MODULE FACILITATING AND ASSESSING LEARNING

CHAPTER V: LEARNING- BEHAVIOURIST PERSPECTIVE

Objectives:

Differentiate the behaviorism theory of Pavlov, Thorndike and Skinner.

Find the difference of neo- behaviorism and behaviorism

What Is Behaviorism?
Behaviorism theory surmises that human and animal behavior can only be explained by
conditioning.
The four main psychologists who lead to the development of behaviorist theory were
Watson, Pavlov, Thorndike, and Skinner.

Watson (1878–1958)
John Watson was the founder of behaviorist theory. Quite innovatively for the time, he
found Freudian-based explanations of behavior too theoretical and disagreed with the
eugenic idea of heredity determining how one behaves. Instead, he believed that people's
reactions in various situations were determined by how their overall experiences had
programmed them to react.
In experiments he performed in the early 1900s he showed that he could condition, or
train, children to respond to a certain stimulus in a way that was different from what their
normal response would be in the absence of such training.
For example, one infant named Albert, who had previously liked and attempted to pet a
white rat, was later conditioned by Watson to come to fear it.
This was done by producing loud clanging noises whenever the rat was brought into
Albert's line of sight; in a few weeks, the rat alone could induce tears and an attempted
flight response by the terrified baby. Because Watson repeatedly stimulated Albert to feel
fear when the rat was present, the infant's experiences taught it to be afraid around rats
and react accordingly.
Albert not only feared rats but had been programmed through the experiment to fear most
other white and fuzzy objects as well, from coats to Santa Claus beards.

Pavlov (1849–1936)
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was the first to introduce the concept of conditioning through his
experiments with animals. His conclusions directly influenced Watson and provided him
with the original scientific basis for his beliefs.
In these experiments, Pavlov worked with dogs that, like most, salivated naturally in the
presence of food. Because this response is innate, the animals were displaying an

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unconditioned response (salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (food). Pavlov then, for

the sake of experimentation, began to produce a metronome sound at the time of each
feeding. Eventually, the dogs started to drool after hearing it and in anticipation of food,
even when none was present.
At the end of his experiments, Pavlov was able to condition, or teach, these dogs to
salivate in unnatural situations (after hearing a sound) to stimuli which would normally not
elicit that response (sound). In essence, Pavlov had transformed salivation into a
conditioned behavior, and the metronome had become a conditioned stimulus.
Pavlov further discovered that conditioned behaviors of this type would disappear if they
failed to deliver the expected outcome; for example, if the metronome was sounded
repeatedly and no food was presented, dogs would eventually stop associating the two
and their drooling response to the sound would vanish.

Thorndike (1874–1949)
Edward Thorndike came up with the concept of instrumental conditioning and, like
Pavlov, reached his main conclusions using data gained through animal-based
experimentation.
Such experiments included placing hungry cats in an enclosed container, which
Thorndike referred to as a puzzle box, from which they had to escape in order to reach
food. The first time a cat was placed in this situation it escaped only after several failed
attempts and a single lucky successful guess (such as pushing the right button). However,
the time it took to escape decreased each time a cat was returned to the box.
This meant, first of all, that the cats remembered which behavior was necessary to escape
and get the reward of food. If they had not, it would take approximately the same time for
them to refigure it out and there would not be the trend of a continually faster escape.
Secondly, they were clearly able to recognize their current situation (being placed in the
puzzle box) was identical to the last time they were placed inside of the puzzle box, and
therefore that the same successful behavior used before would achieve the same end
result the next time around: freedom and a feast.
As the cats continued to be placed in the puzzle box, they became more adept at escaping
the box over time. | Source

Using his data, Thorndike developed two main laws concerning conditioning. The first
was the law of exercise, stating simply that the repetition of a response strengthens it.
Each time a cat was placed in the puzzle box, it
exhibited a stronger inclination to perform the
behaviors required, exiting the box with
increased proficiency and in a shorter time span.
The second law, the law of effect, established
that behaviors were either strengthened or
weakened, depending on whether they were
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rewarded or punished. Each time the successful behavior was repeated, it was done so
more quickly because the cat no longer wasted time performing other behaviors which
had proven unsuccessful and kept the animal imprisoned.
A rendering of a Skinner box, wherein a rat is giving a variety of stimuli to reinforce certain
behaviors. | Source

Skinner (1904–1990)
B.F. Skinner developed the behaviorist theory of operant conditioning. Contrary to the
theories of both Watson and Pavlov, Skinner believed that it wasn't what comes before a
behavior that influences it, but rather what comes
directly after it.
In operant conditioning, behaviors are manipulated
when they are followed by either positive or
negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement
increases desired behaviors by following them with
rewards. For example, if rat food is dispensed
every time a rat pushes a pedal, it will repeatedly
push that same pedal to get more edible treats.
The action of pushing the pedal, the desired
behavior, has been reinforced with food.
Negative reinforcement increases desired behaviors by allowing subjects to escape
punishment through their performance. For example, if a rat received a painful electrical
jolt that would not cease unless it pressed a pedal, it would begin to press it quickly
following each initial jolt to relieve its pain. The action of pushing the pedal, the desired
behavior, has again been reinforced, though by a different method than before.
Skinner also showed that behaviors could be altered through punishment or extinction.
Punishing behaviors after they occur, discourages them from being later repeated. For
example, if a rat was jolted with electricity when it pressed a pedal, it would begin to avoid
touching it, avoiding performing the undesirable behavior.
Extinction is when behaviors that were previously reinforced are later unenforced,
rendering the behaviors inconsequential and causing them to decrease in frequency over
time. If the rat that had been trained to push a pedal for food ceased receiving food for
pressing it, eventually it would press it less and less often. In time, after it has become
thoroughly discouraged by the lack of dispensed rat treats, it may stop pressing it
altogether.
If the rat that was zapped with electricity stopped being zapped, it would also push the
pedal to stop the voltage less frequently, as its reason for doing so would be gone.
Extinction is the discontinuation of behaviors that had been encouraged by either negative
or positive reinforcement.

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Neo Behaviorism:Tolman and

Bandura

NEO BEHAVIORISM: TOLMAN AND

BANDURA

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

 “Sign Learning Theory
 Learning is a cognitive process
 Learning is acquired through
meaningful behaviour.

STIMULI – allowed in are not connected

by just simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the incoming
impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the central control room into a
tentative cognitive like map of the environment.

New Stimulus (the sign) becomes associated with already meaningful stimuli ( the
significant) through a series of pairings: there was no need for reinforcement in order to
establish learning.

Tolman’s Key Concepts

 Learning is always purposive and goal oriented - Individuals
do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs,
attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive towards a
goal.
 Cognitive Map – famous experiment on rats concluded that
Organism or Individual to be exact learned the location and
will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve goal.
 Latent Learning – learning that remains/stays with individual until needed. Leaning
that is outwardly manifested.
 The concepts of intervening variable - variables that are not readily seen but serves
as determinants of behaviour. Learning is mediated or influenced by expectations,
perceptions, representations, needs and other internal or environmental variables.
 Reinforcement not Essential for Learning – reinforcement is not essential for
learning, although it provides an incentive for performance.

Social learning theory (Albert Bandura)

- Also called observational learning
- Theory that emphasizes learning though observation of others
- We learn not only how to perform a behaviour but also what will happen to us
in a specific situation if we do perform it.

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Types of Observational Learning Effects

 Inhibition – to learn not to do something that we already know how to do because
a model being observed refrains from behaving in that way or does something
different from what is intended to be done.
 Disinhibition – to learn to exhibit a behaviour that is usually disapproved of by
most people because a model does the same without being punished.
 Facilitation – to be prompted to do something that is not ordinarily done because
of insufficient motivation.
 Observational Learning – to learn new behaviour pattern by watching and
imitating the performance of someone else.

General Principles of Social Learning Theory

 People can learn by observing the behaviour of the others and the outcomes of
those behaviours.
 Learning can occur without a change in behaviour.
 Cognition plays a role in learning
 Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between
behaviourist learning theories and cognitive learning theories.

How environment punishes modelling – people are often to reinforced for modelling
the behaviour of others. Bandura suggest that the environment also reinforces modelling.
 The observer is reinforced by the model
 The observer reinforce by a third person.
 The imitated behaviour itself leads to reinforcing consequences.
 Consequences of the model’s behaviour affect the observer’s behaviour
vicariously.

Four Elements of Observational Learning

 Attention – mental focus or concentration. Willingness of the child to observe and
mimic the behaviour of a model.
 Retention – to encode the behaviour in the memory. Ability to store information
 Production – to actually perform the behaviour observed.
 Motivation/Reinforcement – force that drives once to act.

For More Knowledge:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RU0zEGWp56Y
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xvVaTy8mQrg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H6LEcM0E0io

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