Exodus from Egypt refer to the God’s visible presence in the

form of a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night, which accompanied the Israelites through

the desert (Ex. 13:21–22). This visible symbol of the presence of God was a cause of panic

among the Egyptians (Ex. 14:19-24).

The pillar of cloud also had a strong relationship with the “Tent of Meeting”, coming to rest at

the entrance while Moses entered the tent to enquire of the Lord (Ex. 33:9), and the people

would stand, each in the entrance to his tent, and worship (Ex. 33:10). In a similar manner, the

cloud descended and God’s glory filled the tabernacle lifting only to signal the breaking of

camp for a new journey (Ex. 40:34–38; Num. 9:15–23; 10:11–12, 34; 14:14), and a cloud

descended upon Solomon's Temple (I Kings 8:10–11; cf. Ex. 16:10; Lev. 16:2). At Mount

Sinai, a divine appearance was associated with a thick cloud, thunder, lightning, smoke, and

fire (Ex. 19:9).

Theophany in the Form of Animate Visual Manifestation

In Gen. 18 God appeared to Abraham in human form, and later appeared to Isaac (Gen. 26:2,

24). On this latter occasion there is no mention of the visual form of the appearance, although

it was sufficiently real for God to encourage Isaac to be not afraid.

Daniel’s saw the “Ancient of Days” seated on a flaming throne surrounded by innumerable

angels (Dan. 7:9-10).

Page 9 of 27
Physical Theophany

Jacob encountered the divine on a number of occasions (Gen. 28:12-13; 35:1, 9; 48:3). The

first of these experiences was not simply visual but was also physical. Here God appeared in

human form and physically engaged Jacob in a wrestling bout. The narrative initially

identifies Jacob’s opponent as ‘a man’ (Gen. 32:24), but ends with the Jacob’s conviction that

he had encountered God ‘face to face’ (Gen. 32:30)22 [Good terse consideration of a physical

Theophany].

Theophany and the Angel of the Lord

Several Old Testament passages closely associate God with appearances of an angelic being

frequently identified as “the Angel of the LORD” or “the Angel of God” (Gen. 16:7-11;

22:11, 15; 31:11-13; Ex. 3:1-6; Judg. 6:11-23; 13:3-23). This being occasionally speaks as if

he were God (Gen. 31:11-13; Judg. 2:1-3) and those who encounter him sometimes react as if

they have seen God (Gen. 16:11-13; Judg. 6:14-17; 13:22). Thus, some scholars conclude that

the angel is a manifestation of God Himself in angelic form, with some even identifying the

angel as the pre-incarnate second person of the Trinity23.

Others, however, point to distinctions between God and his angel, concluding that any

identification of the angel with God is in a representational sense only, where the angel bears

full divine authority and is able to speak on behalf of God, but is not divine in essence24.

22
Hosea 12:4 identifies Jacob’s opponent as an angel. The relationship between the identification of
Jacob’s opponent with a man, an angle with god himself is complex. Sailhamer note that it is
appropriate to equate an encounter with “the angel of the Lord” with an encounter with God himself;
See: Sailhamer, J. H., “Genesis”, In Gaebelein, G. E., “The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Volume 2:
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers”, 1990, Zondervan Publishing House, p210.
23
See for example Walvoord, J. F., “The PreIncarnate Son of God”, Part 1, Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol.
104, 1947,pp25-34; Walvoord, J. F., “The PreIncarnate Son of God”, Part 2, Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol.
104, 1947,pp154-169; Walvoord, J. F., “The PreIncarnate Son of God”, Part 3, Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol.
104, 1947, pp282-289; Walvoord, J. F., “The PreIncarnate Son of God”, Part 4, Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol.
104, 1947, pp415-425.
24
Alexander, T. D., Rosner, B. S., “New Dictionary of Biblical Theology”, InterVarsity Press, 2001
(Electronic version).

Page 10 of 27
PURPOSE OF THEOPHANY

Niehaus identified clear characteristics of theophanies (see Appendix A), which emphasise

that these events were initiated by God, and were temporal occurrences intended for a specific

purpose25. Such purposes include:

Instruction

In the first recorded theophanic vision God appeared to Adam in order to give initial

instructions to mankind (Gen. 1:28-30; Gen. 2:15-17). In a similar way, God appeared to

Elijah in order to bring instruction at very low point in his life (1 Ki. 19:11-18).

Assurance

In Gen. 18 God appeared to Abraham in order to assure him that the promise made to him at

an earlier time26 would still be fulfilled despite the advanced age of both Abraham and Sarah.

The significance of this theophany is not simply in the assurance offered, but also in the

timing and the nature of that assurance. At this stage in the life of Sarah, child bearing was not

just unlikely, it was impossible. Thus God appeared to bring assurance of the fulfilment of the

promise at a time when all hope in seeing such fulfilment must surely have been lost, as is

evident in Sarah’s response. Moreover, the assurance is given not just of a son, but also that

Abraham’s name would become great and that his heritage would be immense. The fact that

God includes Abraham in His plans for Sodom and Gomorrah is also of huge significance, as

God is demonstrating His sovereignty over human powers, whilst showing insight, privilege

and blessing to Abraham. [Good content on the significance of a theophany]

Later God appeared to both Isaac and Jacob in order to assure them of his intention to bless

them in fulfilment of his oath to Abraham (Gen. 26:2, 24; 28:12-13; 35:1, 9; 48:3). As was the

25
Niehaus, J. J., “God at Sinai: Covenant and Theophany in the Bible and the Anecient Near East”,
Paternoster Press, 1995, pp20-30.
26
Gen 12:1-3.

Page 11 of 27
case with Abraham he appearances to Isaac occur at key times when circumstances were both

uncertain and tough, firstly at a time a famine (Gen. 26:2), and secondly at times of conflict

and change (Gen. 26:24).

Commission

Theophanic vision is frequently associated with a prophetic call. God’s first appearance to

Moses was to commission him for the task of leading the Israelites out of Egyptian slavery

(Ex. 3:1-6).

Several of the prophets received calls to their ministry through theophanic visions of various

kinds. Isaiah saw God enthroned and surrounded by seraphim who declared his holiness (Is.

6:1-4). Ezekiel saw the visible glory of God depicted as wind, cloud, lightning, fire and

brilliant light, with God in the form of a man enthroned and surrounded by a rainbow-like

aura (Ezek. 1:26-28; cf. 8:2-4).

Samuel’s call is significant for two reasons; firstly his call came at a time when the Word of

the Lord and visions were rare (1Sam. 3:1), and secondly, in spite of serving before the Lord

for some time (1Sam. 3:1), Samuel did not yet know the Lord (1 Sam. 2:7); that is, Samuel

did not yet know God intimately, and was not yet able to recognise God’s voice. This

illustrates the significance of the prophetic call, which brings about a transformation in the

relationship between the person called and God, which both commissions and equips the

recipient for the calling [The content pointing to the significances of the prophetic call is

sound here].

In some instances theophanic vision includes the commissioning of someone other than the

human experiencing the vision. For instance, in Micaiah’s theophanic vision a spirit is

commissioned to deceive Ahab (1 Ki. 22:20-22) and in Daniel’s vision “one like a son of

man” is commissioned to rule over the earth (Dan. 7:13-14).

Page 12 of 27
Judgement

Gen. 3:8, which records an encounter that Adam and Eve had with God as he walked in the

garden in the “cool of the day”27, “toward the evening”28, or “at the time of the evening

breeze”29. The text actually reads the ‫לְ רּוחַ הַ ּיֹום‬ 30

(“wind of the day”). Niehaus argues that a

more appropriate translation would be “in the wind of the storm”31, whilst Sailhamer suggests

“out of the storm”32, reflecting a theophanic vision similar to that of Job 38:1. In this

interpretation the terror of that encounter, where God came in judgment against mankind’s

original sin, is emphasised [Yes: There is a acute dread when God appears with judgment in

mind].

Display of Sovereignty

When God appeared to Job it was to assert His superiority and sovereignty (Job 38:1). God

did not offer an explanation for Job’s suffering, but he did convince Job to accept God by

faith as his Creator, Sustainer, and Friend33.

HUMAN RESPONSE TO THEOPHANY

Fear is the normal initial human reaction to theophanic vision. When Moses saw God, he hid

his face (Ex.3:6), Elijah pulled his cloak over his face (1 Ki. 19:13), Isaiah cried out “woe is

me…I am ruined” (Is. 6:5), Ezekiel fell face down (Ez. 1:28), and when God descended on

Sinai, the Israelites trembled (Ex. 19:16). Others, including Abram (Gen. 15:1), Hagar (Gen.

27
AV, NKJV, NIV, NASB, RSV, ESV, ASV.
28
NLT.
29
NRSV.
30
Gen 3:8, “The Hebrew Bible”, Andersen-Forbes, 2008.
31
Niehaus, J. J., “God at Sinai: Covenant and Theophany in the Bible and Ancient Near East Studies in
Old Testament Biblical Theology”, Paternoster Press, 1995, pp155-159.
32
Sailhamer, J. H. “Genesis”, in Gaebelein, F. E., “The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Volume 2:
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers”, Zondervan Publishing House, 1990, p52.
33
Smick, E. B., “Job:, in: Gaebelein, F. E., “The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Volume 4: 1 & 2
Kings, 1 & 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Job”, Zondervan Publishing House, 1988, p1035.

Page 13 of 27
21:17), Jacob (Gen. 46:3), and Gideon (Jdg. 6:23), were in need of the assurance afforded by

the words “do not be afraid”.

A secondary reaction is frequently one of self-doubt [Yes!]. For instance, Moses was

incredulous at the commission being afforded to him and pleaded with God to send someone

else (Ex. 3:11-4:17); Gideon was so sceptical that he required a physical sign from (Jdg. 6:17,

36-40); Isaiah noted that he was a man of unclean lips (Is. 6:5) and Jeremiah claimed he knew

not how to speak for he was too young (Jer. 1:6).

However, theophany is always a very significant event in a person’s life, and is effective in

transforming the outlook of each individual. Notwithstanding their initial scepticism,

theophanic vision results in a conviction that God’s calling is true, and scepticism is

banished34.

THEOPHANY AND THE ACADEMIC DEBATE

Critical scholars deny the supernatural and attempt explain theophanic vision in purely

rational and natural terms. Critical scholars therefore seek to characterise theophanic vision

by demonstrating conformity to literary norms reflected both in scripture and other ancient

Near Eastern literature, frequently arguing that Biblical theophanic accounts were inserted

to the text by a late redactor who was subject to significant cultic influence35.

Muilenberg suggested five key indicators that characterise theophanic narrative36, whilst

Kuntz identified theophany as a distinct literary gattung with ten distinctive characteristics37

(See also Appendix B for a listing of the characteristics identified by Muilenberg and Kuntz).

34
Savran, G. W., “Encountering the Divine: Theophany in Biblical Narrative”, T & T Clark
International, 2005, p133.
35
See for instance: Gunkel, H., “Genesis”, Mercer University Press, 1997 – originally published in
1901) and Morganistern, J., “Biblical Theophanies”, Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und verwandte
Gebiete, 1911, pp139-193.
36
Muilenberg, J., “The Speech of Theophany”, Harvard Divinity Bulletin, Vol. 28, 1964, p35-47.
37
Kuntz. J. K., “The Self Revelation of God”, Westminster Press, 1967, p60.

Page 14 of 27
Kuntz left open the question as to whether the Sinai theophany was best explained by

volcanic/meteorological events or cultic re-enactment38.

Jeremias denied a cultic source for the theophanic narratives but proposed an alternative

source in the victory celebrations of Israel, of which the Song of Deborah is the earliest

example39.

McKenzie argued that Biblical theophanic narrative employed poetic language to personify

God in nature, and that literary devices such as the storm theophany, were a means to describe

God’s sovereignty over nature throughout the ancient Near East40. Habel associated the term

“he who stretches out the heavens” with worship of a heavenly God who makes the skies His

dwelling, and hence is made known in cloud, thunder, lightning and brilliant light41. Windsor

held that theophany was a cultic act employed to re-enact historical divine salvific events,

thereby renewing the covenant of Sinai42.

Savran noted that although the study of theophony has sought to establish links with

Near Eastern mythical motifs such as the storm/warrior God, the throne vision and the

prophetic call narrative, these motifs are missing in many of the Biblical theophanic

narratives43. Despite maintaining that there has been significant redaction of the Old

Testament narrative44, Savran concludes that theophany represents a real encounter

with the divine45, and notes significant changes in form and content throughout Old

38
Ibid., p81.
39
Jeremias, J., “Theophanie”, Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament:
Volume 10, Neukirchener Verlag, 1965, p137.
40
McKenzie, J. L., “God and Nature in the Old Testament”, The Catholic Biblical Quarterly, Vol. 14,
1952, pp18-39 and pp124-145.
41
Habel, N., “He Who Stretches Out the Heavens”, The Catholic Biblical Quarterly, Vol. 32, 1972,
pp417-430.
42
Windsor, G., “Theophany: Traditions of the Old Testament”, Theology, Vol. 75, No. 626, 1972, p
411-416.
43
Savran, G. W. “Encountering the Divine: Theophany in Biblical Narrative”, T & T Clark
International, 2005, pp1-2.
44
Ibid, p128.
45
Ibid, p6-7.

Page 15 of 27
Testament scripture, with the most notable change occurring through the transition

from the prophetic to apocalyptic era46.

Eichrodt observed that whilst Israel shared with her Near Eastern neighbours the belief that

God could reveal evidence of His presence in visible form through nature, Israel’s conception

differed significantly in that it limited such revelation to those sudden natural events that

startle, such as thunder, lightning and storm47. Moreover, Eichrodt notes that the account of

the Sinai theophany should not be understood figuratively, but as a real encounter with the

divine, who revealed Himself in a manner which avoided the threat of immediate death48.

Using form-critical analysis, Niehaus demonstrated that biblical theophany narratives share

the same literary form as historical accounts of dialogue between humans49, and concludes

that theophanic narratives are actually a form of historical reportage50.

Conservative studies of theophany have tended to emphasise the pre-incarnate appearance of

Christ in the Old Testament. Hodge observed that the “Angel of the Lord” assumes divine

titles, claims divine prerogatives, and accepts divine homage, concluding that this angel must

be a pre-incarnate appearance of Christ51. Kline argued persuasively that Christ is to be

identified with the glory of God both before the incarnation and subsequent to it and

identified Christ the as Angel of Jehovah [This is sound consideration of the identity of Christ

in the theophanic manifestation] 52. Borland argued that the title Angel (or Messenger) of the

Lord described an office rather than a nature53; and that as he bore the name of God, spoke as

46
Ibid, p230.
47
Eichrodt, W., “Theology of the Old Testament – Volume 2”, Westminster Press, 1967, p16.
48
Ibid, p19.
4949
Niehaus, J. J., “God at Sinai: Covenant and Theophany in the Bible and the Anecient Near East”,
Paternoster Press, 1995, pp39-41.
50
Ibid, pp41-42.
51
Hodge, C., “Systematic Theology: Volume 1”, Charles Scribner & Company, 1872, p490.
52
Using Hebrews 1:3, 2:7-9 Kline argued that Christ was always active in the visible appearance of
God’s glory. See Kline, M., “Images of the Spirit”, Baker Book House, 1980, pp81-84.
53
Borland, J. A., “Christ in the Old Testament”, Christian Focus Publications, 1999, p36.

Page 16 of 27
God, bore divine attributes, prerogatives and authority, the most plausible conclusion is that

this title referred to Christ54.

Noting that Ancient Near Eastern messengers/envoys carried the full authority of their

patron, conservative scholar MacDonald argued against the identification of Christ with the

Angel of the Lord, believing that to do so detracted from the uniqueness of the incarnation 55.

Other conservative scholars have expressed similar views56. Gieschen undertook a very

detailed study of early Church Christology, concluding that early Christology, even that of the

New Testament, associated Jesus with the visible manifestation of God, who has been seen

over the centuries of time in various forms and by various means [Yes: (Heb. 13:8)] 57.

CONCLUSION

Critical scholars have sought to explain theophanic narrative as a literary device that

reinforces cultic practice or belief. Theophanic narratives have been characterised as

compliant to standard forms, and this in turn is regarded as evidence of a strong cultic

influence. Moreover, it is believed that theophanic narratives are the work of a later redactor,

and do not represent an historical account of a real event. Critical scholars are divided on the

source of the theophanic vision with some associating it with nature whilst others place the

source in mythologised worship.

54
Borland noted five observations in favour of this association, viz.: 1) the New Testament states that
Jesus is the visible representation of the Father; 2) the Messenger of God no longer appeared after the
incarnation; 3) Both the messenger and Christ were described as being sent by the Father; 4) John 1:18
states that no-one has ever seen the Father; 5) There are similarities between the theophanic
appearances of the Old Testament and Christ’s ministry in the New Testament. See also Appendix C
for Borland’s descriptions of distinctive characteristics of Christophanies.
55
MacDonald, W. G., “Christology and ‘The Angel of the Lord’” in Hawthorne, G. F., “Current Issues
in Biblical and Patristic Interpretation: Studies in Honor of Merrill C. Tenney Presented by His
Former Students”, Eerdmans, 1975, pp324-335.
56
For instance: following a review of the Angel of the Lord in the Book of Judges, Lopez endorses
MacDonald’s views; see Lopez, R. A., “Identifying the ‘Angel of the Lord’ in the Book of Judges: A
Model for Reconsidering the Referent in Other Old Testament Loci”, Bulletin for Biblical Research,
Vol. 20, Issue 1., 2010, pp1–18; Dunn expresses similar views; see: Dunn, J. D. G., “Christology in the
Making”, 2nd Edition, SCM Press Ltd., 1989, pp157-158.
57
Gieschen, C. A., “Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence”, Volume 42 of
Arbeiten Zur Geschichte Des Antiken Judentums Und Des Urchristentums, BRILL, 1998, p349.

Page 17 of 27
Conservative scholars, however, accept that that God has, at times, intervened in the lives of

men to reveal something of His glory. At such times, God has a specific purpose in mind

which may include a call to service, the provision of assurance at a time of crisis or the

announcement of impending judgement.

Conservative scholars are divided on whether appearances of the Angel of the Lord should be

regarded as pre-incarnate appearances of Christ. Probably the most balanced view is held by

Gieschen following a very detailed review which demonstrates early Christian views

associating Christ with the visible manifestation of God over many centuries.

Page 18 of 27
BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLES

The Holy Bible, New International Version, Zondervan Bible Publishers,

International Bible Society, 1984.

The Holy Bible, Authorized Version, 1611 edition.

“The Holy Bible”, The New King James Version, Thomas Nelson, Inc., 1982.

“The Holy Bible”, The New American Standard Bible, The Lockman Foundation,
1995.

“The Holy Bible”, Revised Standard Version, the Division of Christian Education of
the National Council of Churches of Christ in the United States of America,
1973.

“The Holy Bible”, English Stanadard Version, Crossway Books/Good News

Publishers, 2001.

“The Holy Bible”, American Standard Version, Ellis Enterprises, Inc., 1988.

“The Holy Bible”, New Living Translation, Tyndale Charitable Trust, 1996.

“The Holy Bible”, The New Revised Standard Version, the Division of Christian
Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States
of America, 1989.

“The Hebrew Bible”, Andersen-Forbes, 2008.

The Douay-Rheims Bible, American Edition, John Murphy Company, 1899.

LEXICONS

Brown, C., “New Testament Dictionary of Theology”, Volume 3, Paternoster Press,

1992, pp318-319.

Danker, F. W., “Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early
Christian Literature” (BDAG), Third Edition, The University of Chicago Press,
2000.

Kittel, G., Bromiley, G. W., Friedrich, G., “Theological dictionary of the New
Testament”, Vol. 9, Eerdmans. 1964, p2.

Schneider, G., Balz, H., “Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament”, William B.
Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1990.

Page 19 of 27
REFERENCES

Alexander, T. D., Rosner, B. S., “New Dictionary of Biblical Theology”, InterVarsity

Press, 2001 (Electronic version).

Baldwin, J., “Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries: 1 & 2 Samuel”, InterVarsity

Press, 2003.

Borland, J. A., “Christ in the Old Testament”, Christian Focus Publications, 1999.

Dunn, J. D. G., “Christology in the Making”, 2nd Edition, SCM Press Ltd., 1989.

Eichrodt, W., “Theology of the Old Testament – Volume 2”, Westminster Press, 1967.

Finestone, D., “Is the Angel of Jehovah in the Old Testament the Lord Jesus Christ?”,
Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol. 95, 1938, pp372-377.

Frolov, S., “The Turn Of The Cycle: 1 Samuel 1-8 In Synchronic And Diachronic
Perspectives”, Walter de Gruyter, 2004.

Gieschen, C. A., “Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence”,

Volume 42 of Arbeiten Zur Geschichte Des Antiken Judentums Und Des
Urchristentums, BRILL, 1998.

Gnuse R., “A Reconsideration of the Form-Critical Structure in I Samuel 3: An

Ancient Near Eastern Dream Theophany”, Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche
Wissenschaft, vol. 94, no3, 1982.

Gunkel, H., “Genesis”, Mercer University Press, 1997 (originally published in 1901).

Habel, N., “He Who Stretches Out the Heavens”, The Catholic Biblical Quarterly,
Vol. 32, 1972, pp417-430.

Hodge, C., “Systematic Theology: Volume 1”, Charles Scribner & Company, 1872.

Jeremias, J., “Theophanie”, Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen

Testament: Volume 10, Neukirchener Verlag, 1965.

Klein, R. W., “Word Biblical Commentary, Volume 10: 1 Samuel”, Electronic

Edition, Word Books, 1998.

Kline, M., “Images of the Spirit”, Baker Book House, 1980.

Kuntz. J. K., “The Self Revelation of God”, Westminster Press, 1967.

Lopez, R. A., “Identifying the ‘Angel of the Lord’ in the Book of Judges: A Model for
Reconsidering the Referent in Other Old Testament Loci”, Bulletin for Biblical
Research, Vol. 20, Issue 1., 2010, pp1–18.

MacDonald, W. G., “Christology and ‘The Angel of the Lord’” in Hawthorne, G. F.,
“Current Issues in Biblical and Patristic Interpretation: Studies in Honor of

Page 20 of 27
 Merrill C. Tenney Presented by His Former Students”, Eerdmans, 1975, pp324-
335.

Matthews, V. H., Chavalas, M. W., & Walton, J. H., “The IVP Bible Background
Commentary: Old Testament”, Electronic ed., 1 Sam 3:10, InterVarsity Press.,
2000.

McKenzie, J. L., “God and Nature in the Old Testament”, The Catholic Biblical
Quarterly, Vol. 14, 1952, pp124-145.

McKenzie, J. L., “God and Nature in the Old Testament”, The Catholic Biblical
Quarterly, Vol. 14, 1952, pp18-39.

Morganistern, J., “Biblical Theophanies”, Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und verwandte

Gebiete, 1911, pp139-193.

Muilenberg, J., “The Speech of Theophany”, Harvard Divinity Bulletin, Vol. 28,
1964, p35-47.

Niehaus, J. J., “God at Sinai: Covenant and Theophany in the Bible and Ancient Near
East Studies in Old Testament Biblical Theology”, Paternoster Press, 1995.

Payne, D. F., “The Daily Study Bible: Samuel”, The Saint Andrew Press/Westminster
Press, 1982.

Ryken, L., Wilhoit, J., Longman, T., Duriez, C., Penney, D., & Reid, D. G.,
“Dictionary of Biblical Imagery”, InterVarsity Press, 2000.

Sailhamer, J. H., “Genesis”, In Gaebelein, G. E., “The Expositor's Bible Commentary,

Volume 2: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers”, 1990, Zondervan Publishing
House.

Savran, G. W. “Encountering the Divine: Theophany in Biblical Narrative”, T & T

Clark International, 2005.

Smick, E. B., “Job”, in: Gaebelein, F. E., “The Expositor's Bible Commentary,
Volume 4: 1 & 2 Kings, 1 & 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Job”,
Zondervan Publishing House, 1988, p1035.

Walvoord, J. F., “The PreIncarnate Son of God”, Part 1, Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol. 104,
1947,pp25-34.

Walvoord, J. F., “The PreIncarnate Son of God”, Part 2, Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol. 104,
1947,pp154-169.

Walvoord, J. F., “The PreIncarnate Son of God”, Part 3, Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol. 104,
1947, pp282-289.

Walvoord, J. F., “The PreIncarnate Son of God”, Part 4, Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol. 104,
1947, pp415-425.

Page 21 of 27
Wiersbe, W. W., “Bible Exposition Commentary: Old Testament Wisdom and Poetry
Bible Knowledge”, David C Cook, 2004.

Windsor, G., “Theophany: Traditions of the Old Testament”, Theology, Vol. 75, No.
626, 1972, p 411-416.

Youngblood, R. F., “1-2 Samuel”; in Gaebelein, F. E., “The Expositor's Bible

Commentary - Volume 3: Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 & 2 Samuel”,
Zondervan Publishing House, 1992.

Page 22 of 27
Appendix A
Niehaus’s Characteristics of Old Testament Theophanies

Niehaus, J. J., “God at Sinai: Covenant and Theophany in the Bible

and the Anecient Near East”, Paternoster Press, 1995, pp20-30.
Niehaus identifies the following eight characteristics of theophanies:

1) Temporariness, i.e., God’s appearance is for a purpose, which he accomplishes

and then disappears again;

2) Salvation and judgment, i.e., when God appears it is to save, oftentimes in

mighty acts, but it can also bring judgment as Job 40:1-6 demonstrates;

3) Impartation of holiness, i.e., God’s holiness sanctifies temporarily the location

of the theophany, thereby making it holy (examples are Moses’ encounter with
God in the burning bush in Exodus 3:5 and Joshua’s meeting with the
commander of the Lord’s army in Joshua 5:15);

4) Revealer and concealer, i.e., a human would literally not be able to endure
God’s glory, so God partially reveals and partially conceals himself;

5) Human fear, i.e., the human response to meeting with God is always fear once
the realization sets in that he or she is in divine presence;

6) Natural upheaval, i.e., natural phenomenon occur that suggest a disturbance in

the normal environment, such as when Elijah encounters God (1 Kings 19:11-
13);

7) Adumbrated eschatology, i.e., the theophany gives a glimpse into God’s end
time role;

8) Theophanic words, i.e.; God only appears because he has a message and
intends to speak.[Valid Appendix and content]

Page 23 of 27
Appendix B
Development of Form Criticism with Respect to Theophany

Muilenberg, J., “The Speech of Theophany”, Harvard Divinity

Bulletin, Vol. 28, 1964, p35-47
Muilenberg suggested theophany had 5 key identifiers:

1) 1st Person Self disclosure – I am Yahweh

2) 2nd Person injection - Fear not

3) Encouragement – e.g. I am with you

4) Promise of aid

5) Word of revelation

Kuntz. J. K., “The Self Revelation of God”, Westminster Press, 1967.

Kuntz proposed the following 10 characteristics of theophany:

1) Appallingly real

2) Initiated by God alone

3) Manifested as a temporal event

4) It presents God’s sovereignty over the universe

5) The account of the theophanic vision is fluid but is intentionally ambiguous

6) It provides only a limited disclosure of God

7) God presents Himself in both visual and audible means

8) Associated with a specific place

9) People tend to experience fear and dread when God approaches

10) Accounts of theophany are normally structured to a definite literary form

Page 24 of 27
Appendix C
Borland’s Characteristics of Old Testament Christophanies
Borland, J. A., “Christ in the Old Testament”, Christian Focus
Publications, 1999, pp21-32.

9) Christophanies were actual, not imaginary

10) Christophanies were initiated by God

11) Christophanies were revelatory

12) Christophanies were for individuals

13) Christophanies were intermittent

14) Christophanies were temporary

15) Christophanies were auditory and visual

16) Christophanies were varied in form

17) Christophanies were Old Testament occurrences [Good content on

Christophanies here]

Page 25 of 27
Trinity Evaluation Sheet
Student Name: Steve Adair ID#: 2060329784
Faculty Name: Dr. Dennis R McDonald Faculty Email: demcdonald1@yahoo.com
Faculty Due Date: 10/15/2012
Program of Study: Master of Arts - Major in Biblical Studies
Course Number: TH 683 IS R2 03
Course Name: Old Testament Theology
Assignment: Assignment Five: Research Project 2500 words, select one option (See course notes)
NOTE TO FACULTY: Email graded lessons to grades@trinitysem.edu

Points TRINITY COURSE POINTS GRADE VALUE

TOTAL A 94-100 B+ 87-89 C+ 77-79 D+ 67-69 F 0-59
POINTS 96 A- 90-93 B 84-86
B- 80-83
C 74-76
C- 70-73
D 64-66
D- 60-63

EVALUATION OF DEMONSTRATED PERFORMANCE

Please incorporate comments throughout the assignment that will enhance, correct, and/or guide the
student’s current and continued knowledge and understanding of the subject matter. Then summarize
those comments under each section below and assign a numeric value (not a letter grade). Add the
points for each section and record the Total Points (not a letter grade).
Earned / Possible

CONTENT – Selection and Utilization of Resources

(Remember; Understand; Apply) 38 40

The content and use of resource materials were very good in this work.

Earned / Possible

REASONING – Analysis and Development of Concepts

(Analyze; Evaluate; Create) 39 40

The reasoning and presentation were nicely constructed.

Earned / Possible

WRITING – Document Format and Language Structure

(Spelling; Grammar; Style) 19 20

The form and grammatical construct were good.

Dennis McDonald 1/23/13

Faculty Signature or eSignature Date Evaluated

Trinity College of the Bible and Theological Seminary 20081118

Trinity College of the Bible and Theological Seminary 20081118