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REVIEW PAPER
Abstract
Every day almost one billion people suffer from chronic hunger, and the situation is expected to deteriorate with
a projected population growth to 9 billion worldwide by 2050. In order to provide adequate nutrition into the future,
rice yields in Asia need to increase by 60%, a change that may be achieved by introduction of the C4 photosynthetic
cycle into rice. The international C4 Rice Consortium was founded in order to test the feasibility of installing the C4
engine into rice. This review provides an update on two of the many approaches employed by the C4 Rice
Consortium: namely, metabolic C4 engineering and identification of determinants of leaf anatomy by mutant screens.
The aim of the metabolic C4 engineering approach is to generate a two-celled C4 shuttle in rice by expressing the
classical enzymes of the NADP-ME C4 cycle in a cell-appropriate manner. The aim is also to restrict RuBisCO and
glycine decarboxylase expression to the bundle sheath (BS) cells of rice in a C4-like fashion by specifically
down-regulating their expression in rice mesophyll (M) cells. In addition to the changes in biochemistry, two-celled
C4 species show a convergence in leaf anatomy that include increased vein density and reduced numbers of M cells
between veins. By screening rice activation-tagged lines and loss-of-function sorghum mutants we endeavour to
identify genes controlling these key traits.
Key words: Activation-tagged lines, C4 engineering, C4 photosynthesis, maize, metabolic engineering, mutant screens, rice,
transformation.
Introduction
Rice provides the majority of the calorific intake for the for biofuels will further exacerbate constraints on food
world’s population. If we are to provide food for the production (Rosegrant et al., 2002; Tilman et al., 2009).
predicted world population of 9 billion people in 2050 we Increases in crop yields have matched population growth
need to generate substantial increases in the yield of the rice until recently (Mitchell and Sheehy, 2006), but the high
crop. Currently, it is estimated that 925 million people yields associated with breeding for short-stature cereal
suffer from chronic hunger and about 14 400 children die of cultivars appear to have reached a plateau (Kropff et al.,
hunger-related causes every day (FAO, 2010). Population 1994). A second Green Revolution has been called for in
growth in Asia will require a 60% increase in rice pro- order to accelerate the increase in crop yields that will be
duction and so each rice-producing hectare that currently required to support the projected population growth.
feeds 27 people will need to provide food for 43 people in Current breeding programmes will contribute to increasing
future (Sheehy et al., 2008). Additional constraints will crop yields (Tester and Langridge, 2010) and will also allow
be put on farming and land usage by climate change, us to utilize marginal land area by breeding for drought and
decreasing water and energy availability and the demand salt-tolerant cultivars (Gregorio et al., 2002; Flowers, 2004).
ª The Author [2011]. Published by Oxford University Press [on behalf of the Society for Experimental Biology]. All rights reserved.
For Permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com
2 of 10 | Kajala et al.
However, these approaches are unlikely to be sufficient to temperature. Hence, C3 photosynthesis becomes more
increase rice yield by the 60% required in 2050. costly and its RUE decreases at higher temperatures.
Modelling and empirical analysis have shown that The C4 photosynthetic cycle supercharges photosynthesis
maximum crop yield is determined by the amount of light by concentrating CO2 around RuBisCO and significantly
incident on a crop over the course of its growing season, the reduces the oxygenase reaction. Although the C4 pathway
proportion of light intercepted by the crop, the photosyn- incurs an additional cost of 2 ATP per CO2 fixed, it is less
thetically active radiation use efficiency (RUE), and the energy-demanding than C3 photosynthesis at leaf temper-
harvest index (Mitchell and Sheehy, 2006; Long et al., atures over 20–25 C due to the temperature-dependence of
2006). The harvest index and the fraction of photosynthet- the oxygenation reactions (Ehleringer and Björkman, 1977;
ically active radiation (PAR) intercepted were significantly Ehleringer and Pearcy, 1983), making C4 species more
increased during the Green Revolution. While yields can be productive in environments where rice is farmed. The C4
increased by extending the duration of growth, per unit time cycle found in species that have been domesticated into
this does not increase the amount of dry matter harvested. high-yielding crops employ the two-celled C4 system, with
The amount of PAR incident on a crop can only be mesophyll (M) and bundle sheath (BS) cells positioned in
modified by growing that crop in sunnier climes. Sub- concentric rings around the vascular tissue in so-called
sequent to the Green Revolution, modifications to RUE are Kranz anatomy (Dengler and Nelson, 1999). The biochem-
only one study to date, the current estimate is that rently there are limited numbers of candidate proteins
approximately 3% of the mature leaf transcriptome differs for these steps (Taniguchi et al., 2004; Bräutigam et al.,
between closely related C3 and C4 species (Bräutigam et al., 2008; Majeran et al., 2008; Weber and Von Caemmerer,
2010). Fourth, it is possible that a good proportion of these 2010). The transporters are an important component of
changes to the leaf transcriptome are due either to C4 engineering, as the cycle likely cannot function
secondary effects associated with the alterations to primary efficiently without increased fluxes of C4 metabolites
metabolism in a C4 leaf or other processes associated with across organellar membranes (Bräutigam et al., 2008;
phylogenetic distance between these species. This can be Weber and Von Caemmerer, 2010).
tested to some extent by assessing the impact of partitioning
(iv) Rice contains a chloroplastic PEPC that has the
a significant portion of the C4 cycle into M and BS cells of
potential to create futile cycling of the metabolites in
rice. Lastly, recent advances in sequencing technologies,
the chloroplasts of rice (Masumoto et al., 2010). It is
proteomics, and the availability of multiple C4 genomes
proposed that the chloroplast localization of PEPC in
(Paterson et al., 2009; Schnable et al., 2009; Li et al., 2010)
rice is important for nitrogen assimilation in anaerobic
has opened the C4 pathway to experimental dissection using
conditions. This finding may complicate attempts to
a systems biology approach. Comparative transcriptomics
place a C4 system into rice. One way of addressing this
and proteomics have provided insights into the partitioning
issue is to determine how the C4 cycle works in the
Introducing the genes of C4 photosynthesis C4 cycle also requires down-regulation of part of the
into rice Calvin–Benson cycle in M cells. We are testing whether
artificial microRNAs (amiRNAs) driven by cell specific
While many projects are underway within the C4 Rice promoters can be used to down-regulate processes specifi-
Consortium to achieve this goal, our focus has been on cally in the M. Artificial microRNAs (amiRNAs) against
generating resources that will allow us to test the feasibility the rice RuBisCO small subunit (RbcS) genes under the
of generating a functional biochemical C4 pathway in rice. control of an M-specific promoter have been engineered.
The NADP-ME subtype was chosen for C4 engineering One of the initial steps in the evolution of the C4 pathway is
(Fig. 1) as it is well-characterized in the C4 crop and model proposed to be the repositioning of photorespiration into
species maize, and, of the three biochemical sub-types, it the BS cells of C3 leaves (Rawsthorne et al., 1988; Morgan
potentially requires the fewest enzymes and transporters for et al., 1993). To test the importance of this modification,
the C4 shuttle (Weber and Von Caemmerer, 2010). In order plants have been generated in which amiRNAs that target
to engineer a functional C4 shuttle into rice, genes are being glycine decarboxylase subunit H (GDC-H) for degradation
cloned from maize and introduced individually into rice. In are expressed in M cells. With these plants, the aim was to
addition, endogenous rice genes are being down-regulated. test whether BS-specific accumulation of GDC is necessary
The first stage of the project is to integrate the classical to prime a plant for C4 cycle function and whether it also
genes encoding the C4 metabolic enzymes (Fig. 1) into rice
pattern will be obtained for each gene. An additional chemistry, will be analysed for improvements in compen-
difference between our strategy and previous ones is that sation point and quantum yield expected for C4
we are attempting to separate our gene of interest from the photosynthesis. If these results provide cause for opti-
presence of a strong proximal promoter. The strong CaMV mism, it is likely that emerging technologies such as site-
35S promoter commonly used to drive expression of plant specific recombination or artificial chromosome engineer-
selectable markers can have a long-distance enhancing effect ing will have to be used to reduce the number of
on the expression of the introduced gene of interest (Yoo transgenic events associated with these plants, and these
et al., 2005), and this has the potential to disrupt cell second generation approaches used to cross traits into
specificity of C4 gene expression in rice. The CaMV 35S elite lines. Confined field trials would then be conducted
promoter and the plant selectable marker from the maize to characterize the effect of the C4 engine on rice yield and
gene of interest have therefore been separated into two the parameters contributing to it. Subsequently, C4
different plasmids that are then co-transformed into rice photosynthesis would be transferred to elite rice varieties
(Komari et al., 1996). Although it is anticipated that co- adapted to a wide range of environmental and agronomic
integration at the same locus will still occur (Kohli et al., conditions by conventional breeding.
1998), plants with unlinked sites of insertion can be selected
and the plant selectable marker can be crossed out when
Engineering C4 leaf anatomy
To study the emergence of C4 traits in C3 rice, gain-of- mutants that exhibit stunted growth are then rescued in
function genetics is being employed. Activation-tagging a high-CO2 environment (10 000 ppm). Preliminary results
utilizes enhancer elements randomly inserted into the show the coincidence of increased carbon compensation
genome (Hayashi et al., 1992; Weigel et al., 2000), which point and decreased vein density in the sorghum mutants.
creates lines with increased expression or knock out of The efficiency of C4 plants also coincides with alterations in
specific genes. Activation-tagged rice populations for Indica leaf chlorophyll and a/b ratio (Black and Mayne, 1970), and
and Japonica rice (Jeong et al., 2002, 2006) are being the activation-tagged rice mutants are screened for changes
screened for decreased vein spacing and C4-like leaf in chlorophyll content. Interestingly, breeding and evolution
anatomical characteristics. 60 000 plants are being screened, has led to a reduced carbon compensation point in rice
and vein density is affected in 0.1% of the activation-tagged compared with typical C3 values at high temperatures (Sage
plants. Preliminary results are promising, as some of the and Sage, 2009). This is believed to be due to a non-C4
mutant lines have increased vein densities and importantly photorespiratory compensation mechanism arising from the
reduced numbers of M cells between veins. These rice lines lobed shape of M cells, and it may have as yet unknown
with increased vein density can be directly used as acceptor implications for C4 rice engineering (Sage and Sage, 2009).
lines for the engineered C4 biochemistry. Complementarily, Regardless of the lack of understanding of the genetic
classical loss-of-function mutant populations of sorghum determinants of the leaf anatomy, the mutant screen
were generated to study the loss of C4 characteristics. approaches are providing promising results for C4-like rice
Sorghum mutant populations were generated with ethyl leaves.
methanesulphonate (EMS) and gamma ray irradiation
treatments, and over 70 000 M2 mutants are currently being
Conclusions
screened. Mutants with decreased vein density and an
increasing number of M cells between veins have been The current rate of increase in crop yields is not sufficient
successfully identified. These potential C4 vein density genes to feed the increasing world population. C4 species can
from both rice and sorghum mutants can be identified and have 50% higher yields than C3 species, and in order to
used for C4 engineering. increase its yield potential, engineering C4 photosynthesis
The rice and sorghum mutant populations are also into rice is being attempted by the international C4 Rice
screened for the emergence and loss of physiological C4 Consortium. The two-celled C4 cycle was chosen for this
characteristics. The carbon concentrating mechanism of C4 project. The direct engineering approach involves express-
plants allow them to carry out net carbon assimilation at ing genes encoding the classical NADP-ME subtype
low CO2 concentrations, indicated by a low carbon pathway in appropriate cells in the rice leaf. To replicate
compensation point. Hence, sorghum mutants are screened the C4 cycle, RuBisCO and GDC expression are being
for growth at low CO2 concentration (20 ppm) where down-regulated in M cells. Transgenic plants are currently
Two-celled C4 photosynthesis in rice | 7 of 10
being produced and screened for C4 enzyme activity and bundle-sheath and mesophyll surface-area relationships. Annals of
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