Cymbopogon winterianus (Citronella)

 Taxonomic Classification
Kingdom Plantae
Phylum Magnoliophyta
Class Liliopsida
Order Poales
Family Pocaceae
Genus Cymbopogon
Species winterianus
 Cymbopogon winterianus (Citronella)

 Average leaf
length of 1 meter

 Glaborous leaf
and basal sheath

 light green
surface
Photo credits: http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/showimage/175903/#b Source: Jayashina, P. (1999). Citronella: A Literature Review
 Environment
• Tropical and Sub-tropical.
• Hot and humid climate is preferred.
• Good sunshine, grown upto 1000 - 1500m
above the sea level. For luxuriant growth it
requires high rainfall (2000- 4500mm/yr)
• A well - drained sandy loam to clayey - loam
soil with rich organic matter
• pH ranging from 4.5 to 7.5. Water- logged soils
hamper the growth
 Cultivation
• Propagation:- Viable seeds and Rooted slips.
The rooted slips contain 1 - 3 tillers.
• Preparation of land:- 1-2 ploughing, 1-
disking, 1- harrowing and leveling the soil.
However deep ploughing is needed. Free from
weeds and stubbles.
• Seed rate:- 1.50- 2.5 kg/ha. Viable seeds
should be used.
• Sowing Season:- Mainly June-July, but can be
planted anytime of the year if there is
sufficient irrigation facility.

• If seedlings are grown in N.B. the 3-5 weeks

old seedlings are transplanted in main field.
The healthy rooted slips are planted directly
during the rainy season in the main field.
 Management
• Manures and Fertilizers:-
10-12 tones of FYM/Compost/ha.
80:40:40 or 120:50:50 kg of NPK/ha/year.
Nitrogen fertilizers should be applied 2-4 split
doses as top dressing.
Due to micro - nutrients (Fe, Zn and S)
deficiency, the grass shows a yellowing of leaf.
2-3 foliar spray of a complete micro nutrient
• Interculture: - 2-4 weeding and hoeing
• Irrigation: - 10-12 irrigations. The crop is
irrigated after every 10-15 days during the dry
season.
• Diseases: Leaf blight, Anthracnose - spray
Dithane M-45
 Harvesting
• 6-7 months after and then subsequent
harvesting is done at 2-3 months intervals
upto 4th year
• The plantation should be uprooted after 5
years and rotated with legume crops.
• Yield: -15-20 tones of fresh herbage in the
first year. 25-30 tonnes/ha in 2nd, 3rd, 4th and
5th year.
• The oil yield:-75-100kg/ha. in the 1st year ;
150-200 kg/ha in the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th year.
• After harvesting, during morning hours, the
leaves should be dried for 3-5 hours in bright
sunlight.
• Dried leaves are turned often to prevent
fermentation.
• The yield of oil ranges from 0.5 to 1.2 percent
while in rainy season, it is less and in dry
season, the oil yield is none
 Chemical evaluation
• The oil is clear, mobile or fluid liquid, pale yellow to
light tan colour.
• Powerful lemony scented, woody sweet fragrance.
• Chemical Constituents:-The main constituent is
Geraniol. Besides, the oil consists of Citral,
Citranellal, Linalool, Iso-pulegol,
• Actions:-Antiseptic, Antispasmodic, diuretic,
febrifuge and tonic. The oil is used in flue, rheumatic
pain and menstrual problems.
 Uses
• The oil is used in soaps, cosmetic, creams and
perfumery.
• The oil is used in most major food categories
including alcoholic and soft drinks.
• It is used as in insect repellent and
deodorants.
• Used as insect repellents and
aromatherapeutic agents (Leite et al., 1986;
Shah, et al., 2011; Wijesekera , 1973)
 Lemon grass
Cymbopogon flexuosus (D.C.) Stapf.

• 1. The Red stemmed lemon grass - Red culm ,

high yield.
• 2. The White stemmed lemon grass - white
culm, low yield.
 Description
• A tufted or hardy, drought resistant, fast
growing perennial grass plant
• height upto 2m tall; Root - Adventitious
fibrous roots.
• Lodicules present. Fruit – Caryopsis
 Environment
• Climate :-Tropical, Subtropical. Bright
sunshine, intermittent rainfall, Average annual
rainfall 250 - 300cm. Grown up to an altitude
of 1500m from the sea level. Heavy rain
decreases the oil yield.

• Soil :- Lemon grass can be grown a wide

variety of soil. A well- drained sandy loam sail
is preferred for its cultivation.
 Cultivation
• Propagation:- By Seed, Root and Stem cuttings or
Slips. The slips possess 2 - 3 tillers.
• Preparation of land:- 2-3 ploughings, 2
harrowing and leveling is required. 30-50kg of
Endrin or Heptachlor/ha should be incorporated
in to the soil before panting.
• Seed Rate:-Seeds are usually collected January -
February. 20-25kg of seeds/ha. Healthy rooted
slips - 2-5 q/ha.
.
• Sowing Season:- In Nursery bed- sowing- April
- May. or during the onset of pre-monsoon
showers. Rooted slips are planted directly in
well- prepared field.

• About 2 months old seedlings are planted in

main field. June - July. Lemon grass can be
planted any month in a year with irrigation
 Management
• Manures and Fertilisers:- 2 -3 mt of FYM or
Compost / ha or 2mt ash and 2.5 - 3mt of
spent grass/ha. 100:50:50kg of NPK/ha. N-
fertilizer should be 3-4 split doses.
• Interculture:- 2-3 weeding and hoeing should
be done. Apply suitable herbicide.
• Irrigation:- If there is no rain after planting
one irrigation should done immediately. In dry
season 4-5 irrigations.
• Diseases:- Leaf spot.- Colletotrichum
graminicola; Leaf blight Cervularia sp.
• Spray Dithane M-45 10-45 days intervals.
Highly infested diseased plants should be up
rooted and burnt.
• Insect Pests:- Larvae- Chilotraea sp. - Spray
0.05 percent Endosulfan or Folidol E 605.
 Harvesting
• 3-4 months of planting.
• every 2-21/2 months intervals except during
the dry and rainy season.
• The crop is harvested 10 to 20cm above
ground
• Generally in the 1st year 2-3 harvests are
taken and from 2nd year on words 4 to 6
harvests.
• Yield:-
• Storing of harvested material up to 48 hours
under fermentation increases the yield of oil.
• In 1st year – 12 – 15 tons and in 2nd year 18-20
tones of fresh herbage/ha.
• Proper management it may goes upto 30 –
35tones of fresh herbage / ha.
• It provide 75 -120 kg of oil / year.
 Chemical evaluation
• oil is mobile fluid or as deep yellow to reddish
brown in colour
• odour is powerful grassy - lemon - like or
grassy – citrus
• Extraction of Lemon grass oil:- By steam -
distillation process. The oil yield varies from
0.25 to 0.37 percent on fresh wet basis.
• Main constituent of the aromatic oil is Aldehyde
Citral (65-85%) and Myrcene (12-25%). Other
constituents are methyl heptenone, methyl
heptenol, limonene, nerol linalool,
• Spent Grass:- It is obtained after the distillation of
the oil. Residual grasses contain 6.4% crude
protein, 0.96% calcium and 0.09% phosphorus
• Actions :- Analgesic, Antimicrobial, Antipyretic,
Antiseptic, Astringent, Carminative, Sedative,
Nervine and Tonic
 Uses
• Lemon oil is used extensively for the scenting of soaps,
detergents, cosmetics and technical products.
• Citral is used in flavours, perfumes and for preparation of
vitamin A.
• It is used in muscular pain (rheumatism, goiter), colitis,
headaches, and nervous exhaustion.
• It is used as insect repellent and it possesses germicidal
properties.
• Spent lemon grass is used as excellent manure and fuel.
• It is a good raw material for writing paper manufacturing
• It is excellent de-odouriser for house-hold use
 3. Palma rosa
• Cymbopogon martini Stapf var. motia.
• A tall perennial herbaceous plant height up to
2.5m tall.
• Long slender stems.
• Flowering Sept - November, Fruit -Caryopsis.
 Environment
• Climate:-Tropical and subtropical , prefer
moist, warm climate, good sunshine, cold
weather may be damaged the crops.

• Soil:- A well - drained sandy loam, rich in

organic matters. Soil PH 6.0- 8.5.
 Cultivation
• Propagation:- From Seeds and Rooted slips.
• Preparation of Land:- A well - prepared land
is preferred. Deep ploughing as well as
labeling is needed. Nursery bed is also
needed.
• Here 1 part seeds mixed thoroughly with 4
parts of fine sand and then sown in raised
nursery bed.
• Seed Rate:-- 2.5 --3 kg of viable seeds/ha
• Sowing Season:- Seed sown in N.B - May -
June. 2-3 rooted slips planted - June – August

• 3-6 weeks old seedlings or 10 -15 cm height

seedlings from N.B are transplanted in the
main field.

• Spacing:- Rx P - 60x45 or 45x45 or 45x30cm.or

50 x 15 cm
 Management
• Manures:and Fertilisers: -10-15 tones of FYM
or Compost/ha 20:40:40kg of NPK/ha at
planting time .Supplemented annually 40kg of
N in two equal doses as top dressing, usually
in February and August.
• Interculture:- 2-3 weedings and hoeing.
• Irrigation:- 5-10 irrigations during dry
seasons. First irrigation at September ,2nd Nov
– Dec and 3rd March – April.
 Harvesting
• 4-6 harvests can be taken.
• The autumn harvest is cut 10 to 20cm above
the ground.
• The stumps resume growth in the following
spring and produce the flowering shoots
profusely in April - May and Sept - Oct.
• The plantation may be renewed after 4-5
years and rotated with legume or traditional
crops.
• Yield:- About 250 - 300q. of fresh herbage /
year harvest. The oil yield 80 - 100kg/ ha in 2nd
and 3rd years harvests. The plant stalks yield
0.04%, leaves give 1.32% and flower heads
1.71% oil. Oil is usually extracted from the
leaves and flowering tops by steam distillation
or water distillation.
• The oil yield varies between 0.8 to 1.25% of
freshly harvested grass or dried grass. 1kg oil =
650 -800 /-.only.
 Chemical evaluation
• Characteristics:-The oil is fluid liquid colourless to
pale greenish yellow. The good palmarosa oil should
have scarlet rose - like colour and solubility is 60
percent alcohol. Sweet rosy geranium like scent.
• Chemical Constituents: Geraniol is the main
constituent of Palma Rosa oil which contains 70 to
90% of oil. It contains linalool, Citral, Citronellol,
Beta- Caryophyllene, Limonene Isovaleraldehyde,
Dipentene, Geranyl acetate, Methyl heptenone,
Nerol farnesol and Phenols.
 Actions and uses
• Actions:-Antiseptic, bactericidal, febrifuge, stimulant and
tonic.
• [Febrifuge - Combats fever
• Cicatrisant - an agent which promotes healing by the
formation of scar tissue.]
• Palma Rosa oil is used for soap, cosmetics, perfumes and for
flavouring tobacco. Mosquito repellent ointments,. The oil is
used for Acne, dermatitis and minor skin infections. The oil is
useful on lumbago, baldness and nervous exhaustion. It
blends well with geranium, rosewood, sandalwood, cedar
wood, guaiacum wood and floral oils.
 Ginger grass
• Cymbopogon martini Stapf var. Sofia
• Ginger grass is commercially less important
than palmarosa.
• Although it is grown commercially and
produced in some country.
• It grows best at low altitude in moist and
poorly drained soils.
 Chemical evaluation
• The main constituent is 'Geraniol'.
• The oil consisting of chemical compounds like
d- limonene, dipentene, aldehyde,
phellandrene, dihydrocuminyl alcohol and di -
carvone.
• The oil is used in the preparation of some
cheap perfumes.
• It is used as mosquito repellent and aroma
therapy.
 Khus
• Vetiveria zizanioides Stapf.
• Vetiver is a tall tufted scented grass and
attains a height of 2m.
• Leaves are long narrow, linear, 70cm long and
0.7cm wide.
• Inflorescence is a long panicle up to 40cm in
length bearing numerous racemes in whorls
on a central spike.
 Environment
• Tropical and subtropical climate
• Khus thrives well in warm and humid climate. Bright
sunshine
• Average annual rainfall 100-200cm.
• A well- drained rich sandy loam to clayey loam soils.
• It can be grown river banks and partially undated rich
marshy lands.
• It can tolerate prolonged drought and long seasonal
flooding.
 Cultivation
• Propagation:- Seeds, Rooted slips and clones.
• Preparation of Land:- Deep ploughing, one
harrowing and leveling is preferred.
• Sowing Season:- Seeds are sown in N.B. - May- June.
Rooted slips planted in the main field - July - August.
• Seed Rate:- 1-1.5kg of seeds/hec. 20-21q of root
slips/ha.
• Spacing:- Rx P = 60x30/45cm.or 50 x 25. or 60
x50cm.
 Management
• Manures and Fertilisers:- 15-20 tones FYM /
compost / ha. 60:30:30kg of NPK/ha
• Interculture:- 2-4 weeding and hoeing. 2
months after planting earthing up is done to
make ridge and furrow
• Irrigation- 2—3 Irrigations or even more, if
necessary
 Harvesting
• Vetiver is a 12 to 18 months crop.
• The aerial parts are first cut off at a length of
15 to 20 cm and are removed.
• The root clumps are then dug out and beaten.
The soil is further dug out up to a depth of
1m.
• This operation should be done during dry
months before winter.
• The roots are cleaned and dried in shade for a
week.
 Yield:-
• 4-6 tones of fresh roots /ha. and 25-30kg of
oil/h.
• Good quality dried roots yield 1.5 to 3%
volatile oil and fresh roots give 0.6 to 1.0% oil.
• Quality of the oil depends on the age of root
and length of stems.
• The oil is extracted by Steam – distillation.
 Chemical evaluation
• A dark brown, olive or amber viscous oil with
a deep smoky, earthy - woody odour with a
sweet persistent undertone.
• Chemical Constituents:-Vetiver oil is known
as oil of tranquility. The principal constituents
are 'Vetiverol' and Vetivone. The oil also
contains vetiverone vetiverols, vetivernyl,
vetivernate, vetivene, palmitic acid and
benzoic acid.
• The aromatic, spongy roots are also extracted
with a suitable solvent and this is known as
'Resinoid'.
• Actions:- Antiseptic, antispasmodic, sedative,
depurative, stimulant, tonic and vermifuge
(expels intestinal worms.)
 Uses
• Vetiver oil is very valuable and widely used in
scenting of soaps, cosmetics and perfumes.
• It is used as a natural fixative.
• The oil is suitable for blending with Patchouly,
Jasmine, Lavender, Sandal wood, Rose and
Ylang Ylang oil.
• They are employed for flavouring cold drinks.
• The roots possess medicinal properties as
tonic, refrigerant, Stimulant etc.
• They are also used for preparation ornamental
baskets, mats, curtains and hand fans
• . The grass is used in the manufacture of
paper and cardboard
 Lemon scented gum
• Eucalyptus citriodora Hook.
• Eucalyptus globulus var. globules
• An Australian attractive evergreen (perennial)
tall tree height upto (20 - 25m) and others
upto 32 - 40m.
• Woody, erect, branched, slender tapering
trunk growing fast and straight.
• The bark is smooth, silvery green or whitish
 Environment
• Tropical and subtropical climate.
• It tolerates temperate climate also.
• Grown altitude upto about 2000 - 2200m
above the sea level.
• High winds injure the plant.
• Drought tolerance plant.
 Cultivation
• Preparation of Land:- 1-2 deep ploughings, 1-
harrowing and proper levelling.and drainage.
• Preparation of pit:- 1m x1m x 1m or 50cm x
or 1m x 2m.
• Propagation. Seeds and Tissue culture: Seeds
are sown in the well-prepared N.B or in
polythene bags or one month seedlings are
transplanted in polythene bags.
• Transplanting: June – July - August.
• Sowing Season :- April - May in nursery bed.
• One month old seedlings with 2 to 4 pairs of
leaves or about 20 - 30cm tall seedlings
• planted in the field or in pits.
• If the seeds are sown directly in the field
during March - April, these are sown in ridges
so they are no dislodged in heavy rains.
• Spacing :- 120 x 90cm (Tall),45 x 30cm (Dwarf)
 Management
• Manures and Fertilisers:- 10 - 15 tones of FYM
or compost / ha. NPK - 40:25:25kg / ha / year.
• Interculture:- Earthing up, weeding and
hoeing is essential.
• Irrigation:- 8 - 10 irrigations.1 – 2 irrigation at
early season.
• Pruning:-
The terminal branches are cut to induce the
plants to produce more lateral branches.
 First coppicing - 30 to 45cm above ground in
6 to 8 months old plants. 2nd coppicing - 4 to 5
months after 1st coppicing 3rd coppicing -
80cm to 1m above the ground. Usually
coppicing is done in April and Oct.- November.
• Diseases:- Chlorosis, Little leaf, Leaf crinkles.
 Harvesting
• The leaves and terminal branch lets should be
cut down.
• 3 harvests i.e. March, July and November can
be taken per year.
• Yield:- From 3rd year onwards up to 10th years-
30 - 40 tones of green herbs / h.
• The fresh herbs yield 0.75 to 2.0% of oil. The
oil yield about 100 - 150kg/h
 Chemical evaluation
Characteristics:-
 The oil is colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid with
a strong, fresh, citronella - like odour
 The main constituent of the oil is 'Citronella' (80 -
90%). Other chemicals, Geraniol, Cineole, Pinene,
Sesquiterpene, Isopulegol, citronellol, citriodorol,
guaiol.
• Actions:- Antiseptic, antiviral, bactericidal,
deodorant, expectorant, fungicidal, insecticidal.
 Uses
• The oil is used as a fragrance component in soaps
detergents and perfumes
• also used in room sprays and insect repellents.
• The oil is used in asthma; laryngitis, sore throat, colds,
fevers and skin diseases.
• Employed for the isolation of natural citronellal
menthol and hydroxy citronellol.
• construction purposes,railway sleepers and mine
props.
• The dry wood is also suitable for paper pulp industry
and fuel.
 Mint
S.N Species Common name Origin
.
1 Mentha arvensis Japanese or corn Europe, China, Japan
mint
2 Mentha citrata Ehrh Bergamot or Europe
(Hybrid - M. viridis L x M. Lemon mint
aquatica.)
3 M. cardiaca. Gerard Scotch mint America
4 M. piperita L. (M. sylvestris American or Mediterranean
L x M. aquatica x M. Balm mint
rotundifolia)
5 M. pulgeum L. (Mill) Old-world penny Europe, Asia
royal mint
6 M. rotundifolia L. Apple mint Portugal, Asia
7 M. spicata huds. Spearmint or Europe
(M. longifolia x M. common or
rotundifolia) green mint
 Description
• An annual or perennial vigorous bushy herb, grows
upto 1m tall.
• Entire plant is covered with soft tomentum (short,
woolly hairs)
• Stem-erect or prostate, weak, branched, square often
reddish-violet or purple in colour
• Leaves- Simple, dark green, serrated, broad, ovate,
lance- shaped, hairy on the underside, strongly
aromatic.
• Flowers bloom June to August, very rarely produces
fruits.
 Environment
• Tropical, Subtropical and sub temperate climate.
• Humid and warm climate is usually preferred.
• Average rainfall 100 - 200 cm/annum.
• A temperature of these plants range of 200c to 300 is good for
rapid vagetative growth and high oil-conten
• t. Light showers at planting and ample sunshine at the time of
harvesting suits for its cultivation.
• Frost and hailstorms may cause damage the plant.
• A well-drained loamy, silty loam to clayey loam soils with a soil
pH ranges of 6 to 7.5.
• Rich moist soil and partly shaded location are ideal for its
cultivation.
 Cultivation
• Propagation :-Cutting of stems, roots /
Runners / stolons / suckers.
• Multiplication through stolon is commercially
practices in several countries.
• Stolons are underground stems, light cream
coloured, smooth and juicy which we formed
at the end of creeping root stocks during
winter.
• Sowing Season:- January - March and May-
June. Optimum sowing season is February.
• Planting :-
• Fresh succulent stolons of 8 - 10cm long with 2 to 4 growing
points are planted at a depth of 2 - 3 cm in well - prepared
land.
• Before planting the stolons should be treated with 0.3%
Agallol solution for 5 minutes.
• A solution of 6 -8 liters of cow urine and 50 liters of water,
stolons are dipped upto 40 -45 minutes.
• A short piece of cutting or runner may be used as its
multiplication or cultivation.
• Stolon Rate:- 200 - 300kg of stolons/ha. Or 250 – 400 kg of
suckers / ha.
• A piece should be 4-6 cm long with 2 -4 nodes.
• Spacing:- 40-60 x 10-15 cm.
 Management
• Manures and Fertilisers:-
12-15q of FYM/compost/ha. 120:50-60: 40-
60kg of NPK/h.
P and K along with one third doses of nitrogen
are given as basal dose.
While rest of the N- fertiliser is applied in two
equal doses at 6-8 weeks after planting and
second 4 weeks later at harvesting time.
 20kg of Zn/ha. is recommended.
• .
• Interculture:-
 3-5 weddings and hoeing.
 During the early stages of growth(Pre-emergence)
weedicides such as Diuron, Sinbar, Etazine may be
used.
 One interculture should be done when a plant attain
10 -15 cm height.
• Irrigation:-It requires heavy irrigations (8-10) during
summer and 4-5 irrigations during autumn.
• Diseases:- 1. Powdery mildew (Erysipha
cichoracearum D.C.) - Spray 5% karathane at 15 days
intervals. 2. Mint Rust (Puccinia menthae), 3. Leaf
blight (Alternaria sps) 4. Leaf spot (Curvuaria lunata),
5. Wilt. (Verticillium alboatrum Ranike), 6 Stolon Rot
(Rhizoctonia bataticola) or Microphomina phaseoli.
6. Sclerotium rot (Sclerotium rolfsii Sac) - Spray 0.5%
Dithane Z-.78.
• Insect Pests:- Mint leaf rollers, beetles, Aphids,
Cutworms, Termites and Caterpillars.Spray 3%
Heptaphane for termites and Spray Metacid or Decis
or Endosulfan for caterpillars
 Harvesting:-
• 100 - 105 days of planting particularly when the flower buds
start to open during rain onset.
• After full bloom stage oil content rapidly goes down.
• The crop is cut 10 - 15cm above the ground on bright sunny
days as menthol is highest.
• Second harvest is made 90 - 100 days after the first harvest
usually in october. Cut the entire plants above the ground.
• Yield:- 15 -25 tonnes/ha. Which 150kg of oil may be obtained.
The oil content is 0.4 to 0.7 percent on fresh weight basis.
 Chemical evaluation
• Actions:- Antiseptic, Antispasmodic,
Anaesthetic, Antimicrobial, Carminative,
Cytotoxic, Digestive, Expectorant, Stomachic,
Stimulant, Cholagogue (Stimulates the
secretion and flow of bile in to the
duodenum), Astringent (Causes contraction of
organic tissues). Febrifuge, Tonic.
• The cost of 1 kg oil is about Rs 500 – 700 /-
only.
 Uses-M. arvensis
• The oil is used is some pharmaceutical preparations such as
cough cold syrups, drops, mouth washes, herb teas in the
form of menthol.
• Extensively used in the preparation of cough lozenges, tooth
pastes detergents, soaps, cosmetics, perfumes and especially
industrial fragrances used by the food industry especially for
flavouring confectionery, liqueurs, and chewing gums,
tobacco, pan masala, scanty cigarettes.
• It is mainly used for the isolation of natural Menthol
• Products.Pudinhara, Sancho,Souche,Sparsh, Balms medicines
are commercially used for remedy of indigestion and cold,
coughs, fever and it is used as anti-vomiting agent.
• 2. Mentha piperita:
• Flavouring agent in many foods especially
chewing gums, sweets, alcoholic and soft
drinks. It is used in perfumes and colognes.
Relieve spasm, stimulate the product of
digestive enzymes.(add more importance as
mentha arvensis).

• 3. Mentha spicata:-
• (See above two mints, same importance).
S.N. Principal constituents Secondary Characteristics
1 Menthol and Menthone Cineole,neomenthol, menthyl The oil is colorless to pale yellow
acetate, isomenthone, limonene, with minty odour. Slightly thick
octanol, pulegone, thujone, beta liquid. Strong fresh and
phellandrene, pipertone, somewhat litter sweet.
menthofuran.Isovaleric
acid,Isovaleric aldehyde.

2 Linalool, linayl ester, free audio

Linayl acetate and menthol A pale yellow with strong fruity
and aldehyde. citrus odour.
3 Menthol Linalool, linayl ester, free auido A pale yellow oil.
and aldehyde.
4 Menthol and menthone and Menthyl acetate, limonene, A pale yellow or greenish liquid.
piperitone. cineol, menthofuran, pulegone, Grassy mint camphoraceous
iso-menthone, Menthfuran. odour.

5 Pulegone Menthone, piperitenone, Iso- A colourless or pale yellow liquid

pulegone with a fresh, pungant mint-like
odour.
6 Pinone Menthyl acetate, Limonene, A pale yellow, delicious
Cineol piperitenone, trans-iso flavoured mint.
pulegone.
7 Menthol and L- carvone Dihydrocarvone, phellandrene, A pale yellow or olive mobile
limonene, cineol, pinenes, liquid, caraway like flavour.
pulegone, menthone and linalol.
 Rosemary
• (Ros = Dew ; Marinus = The sea)
1. Rosmarinus officinalis var. officinalis
2. Rosmarinus officinalis var. angustifolium
3. Rosmarinus officinalis var. humilis
4. Rosmarinus officinalis var. procumbens
 Description
• A shruby evergreen bush up to 2m high
• strongly aromatic; stem- aerial; erect;
branched mostly square in cross section or
quadrangular, woody.
• Leaves - Silvery green, narrow- needle
shaped;
• Flowers: bisexual, pentamerous, arranged in
short and axillary racemes, violet - blue or
pale blue.
 Environment
• Tropical, Sub-tropical and sub- temperate
climate.
• It can be grown in temperate climate also.
• Fair and shinny weather is required.
• A well- drained loamy or sandy loam; rich in
organic matters are preferred
 Cultivation
• Propagation:-Cuttings of the half ripened
young shoots.
• Preparation of land, Spacing; Interculture and
Irrigation practices similar to other aromatic
plants
 Harvesting
• The oil is obtained from freshly harvested
twigs, leaves and flowering tops.
• Dried leaves and flowers are also used for
extracting oil from rosemary plants.
• The whole plants are harvested manually
when the flowers are bloomed fully.
 Chemical evaluation
• 1.Characteristics:- A colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid
with a strong, fresh, minty herbaceous scent and a woody-
balsamic undertone.
• Poor quality oils have a strong camphoraceous note.
• The main constituents are pinenes and dipeptene. Besides
limonene, camphene, cineol, borneol, linalool, terpineol, P-
cymene, octanone. geraniol, bornyl acetate, acetic acid and d-
linalool aldehyed. The essential oil content varies from 0.3 to
2.2%
• Actions:- Analgesic, antimicrobial, anti-oxidant,
antirheumatic, antiseptic,antispasmodic, carminative,
diuretic, fungicidal, hepatic, hypertensive, nervine,
parasiticide, stomachic and tonic
 Uses
• Flowers are used in medicine as stimulant, diuretic, aperient
and emmenagogue (induces menstruation), colitis, neuralgia
and debility.
• The oil is extensively used in soaps, detergents, cosmetics,
household sprays and perfumes, especially colognes.
• Extensively employed in most major food caterories,
especially meat products, and alcoholic and soft drinks.
• Dried leaves are used as condiments.
• Fresh tender tops of these plants are used for garnishing.
• The oil serves as a source of natural anti-oxidants.
Common name S. name
Chamomile
Origin Characteristics
1.German Matricaria recutica Europe, North A deep blue or dark greenish blue
Chamomile or and West Asia viscous liquid with a strong
Matricaria sweetish warm herbaceous
chamomilla coumarion-like with a fresh
undertone.

2.Marocco Ormenis multicaulis North West A pale yellow to brownish yellow

Chamomile Africa and mobile liquid with a fresh
Southern herbaceous sweet rich balsamic
Spain undertone.

3.Roman Chamaemelum South and A pale blue liquid with warm

Chamomile nobile west Europe, sweet fruity herbaceous scent.
N.America.
 Description
• An annual herb attains to height up to 60-70
cm
• . Stem-erect, strong, well-branched, smooth
and shinning or hairless.
• Leaves- alternate, sessile, greenish yellow or
green, delicate feathery.
• Flowers- simple, daisy- like white or greenish
yellow flowers on single stem.
• Seeds are yellow or brownish in color.
 Environment
• Tropical, Subtropical and sub-temperate
climate.
• Grown as summer crop in hills up to 2000m
elevation.
• It prefers mild cool climate. Dry and warm
weather during flowering.
• A heavy and moist soil, rich in organic matter
is preferred.
• Soil PH 4.5 -7.5.
• Clayey is not suitable
 Cultivation
• Preparation of land: -
• Well prepared ploughed and leveled land is required.
• Moist land is preferably suitable.
• Seed Rate:
• -In nursery bed, around 1kg of seeds/ha is sufficient.
• The seeds of chamomile are very small, so 1 part of seed , ½
part of sand and ½ part of ash should be mixed thoroughly.
• Planting season:-
• Seedlings of 8-12cm long with 4-6 leaves are ready for
transplanting. In plains- 3rd week of Sept - Oct. and in Hills -
second week of Nov - December.
• Spacing:- 30X30cm or 45x45cm or 45x30cm.or 50 x 60 or 60 x
20 cm.
 Management
• Manures and fertilizers:- 25 - 30 tones of FYM or compost/ha.
A 60:50:50 kg of NPK/ha. Application of N-fertilizer in two
equal split doses- (1) at the time of transplanting and (2) One
month after the first split dose.
• Interculture- 2-3 weeding cum hoeing. The ash of (maize dry
leaves or cobs) or scentless soap solution should be applied.
No insecticides should be sprayed.
• Irrigation:- 5-7 irrigations. If require, provide more
irrigations. One irrigation is utmost essential at the time of
seedling transplanting or before broadcasting or sowing the
seeds in line. Avoid water logging in field. One irrigation
should be given at a time of 25 -35 days after germination.
 Harvesting
• In plains, these plants come to flower during March - April
and in hills May - June.
• Flowers are to be harvested at full bloom stage.
• Harvest the plant with peduncle and flowers either cutting off
by the sickle or used machine harvester.
• The harvest begins about 3-5 days after the first flowers
bloom and is repeated several times( 20 -25 days intervals) a
year.
• Flowers are dried carefully under shade at 20-240C or in
drying rooms at a temperature up to 400C.
• Yield:- 12 - 14q. Of dried flowers/ha.
 Chemical evaluation
• Chemical constituents: The flowers contain 0.3-0.8% essential
oil. If there is proper management, it may go upto 1.9% oil.
• Characteristics: The principal constituents are chamazulene
Farnescene, Alpha-Bisabolol oxide B&C. Sequiterpenes,
Apigenin, Luteolin, Quercertin, Anthemic acid & Amino &
Fatty acids.
• Actions: Anti-inflammatory, Anti-allergenic, Anti-spasmodic,
Febrifuge, Hepatic, Nerve Sedative, Leucocyte production,
Stomachic, Sudorific and Vulnerary.
 Uses
• The oil is extensively used in pharmaceutical, antiseptic,
ointments and in carminative, antispasmodic and tonic
preparations.
• Extensively used in cosmetics, soaps, detergents, high-class
perfumes and hair and bath products.
• Used as a flavour ingredient in most food categories,
including alcoholic and soft drinks.
• The oil is used in dyspepsia, diarrhoea, asthma, allergic skin,
Phyryngitis and intestinal disorders (gastric, colic, enteralgia).
 Rose (Rosa spp)
• A perennial shrub grows to a height upto 3m.
• sometimes climbing or trailing.
• Stem - Woody, erect, branched, cylindrical, prickly and green.
• Leaves - alternate, stipulate, unipinnate and imparipinnate,
vary rarely one foliated, leaflets are serrated merely,
• Flowers various colours, pentamerous, showy and scented.
• Sepals 5; petals 5 or numerous (30-40).
• Stamens indefinite, polyandrous; carpels many.
• Fruit an etaerio of achenes, ovoid and bright red in colour.
 Environment
• Tropical, temperate and sub alpine climate.
• But it thrives well in sub tropical climate.
• 2000 - 3600 m. altitude.
• Requires open sunny weather.
• Optimum temperature 15o -20oc.R.H.60%.is required during
flowering.
• SA well - drained deep loamy soils, rich in organic matters.
• But it can be grown a variety of soils having medium salinity.
• Soil pH 5 to 7.0, water logged soil in not suitable.
 Cultivation
• Propagation: Seeds, cutting, suckers, budding, Inarching.
• Preparation of land: 1-2 ploughings, 1- harrowing and leveling
in needed.
• Preparation of Nursery bed:
 It requires a well prepared N.B.:
 The rootstock of R. multiflora, Edourand rose are transplanted
in July or August at sites where the budding as to be
attempted.
 The bud rose plants is done during December - February.
 Cutting should be treated with IBA solution. The cuttings are
inserted into the soil or sand from 3rd Nov to February.
• Preparation of land: 1-2 ploughing, 1 harrowing, and leveling
is needed for good cultivation.
• Planting season:- September – November. For high hills-
February – March.
• Spacing:- 75x60cm : Budded rose plant - 1.25m x 75cm ;
climber - 2.25 x 75cm
• For Pits:- Size – 2 x 2 x2 m .5-10 kg of FYM/Compost . and 3gm
of Aldrin to each pit at the time of planting.
 Management
1. Manures and Fertilisers:- 20-25 tones / h.- FYM or Compost. 200 :
75 : 75 kg of NPK / ha / Year. Nitrogen is applied to each bush.
• Application of 50 ppm NAA and 1 percent micronutrient
(Agromine) mixture is reported to produce maximun flowers.
• 2:1:2 parts of Urea. Dihydrogn ammonium phosphate and
Potassium phosphate is also beneficial to rose crops a applied in 3
split doses.
• 1st split dose - After 1st pruning, 2nd split dose. Two years of age at
about 1.5m height; 3rd SD - After 3-4 months of 2nd split dose.The
ratio 2:4:3: of NPK mixture is prepared and the about 100gm of this
mixture may be s foliar spray.
• Spray 0.3% each Zinc sulphate, Magnesium and Manganese
sulphate solution as foliar in November and February enhance the
blossoming of rose
• Interculture: Atrazine or Simazine is applied as pre-
emergence. Weeding and hoeing needs to be done
thoroughly operation for obtaining good yield.
• Pruning. The pruning operation should be done once a year
during October- November. Bordopaste or Blitox should be
painted in stem after pruning.
• Irrigation: 10-12 irrigations/year. Generally irrigation should
be done after pruning to flowering stage. In summer – 7days
and in winter 10 -15 days intervals.
• Diseases: Rust, Black spot, Powdery mildew, Dieback- Spray
0.1% malathion or parathion or 5% Aldrin or 0.2% Bavistin
paste also used .
• Insect Pests: Aphids, Thrips, Mites, Rose scales. Termites and
Beetles. 0.2% Roger or Cerathion or Metasystox.Spray
schedule of these insecticides.
 Harvesting
• Flowering commences in temperate climate.
• May-June Subtropical climate-March-April & September-
October.
• Tropical climate-Februry-April & August-November -
December.
• Economical yield of flower is obtain from 3rdyear onward &
continue to give high yield up to 10-12 years.
• Pick up the flowers or cut the pedicles by sickle from the rose
plant. Picking should be done early in the morning.
• Yield: 4000 to 6000kg of flowers/ha. It may go upto 8000-
10000kg/h
• Flowers loose aroma with in 24 hrs after their
opening.
• The flower of rose oil yields 0.02 to 0.05
percent on fresh weight basis.
• One ton of rose petals to produce 300gm of
rose oil.
 Chemical evaluation
Characteristics:-
• A pale yellow or olive yellow liquid with a very rich, deep,
sweet- floral, slightly spicy scent.
• The absolute is a reddish - orange or olive viscous liquid with
tenacious odour.
Chemical Constituents:-
• The principal constituents of the oil are Geraniol and
citronellol. Other chemical compounds are nerol, stearopten,
phenyl ethanol, farnesol, linalol, eugenol, carvone, rose oxide
with many other trace constituents.
 Uses
• More than 60 - 80 percent of rose flowers are used for
production of Rose Water !
• Rose water is used as a house hold cosmetics and culinary
articles especially in Persian cookery.
• The concrete, absolute and oil are employed extensively in
soaps, cosmetics, toiletries and perfumes.
• Some flavouring uses, especially fruit products and tobacco.
Rose Jam is prepared from rose petals by mixing sugars.
• Eye lotions, eye drops, syrups, tonic are prepared from rose. It
is used in aromatherapy such as conjunctivitis, dry skin,
palpitations, hay- fever, nausea, Leucorrhoea, uterine
disorders, depression, impotence insomnia and frigidity.
Sn. Species C.name Colour Varieties of Roses
1 Rosa centifolia. Cabhage Rose Rose - purple Hybrid Tea roses
2 R. damascene Damask rose Pink, Red, White, Bicolours roses
Striped

3 R. indica / R. sinensis Chinese rose Various colours Floribunda roses

4 R. moschata Musk rose White, Dark brown Polyantha roses

5 R. odorata White, Pale yellow Ecae hybrid
6 R. sempervirens White, Milky Moss roses
7 R. sericea White Gallica hybrid
8 R. primula White, Crimson Rugosa hybrid
9 R. rogusa rubra Red, Pink, White Sinowilsoni hybrid
10 R. microphylla White, Snow white Climbing hybrids
11 R. simplicifolia Deep yellow Miniature
12 R. chinensis China rose Pink, White, Red H.T. type Floribunda