energies

Article
A Simple Method for Reducing THD and Improving
the Efficiency in CSI Topology Based on SiC
Power Devices
Efrén Fernández , Alejandro Paredes, Vicent Sala and Luis Romeral *
Department of Electronic Engineering, University Polytechnique Catalonia, MCIA Group,
08222 Terrassa, Barcelona, Spain; efren.fernandez@mcia.upc.edu (E.F.); alejandro.paredes@mcia.upc.edu (A.P.);
vicent.sala@mcia.upc.edu (V.S.)
* Correspondence: luis.romeral@mcia.upc.edu




Received: 14 September 2018; Accepted: 16 October 2018; Published: 17 October 2018


Abstract: Silicon carbide (SiC)-based switching devices provide significant performance improvements
in many aspects, including lower power dissipation, higher operating temperatures, and faster
switching; compared with conventional Si devices, all these features contribute to these devices
generating interest in applications for electric traction systems. The topology that is frequently
used in these systems is the voltage source inverter (VSI), but the use of SiC devices in the current
source inverter topology (CSI), which is considered as an emerging topology, generates interest. This
paper presents a method for improving total harmonic distortion (THD) in the currents of output
and efficiency in SiC current source inverter for future application in an electric traction system.
The method that is proposed consists of improving the coupling of a bidirectional converter topology,
voltage current (V-I) and CSI. The V-I converter serves as a current regulator for the CSI, and allows
for the recovery of energy. The method involves an effective selection of the switching frequencies
and phase angles for the carrier signals that are present in each converter topology. With this method,
it is expected to have a reduction of the total harmonic distortion, THD in the output currents.
In addition, a comparative analysis between converters with all-SiC technology and converters with
hybrid technology is realized, to verify the impact of the SiC devices in the power converters efficiency.

Keywords: current source inverter (CSI); silicon carbide (SiC); power converter, DC–AC converter,
total harmonic distortion (THD)

1. Introduction
The constant growth of hybrid and electric vehicles (EHV/EV) promotes new challenges to
achieve the total integration of these vehicles in the transportation field. High power density and high
efficiency powertrains are among other important drawbacks in the EHV/EV designs. The electric
traction systems play an important role for addressing these issues. Therefore, the new technologies
study, and the search for alternatives to traditional power converters and switching devices, and
control are important within the design requirements of electric traction systems for EHV/EV.
Silicon carbide devices (SiC) are a mature technology, and examples are widely found in the
market [1–4]. Recent research has shown the advantages and disadvantages of the SiC devices. These
elements possess better characteristics than silicon devices, such as low switching losses, higher
switching frequencies, and higher temperature operation ranges [4–8]. Accordingly, the SiC devices
allow for the design of power converters with high-power densities and high efficiencies.
In [9–12], several studies of power converter topologies with SiC devices for electric traction
systems are presented. The switching frequency ranges that are used in the different studies are

Energies 2018, 11, 2798; doi:10.3390/en11102798 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 2798 2 of 23

between 50 kHz and 100 kHz. Accordingly, in the design of electric traction systems with SiC devices,
the frequency must be greater than 50 kHz and less than 100 kHz. On the other hand, if the switching
frequency is increased, the efficiency can be affected. This is shown clearly in [13], where at 200 kHz of
operation frequency, the efficiency of the converter drops to 85%.
On the other hand, state of the art studies have widely shown the effects caused in electrical
machines by high total harmonic distortion (THD) in the currents and voltages at different frequency
ranges. The research [14] presents an analysis on the impact of the switching frequency impact in
the power converters, and the harmonic power losses effect on surface permanent magnet motors.
The reduction of harmonics in the current allows for improvement the torque and reducing of the
THD in the current. This reduced the magnetic saturation in the stator, improving the losses and the
torque. The harmonics effects of the carrier in the motor operation are important, when considering
the additional losses in the windings and the iron laminations caused by eddy currents.
Accordingly, power converters and control techniques are required to achieve currents and
voltages with low THD, but adjusting the switching frequency to not significantly increase the
switching losses. The voltage source inverter (VSI) topology is more commonly used in electric traction
systems for driving the electric motor. Nevertheless, this topology requires a very high performance
capacitor in the direct current (DC) link that is expensive and bulky in the most cases [15]. As an
alternative, the current source inverter (CSI) is a considered and emerging topology within electric
traction systems, due to several advantages such as high voltage capability, auto short-circuit protection,
and a better sinusoidal output voltage, because of alternating current AC capacitor effects [16–18].
In addition, the inductors used in CSI converters offer a longer lifetime than the capacitors used in
VSI converters. However, even with the previously mentioned characteristics, the CSI converter has
several drawbacks, which limit the design of high-performance power converters.
In [19], the authors present the topology of CSI with a DC/DC V-I power converter that controls
the stabilization of the current of input, and the return of energy. For the implementation of this
topology, insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) with reverse-blocking (RB) capability are used
for a low frequency of switching, 15 kHz for a V-I power converter, and 7.5 kHz for CSI. The result
shows that the THD is improved, but the results could be enhanced if SiC devices are used, because
the switching frequency can be increased. Others works can be found in the literature, which are
focused on the control techniques and the analysis of the switching frequency effect. In addition,
in [20,21], optimization techniques are presented to achieve output currents with high quality. However,
the works are also based on traditional switching devices and low switching frequency.
In accordance with the above, the switching frequency is important for the CSI converter design.
Meanwhile, the control technique applied in CSI converters and the V-I converter to achieve a DC
current can affect significantly the THD of this current. Thus, the modulation design for both converters’
conditions and the synchronization between modulations is of high interest.
This paper has two important contributions. First, the work presents a new method that consists
of synchronizing the modulation control of the V-I and CSI converters based on SiC devices. Due to the
controls being based on pulse-width modulation (PWM) techniques, two carriers are used to generate
the pulses of the transistors. The method includes the search of the optimal operating frequency and
a better shift angle between carries as well. The main purpose of this method is for improving the
THD in the CSI outputs current at high frequencies. Second, the paper demonstrates a coordinated
modulation improvement and the consequent reduction of harmonics, allowing for a better efficiency
in the motor and inverter system to be obtained. Finally, a comparison between converters with all-SiC
technology and converters with hybrid technology is realized to verify the impact of the SiC devices in
the power converter’s efficiency.
The paper is organized as follows: first, the topology studied and the proposed method is
presented in Section 2. Section 3 focuses on the operation of CSI, and validation through simulations.
After that, a study of losses and efficiency, the sizing estimation of the heatsink and analysis of the
Energies 2018, 11, 2798 3 of 23

efficiency between converters with all-SiC devices and converters with hybrid technology devices are
developed
Energies 2018,
Energies in9,
9,
2018, xSection
FOR 4.REVIEW
PEER
x FOR PEERFinally,
REVIEWSection 5 concludes this paper. 3 of 2424
3 of

2.2.
2. Power
Power Converters
Converters
Power Analysis
Analysis
Converters and
and
Analysis Description
Description
and ofof
of
Description the
the
theProposed
Proposed
ProposedMethod
Method
Method
2.1. V-I
2.1. V-IConverter
Converterand
andCSI
CSIInverter
InverterAnalysis
Analysis
2.1. V-I Converter and CSI Inverter Analysis
The proposed
The proposed converter
convertertopology
topologyshown
shownin inFigure
Figure11uses
usesaaV-I
V-I converter
converterto
toregulate
regulatethe
thecurrent
current
The proposed converter topology shown in Figure 1 uses a V-I converter to regulate the current
input.
input. Also,
Also, aa CSI
CSI inverter
inverter that
that generates
generates three-phase
three-phase currents
currents of
of output
output with
with SiC
SiC devices
devices is
is proposed.
proposed.
input. Also, a CSI inverter that generates three-phase currents of output with SiC devices is proposed.

L1 L1
V-IV-I IoutIout CSICSI
SiC SiC SiC SiC
VoutVout SiC SiC SiC SiC
D1 D1 SiC T1 T1
SiCT1 T1 T3 T3 T5 T5 T7 T7
SiC SiC
SiC SiC SiC SiC SiC SiC
Vbat
Vbat
MM
T2 T2 D2 D2 SiC SiC
SiC SiC SiC SiC SiC SiC
SiC SiC C C
D2 D2 T4 T4 T6 T6 T8 T8
SiC SiC
SiC SiC

Figure
Figure1.1.1.
Figure Topology
Topology proposed
Topology for
proposed
proposed the
for
for study.
the
the study.
study.

Based
Based
Based on
ononthethe
the previous
previous
previous analyses
analyses
analyses presented
presented
presented in [20,21],
inin [20,21],
[20,21], this
this
this topology
topology
topology can
can
can bebe
be analyzed
analyzed
analyzed in two
inin two
two modes,
modes,
modes,
as shown
asasshown in Figure
shownininFigure 2. It is assumed
Figure2.2.ItItisisassumed
assumedthat that the
thatthe output
theoutput current
output currentout I maintains
Ioutmaintains
out a constant
maintainsaaconstant for
constantfor a one
fora aone state
onestate
state of
ofof
thethe
the converter
converter
converter control.
control.
control. In the
InIn the
the first
first
first mode,
mode,
mode, thethe
the SiC
SiC
SiC MOSFETs
MOSFETs
MOSFETs T11Tand
1 and
and TT22Tare turned
are
2are turned
turned ON,ON,
ON, andand
and aaDCaDCDC voltage
voltage
voltage
delivered
delivered
delivered by
bybyaa battery
abattery
battery is applied
isis applied
applied to the
toto the
the converter.
converter.
converter. TheThe
The inductor
inductor
inductor LL1L
1converts
converts
1converts to storage
toto storage
storage energy.
energy.
energy. Current
Current
Current
returns
returnsthrough
returns throughthe
through theactivation
the activationof
activation ofofSiC
SiCSiCMOSFETs
MOSFETsT22T,, 2during
, duringToff
during Toffmodulation
off modulationstate
modulation stateand
state andthe
and thediodes
the diodesD
diodes D1D1, ,1,
andandD
and D2D
2 are
are
2 arein
ininreverse
reverse
reverse bias;
bias; therefore,
therefore, they
they areare not
not activated.
not activated.
activated. A A current
current I I
out
out andand
and
out a voltage
a voltage V V
out
out outareare
are
obtained
obtained
obtained in the
inin the
the V-IV-I
V-I converter
converter
converter output
output wherewhere VBat
VBat
Bat depends
depends
depends onon
on the
thetheconverter
converter
converter control.
control.
control. In the
InIn second
the
the second
second modemode
mode
(Figure
(Figure2b)
(Figure 2b)2b)thetheMOSFETs
the MOSFETsare
MOSFETs areturned
turnedoff, off,and
andthe thecurrent
currentflowsflowsthroughthroughthe diodesD11Dand
thediodes 1 and D2D2,, 2this
, this
this
mode
mode
mode cancan
can be implemented
bebe implemented
implemented in
ininthethe
the case
case
case when
when
when thethe
the CSI
CSI
CSI current
current
current converter
converter
converter returns
returns
returns the
the
the energy
energy
energy to recharge
toto recharge
recharge
thethe
the high
high
high voltage
voltage
voltage battery
battery
battery V V
Vout ==−V
out
out =− −V .Bat. .
VBat
Bat

L1 L1 L1 L1

SiCSiC Iout
Iout D1D1 SiCSiC Iout
Iout
D1D1 SiC T1 T1 SiCSiC T1 T1
100
100
V V
SiC L L
Vbat
Vbat oo Vbat
Vbat
VsVs Vs Vs
Vout a a
Vout 100
100
V V D2 D2
Vout
Vout
T2 T2 D2D2 T2 T2
SiCSiC
dd SiCSiC
SiCSiC SiCSiC

(a)(a) (b)(b)
Figure
Figure 2.
Figure Current
2.2.
Current trajectory
Currenttrajectory in
trajectory V-I
inin
V-I and
V-I
and CSI
and converter
CSI
CSI V-I.
converter
converter (a)
V-I.
V-I. First
(a)(a) state
First
First of
state
state operation;
ofof (b)
operation;
operation; second
(b)
(b) state
second
second state
state
of operation.
of operation.
of operation.

The
The
The model
model
model dynamic
dynamic
dynamic of V-I
ofof converter
V-I
V-I is is
converter
converter governed byby
governed (1):
(1):
dIdI dI
L L DC
L DC DC
=V V-sV
= s= V-sV− Vin (1)(1) (1)
dtdtdt inin

where
where
wherethe the output
outputvoltage
theoutput voltageVoutVoutof
out ofofthe
the V-I
theV-I converter
convertercan
V-Iconverter cantake
takethree
three values:
values:the
thebattery
battery voltage
voltage
voltage (V
(V(V
out == =
outout

VVBat
V
Bat) )when
Bat )when
when the
the
the V-I
V-I converter
converter
V-I converter operates
operates inin
the first
first
the state,
state,
first also,
also,
state, VVout
also, Vout
out = 0= when
0 when T1Tand
1 and are
T22Tare OFF,
2 are OFF, or V
oror
Vout
Vout
out == =
−−V
−V V
Bat . To
Bat
Bat maintain
maintaina aadesired
. Tomaintain desired
desiredlevellevel
levelofof the
ofthe dc
thedc choke
dcchoke current,
chokecurrent, the
current,the V-I
theV-I converter
V-Iconverter alternates
converteralternates between
alternatesbetween
betweenthe the
the
first
first
first state
state
state and
andand ON-OFF
ON-OFF
ON-OFF ofof
of TT11Tor
1or
orTT2T
2. .2.
TheTheCSICSIinverter
inverterhas
hassixsixtransistors
transistorsand andsixsixSchottky
Schottkydiodes
diodesconnected
connectedininseries;
series;allalldevices
devicesare are
made of silicon carbide. Depending on the modulation technique
made of silicon carbide. Depending on the modulation technique implemented, the CSI inverter is implemented, the CSI inverter is
responsible
responsible forfor
directing
directingthethe current
current through
through thetheload
loadbybythe
theONON andand OFF
OFFcontrol
control ofofeach
each transistor.
transistor.
For Forthe
theoperation
operationofofthe theCSI CSItopology,
topology,it itis isnecessary
necessarytotogenerate
generatetypical
typicalpatterns,
patterns,and andtotoadd add
short-circuit pulses to obtain the activation signals; for this reason it is
short-circuit pulses to obtain the activation signals; for this reason it is necessary for the use of thenecessary for the use of the
Energies 2018, 11, 2798 4 of 23

The CSI inverter has six transistors and six Schottky diodes connected in series; all devices are
made of silicon carbide. Depending on the modulation technique implemented, the CSI inverter is
responsible for directing the current through the load by the ON and OFF control of each transistor.
For the operation of the CSI topology, it is necessary to generate typical patterns, and to4 add
Energies 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 24
short-circuit pulses to obtain the activation signals; for this reason it is necessary for the use of the
(SPWM)
(SPWM)sine-wave
sine-wavemodulation
modulationtechnique, which
technique, generate
which pulses pulses
generate for the activation of power transistors.
for the activation of power
These
transistors. These pulses create a short circuit through one leg of the inverter, whenever eitherbottom
pulses create a short circuit through one leg of the inverter, whenever either top or all top or
switches
all bottom are open. are open.
switches

2.2.
2.2. Proposed
Proposed Method
Method Description
Description
An
An important
importantchallenge
challengeofofthe
thetopology
topology shown
shownin in
Figure
Figure1 is1the synchronization
is the synchronization between the two
between the
modulations of the converters for achieving high performance and low THD.
two modulations of the converters for achieving high performance and low THD. As previously As previously mentioned,
the CSI required
mentioned, a controlled
the CSI required output current
a controlled with current
output as low ripple
with as as low
possible.
rippleBesides, the CSI
as possible. required
Besides, the
aCSI
control to deliver an AC output current.
required a control to deliver an AC output current.
Therefore
Therefore thethe method
method proposed
proposed has has two
two stages,
stages, the
the first
first stage
stage consists
consists of
of implementing
implementing aa control
control
to regulate the output current of the V-I converter, taking into account the
to regulate the output current of the V-I converter, taking into account the requirements ofrequirements of the
the CSI.
CSI.
In
In addition,
addition, aa PWM
PWM control
control was
was designed
designed for the CSI,
for the CSI, and
and adapted
adapted withwith the
the V-I
V-I converter
converter conditions.
conditions.
The
The CSI used a PWM technique, which required two carriers A and B for generating the
CSI used a PWM technique, which required two carriers A and B for generating the pulse
pulse
of
of the transistors, as depicted in Figure 3. Accordingly, the second stage of the method consisted of
the transistors, as depicted in Figure 3. Accordingly, the second stage of the method consisted of
searching for the best operating frequency in both V-I and CSI converters, and also
searching for the best operating frequency in both V-I and CSI converters, and also to determinate to determinate the
angle between,
the angle to achieve
between, synchronization
to achieve synchronization between the two
between controls.
the two controls.

Modulating signals

Signals of carrier offset

Carrier Signal B
PWM

+
Iref PI Control
- ≥

To T1 and T2

Carrier Signal A
L1
V-I Iout CSI
SiC Vout SiC SiC SiC
D1 SiC T1T1
SiC SiC SiC SiC
300V R L
T2 D2 SiC
SiC SiC SiC
SiC C
D2
SiC
SiC

synchronization of
Figure 3. Schematic of operation and synchronization of power
power converters.
converters.

For
For the
thefirst
firstpart, thethe
part, control technique
control usedused
technique was was
a proportional-integrator controlcontrol
a proportional-integrator (PI). The design
(PI). The
of the control
design of the PI for the
control PIcurrent
for thein the V-Iinconverter
current is summarized
the V-I converter as follows:asthe
is summarized circuitthe
follows: shown in
circuit
Figure 4 describes the behavior of the currents and voltages generated when it is placed
shown in Figure 4 describes the behavior of the currents and voltages generated when it is placed with an RLC
load.
with anAlso,
RLCforload.
the analysis,
Also, for thethe
internal resistances
analysis, of theresistances
the internal SiC MOSFETs (Rds
of the =R
SiC on ), inductance
MOSFETs (Rds = (RL),
Ron),
and capacitance
inductance (RL),(RC)
and (first state) were
capacitance (RC)considered.
(first state) were considered.

RL
L
IL(t) ic(t) iLoad(t)
iin(t) Ron_1 RC

Vin(t) c
Vout Vc(t) RL
load
Ron_2

IL(t)
Ron_1=Ron_2=Rds

Figure 4. V-I converter: first state of operation circuit (supplying energy).

The equations obtained in the function of the circuit shown in Figure 4 are described in (2) and (3):
 For the first part, the control technique used was a proportional-integrator control (PI). The
design of the control PI for the current in the V-I converter is summarized as follows: the circuit
shown in Figure 4 describes the behavior of the currents and voltages generated when it is placed
with an2018,
Energies RLC load. Also, for the analysis, the internal resistances of the SiC MOSFETs (Rds = 5Rofon23
11, 2798 ),
inductance (RL), and capacitance (RC) (first state) were considered.

RL
L
IL(t) ic(t) iLoad(t)
iin(t) Ron_1 RC

Vin(t) c
Vout Vc(t) RL
load
Ron_2
Energies 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 24
IL(t)
Ron_1=Ron_2=Rds

L di (t)
Figure
Figure 4. V-I L
4. V-I converter:=first
converter: Vinstate
first (t) -of
state 2R
of ds I L (t) -circuit
operation
operation R L I L (t)
circuit - Vo energy).
(supplying
(supplying energy). (2)
dt
The equations obtained in the function
function of
of the
R Load the circuit
circuit shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 44 are
are described
described in
in (2)
(2) and
and (3):
(3):
1
dVCdi(t)(t) R +R R Load + R C (3)
L L = =Load Vin (t) −C2Ri ds(t)
IL (-t) − RL IL (t) − V
Vo (t) (2)
dt L C
dt C C
RLoad 1
From Equations (2)–(5) can
dVrepresented
C (t) R a Rstate spaceRsystem:
+ +R
= Load C iL (t) − Load C VC (t) (3)
dt C C
From Equations (2)–(5) can representedX(t) = AX(t)
a state + Bsystem:
space (4)

XY(t)
(t) == AX
CX(t)
(t) ++DB (5)
(4)
Theses equations can be expressed in the matrix form:
Y(t) = CX(t) + D (5)
 R R
Load C
R
Load 
 2R ds + R L + 
Theses equations  di Lexpressed
can be (t) 
 in the
R matrix
+ RC Rform: + RC

 i L (t)   
Load - Load
 dt   
1
V (t) +  L  Vin (t)
 = L L
 (6)
dVC (t)
#  2Rds   R 1  C   0  #
 RLoad RC R

Load - Load "
 dt  +RL + RRLoad
" " #
diL (t) ++RR R +RC+ R C 
RLoad 1

Load CC − Load iL (t)
dt = L L C  Vin (t) + L (6)
 
C
dVC (t) RLoad
dt
− RLoad1 +RC
RLoad +RC
VC ( t ) 0
 Vo (t)   R Load R C C
Load   i (t)  0
R C
"  # "  # "  #
Vodt(dt  =  R Load
RLoad+
RCR R + R i (t)L  +  0 V (t)
#"
t)
C
RLoad
C (7)
Load
  VC (t)+ 0 in
   Vin (t)
L
I (t)  = RLoad +RC RLoad +RC (7)
Iinin
(t)   1
1 0 0 VC (t) 0

Then,
Then, with
with the
the previous
previous analysis,
analysis, the
the transfer
transfer function
function could
could be
be calculated. After that,
calculated. After that, aa PI
PI
controller was designed and tuned for achieving the expected outputs. The simulation results of
controller was designed and tuned for achieving the expected outputs. The simulation results of the the PI
controller tuning
PI controller of the
tuning system
of the areare
system shown
shownin Figure 5. 5.
in Figure

(a) (b)
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Simulation
Simulation results
results of
of the PI controller.
the PI (a) Output
controller. (a) Output current
current response,
response, (b)
(b) detail
detail of
of the
the current
current
reference at 10 A.
reference at 10 A.

For the tuning of the PI controller,

controller, the
the auto-tuning
auto-tuning tool
tool of
of the
the proportional-integrator-derivate
proportional-integrator-derivate
Figure 66 and
block (PID) of Simulink was used. The results are shown in Figure and Table
Table1.
1.
 Energies 2018, 11, 2798 6 of 23
Energies 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 24

Figure 6. Tuning of the PI controller for the V-I converter response to a step.
Figure 6. Tuning of the PI controller for the V-I converter response to a step
Table 1. Parameters of simulations of the PI control.
Table 1. Parameters of simulations of the PI control.
Parameter Values
Parameter
K
Values
4.75769580834167
p
Kp Ki 4.75769580834167
460.186624758197
Ki Rise time 460.186624758197
0.00488 s
Rise Settling
time time 0.008380.00488
s s
Overshoot 0.0198%
Settling time 0.00838 s
Peak 1
Overshoot
Phase margin 889 deg @ 439 0.0198%
rad/s
Peak 1
Phase margin 889 deg @ 439 rad/s
The second stage for the control development began with the search of the switching frequency
for each converter. For doing the search, a random frequency (fs ) was assigned, and with this frequency,
The second stage for the control development began with the search of the switching frequency
three conditions for the analysis were established by (8):
for each converter. For doing the search, a random frequency (fs) was assigned, and with this
frequency, three conditions for the analysis were established by (8):

 fs(vi) = fs(csi)

fs =
  fs(vi) = 2fs(csi) (8)
 f 2f = f= f
s(vi)s(vi) s(csi)
s(csi)


The first condition assigned the same fs = value
f of=the
2f switching frequency for the V-I power converter
(8)
 s(vi) s(csi)
and the CSI. The second condition indicated 2fthat the value of the switching frequency of the CSI was
 the
=f
the double that of the V-I converter. Finally, s(vi) s(csi) indicated that the switching frequency
third condition
of V-I converter was double of the CSI. Considering these three conditions, the analysis followed the
The firstshown
flowchart condition assigned
in Figure 7. the same value of the switching frequency for the V-I power
converter and the CSI. The second
Regarding state-of-the-art methods, condition theindicated
switching that the value in
frequencies of applications
the switchingwith
frequency of
SiC devices
theare
CSI was the
around double
50 kHz thatkHz.
to 200 of the V-I converter.
However, even withFinally, the losses
the low third condition indicated
achieved using thatcarbide
silicon the
switching frequency of V-I converter was double of the CSI. Considering these three
devices, it is important that a compensation is made between the switching frequency and switching conditions, the
analysis
losses.followed the aflowchart
Thus, after study, the shown in Figure
switching 7.
frequency of the V-I converter was fixed at 35 kHz in all
simulation cases, A, B, and C. Meanwhile, the switching frequency for the CSI converter was set at
70 kHz. Later a THD analysis of the output currents was performed and the THD value for each option
was obtained. This analysis consisted of defining the two carrier signals of each converter. The carrier
signal of the V-I was considered as the reference signal (Figure 8). Subsequently, it displaced the angle
of the signals carrier between a range of 0◦ to 180◦ , in steps of 30 degrees. With the results obtained,
a new THD analysis was carried out. Besides, if the value of THD was further reduced for some phase
angle, the condition was validated and the tuning was done.
 Fs=35kHz

In A No In B No In C No
If THDout << End If THDout << End If THDout << End

Energies 2018, 11, 2798 B,C A,B A,B 7 of 23

Yes Yes Yes
Energies 2018, 9, x FOR PEERCondition
REVIEW A Condition B Condition C 7 of 24
is the best is the best is the best
Start
A1= Analisys of B1= Analisys of C1= Analisys of
Phase Angle between Phase Angle between
A=fs(Vi)=fs(CSI) Phase Angle between
Carriers Signals Carriers Signals
B=fs(Vi)=2fs(CSI) Carriers Signals
0° to 180° 0° to 180°
C=2fs(Vi)=fs(CSI) 0° to 180°

In A1 No In B1
Fs=35kHz No In C1 No
If THDout << End If THDout << End If THDout << End
B1, C1 A1,C1 A1,B1
Yes
In A Yes No In B Yes No In C No
Present
If THDResult
out << of End Present
If THDResult
out << of End Present
If THDResult
out << of End

THD andB,C Efficiency THD andA,BEfficiency THD andA,BEfficiency

Yes Yes Yes

End
Condition A Condition
End B Condition
End C
is the best is the best is the best
Figure 7. Flowchart of method proposed.

A1= Analisys of B1= Analisys of C1= Analisys of

Regarding state-of-the-art methods,Phase
Phase Angle between the switching
Angle between frequencies
Phase Anglein applications
between with SiC devices
are around 50 kHz to Carriers
200 kHz. However, Carriers
Signals even with Signalsthe low losses
Carriers achieved
Signals using silicon carbide
0° to 180° 0° to 180° 0° to 180°
devices, it is important that a compensation is made between the switching frequency and switching
losses. Thus, after a study, the switching frequency of the V-I converter was fixed at 35 kHz in all
In A1 No In B1 No In C1 No
simulation cases, A, B, andIf THD C.outMeanwhile,
<< End the switching
If THD out << frequency
End If THD for
out the
<< CSI Endconverter was set at
B1, C1 A1,C1 A1,B1
70 kHz. Later a THD analysis of the output currents was performed and the THD value for each
Yes Yes Yes
option was obtained. This
Presentanalysis
Result ofconsisted of defining the two
Present Result of
carrier signals of each converter. The
Present Result of
carrier signal of the V-I
THDwas considered asTHD
and Efficiency theandreference
Efficiency signal (Figure
THD 8). Subsequently, it displaced
and Efficiency
the angle of the signals carrier between a range of 0° to 180°, in steps of 30 degrees. With the results
End End End
obtained, a new THD analysis was carried out. Besides, if the value of THD was further reduced for
some phase angle, the conditionFigure Figure 7. Flowchart
Flowchart
was validated
7. ofthe
andof method
tuning
method proposed.
was done.
proposed.

Regarding state-of-the-art methods, the switching frequencies in applications with SiC devices
are around 50 kHz to 200 kHz. However, even with the low losses achieved using silicon carbide
devices, it is important that a compensation is made between the switching frequency and switching
losses. Thus, after a study, the switching frequency of the V-I converter was fixed at 35 kHz in all
simulation cases, A, B, and C. Meanwhile, the switching frequency for the CSI converter was set at
70 kHz. Later a THD analysis of the output currents was performed and the THD value for each
option was obtained. This analysis consisted of defining the two carrier signals of each converter. The
carrier signal of the V-I(awas ) considered as the reference signal (Figure 8).(b Subsequently,
) it displaced
the angle of the signals carrier between a range of 0° to 180°, in steps of 30 degrees. With the results
Figure
Figurea8.
obtained, 8. Signals
new Signals
THD carriers
carrierstoto
analysis different
different
was frequencies andand
frequencies
carried angles.
out. Besides,angles.(a) Fs(
if the (a) F)s(V-I)
value
V-I = of
15 =kHz, Fs(
15 kHz,
THD wasCSI)F= 30 kHz,
s(CSI) = 30
further angle
kHz, for
reduced
◦ ◦
some=angle
0°; (b)
phase = 0Fs(; V-I
(b)
angle, ) =Fthe
15 kHz,
s(V-I) = 15Fs(CSI) =
kHz,
condition 30 kHz
Fwas angle
= 30 kHz= angle
validated
s(CSI) 90°. the
and = 90tuning
. was done.
3. Operation
3. Operation of
of CSI
CSI and
and Validation
Validation
This section
This section presents
presents the
the implementation
implementation of
of the
the proposed
proposed method.
method. The
The operation
operation of
of combined
combined
modulations and synchronization of the topologies were analyzed and validated by simulations.
modulations and synchronization of the topologies were analyzed and validated by simulations. The
The transistors of CSI were activated using a PWM modulation technique under conditions that will
be explained later.

3.1. Technique of Modulation

In the designed PWM, (a) some conditions were defined. First, a constant (b) current source must be
guaranteed at all times. Second, the transistors must work in such a way that an open circuit in the DC
Figure 8. Signals carriers to different frequencies and angles. (a) Fs(V-I) = 15 kHz, Fs(CSI) = 30 kHz, angle
link or a short circuit in the output capacitors is avoided. Any sudden loss of the current results in
= 0°; (b) Fs(V-I) = 15 kHz, Fs(CSI) = 30 kHz angle = 90°.
a large dv/dt value, due to the DC-link inductor; this would cause damage to the components. Third,
only two switches will be activated at any time. If more than two are activated, the waveforms of the
3. Operation of CSI and Validation
PWM current cannot be defined.
This section presents the implementation of the proposed method. The operation of combined
modulations and synchronization of the topologies were analyzed and validated by simulations. The
3.1.
3.1.Technique
TechniqueofofModulation
Modulation
In
In the
the designed
designed PWM,PWM, some
some conditions
conditions werewere defined.
defined. First,
First, aa constant
constant current
current source
source must
must be be
guaranteed
guaranteed at all times. Second, the transistors must work in such a way that an open circuit in
at all times. Second, the transistors must work in such a way that an open circuit in the
the
DC
DClink
linkororaashort
shortcircuit
circuitin
inthe
theoutput
outputcapacitors
capacitorsisisavoided.
avoided.Any Anysudden
suddenloss
lossofofthe
thecurrent
currentresults
results
in
in a large dv/dt value, due to the DC-link inductor; this would cause damage to the components.
a large
Energies 2018,dv/dt
11, 2798value, due to the DC-link inductor; this would cause damage to the 8 of 23
components.
Third, only two switches will be activated at any time. If more than two are activated,
Third, only two switches will be activated at any time. If more than two are activated, the waveforms the waveforms
of
ofthe
the PWM current cannot be defined.
ToPWMcomply current
withcannot
these be defined. the modulation technique presented in [22,23] was used.
conditions,
To
To comply
comply with
with these
these conditions,
conditions, the
the9)modulation
modulation technique
technique presented
presented in
in [22,23]
[22,23] was
was used.
used. ItIt
It consisted of four main blocks (Figure that satisfied the required constraints, and extended
consisted
consisted of of four
four main
main blocks
blocks (Figure
(Figure 9)9) that
that satisfied
satisfied thethe required
required constraints,
constraints, andand extended
extended the the
the duality between VSI and CSI beyond the power circuit topology [23]. Using this technique allows
duality
duality between VSI and CSI beyond the power circuit topology [23]. Using this technique allowsus
between VSI and CSI beyond the power circuit topology [23]. Using this technique allows us
us to guarantee a continuous current input to the CSI inverter.
to
toguarantee
guaranteeaacontinuous
continuouscurrent
currentinput
inputtotothe
theCSI
CSIinverter.
inverter.

1.
1.Basic
BasicPulses
Pulses
Generator
Generator

S 1
2.Generator S.S2 1
2.Generatorof
of 4.
4.Pulse
Pulse S.2
.
complementary
complementary Combiner ..
..
pulses Combiner Sn.
pulses Sn

3.Distributor
3.Distributorof
of
complementary
complementary
pulses
pulses

Figure
Figure 9.9.Gating
Figure9. Gating signal
Gatingsignal generation.
signalgeneration.
generation.

The
The map
mapgating
gating signals
signals obtained
obtained in
in the
the simulation
simulation of
of the
the PWM
PWM technique
technique used,
used, isis present
present in
in
Figure 10.
Figure 10.

Figure 10.
Figure10.
Figure Map
10.Map gating
Mapgating signals
gatingsignals generations.
generations. (a)
signalsgenerations. Carrier
(a) Carrier
(a) and
Carrier and modulating
andmodulating signals;
modulatingsignals; (b)
signals; (b) pulse
(b)pulse generator
pulsegenerator
generator
conventional pulse-width
conventional pulse-width
conventional modulation
pulse-width modulation (PWM);
modulation (PWM);
(PWM); (c) (c) commutation
(c) commutation basic;
commutation basic; (d)
basic; (d) pulses
(d) pulses of
pulses of short
short circuit;
of short circuit;
circuit;
(e) pulses
(e)pulses
(e) of
pulsesof distribution;
ofdistribution; (f)
distribution;(f) signal
(f)signal of
signalof distribution;
ofdistribution;
distribution;(g)(g) signals
(g)signals of
signalsof gating.
ofgating.
gating.

3.2. Implementationofofthe
3.2.Implementation theProposed
ProposedMethod
Method
The
The converter topology driven
converter topology driven by
by the
the method
method proposed
proposed was
was simulated
simulated using
simulated using the
using the MATLAB-
the MATLAB-
MATLAB-
SIMULINK
SIMULINK toolbox.
toolbox. The
The parameters
parameters forfor
the the simulation
simulation are are
shownshown
in in
Table Table
2. The 2.
F s
SIMULINK toolbox. The parameters for the simulation are shown in Table 2. The Fs value The
valueFs value
was was
selected
was
as 35 kHz, and the THD was analyzed under the three conditions A, B, and C, as previously defined.
The results are shown in Figure 11, which indicate that condition B has less THD harmonic distortion
than the other two conditions. Thus, it can be concluded that a better response was obtained when the
CSI works at a higher frequency than the V-I converter.
Once the modulations condition C was selected (fsvi = 35 kHz and fscsi = 70 kHz), an analysis
was performed to validate this selection. This pretended to demonstrate the switching pattern that
followed, to obtain a current output in V-I with less harmonic content. The analysis is shown in
Figure 12.
selected as 35 kHz, and the THD was analyzed under the three conditions A, B, and C, as previously
defined. The results are shown in Figure 11, which indicate that condition B has less THD harmonic
distortion than the other two conditions. Thus, it can be concluded that a better response was
obtained when the CSI works at a higher frequency than the V-I converter.
Energies 2018, 11, 2798 9 of 23

Table 2. Parameters of simulations.

Table 2. Parameters of simulations.
Parameter Values
VdcParameter Values 100 V
CurrentVdc 100 V 10 A
Inductor L1
Current 10 A 10 mH
Inductor
Frequency Fs L1 10 mH 35 kHz
Frequency Fs 35 kHz
Capacitor C1, C2, C3 1 5 μF
Capacitor C1, C2, C3 1 5 µF
Index Index
of Modulation m m
of Modulation 0.8 0.8
L Load L Load 1.5 mH 1.5 mH
R Load R Load 1.3 Ω 1.3 Ω

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure11.
Figure 11. Total
Total harmonic
harmonic distortion
distortion (THD)
(THD) spectrum
spectrum results.
results. (a)
(a) THD
THD spectrum
spectrum for
for situation
situation A,
A,
Energies
(b) THD 2018,spectrum
9, x FOR PEER
for REVIEW
situation
B, (c) THD spectrum for situation C, (d) comparative results 10 of 24
graph.
(b) THD spectrum for situation B, (c) THD spectrum for situation C, (d) comparative results graph.

Ton C was selected (fsvi = 35 kHz and fscsi = 70 kHz), an analysis was
Once the modulations condition
T1-T2 T s1 Ts2 Ts3 This pretended toToff
performed to validate this selection. demonstrate the switching pattern that followed,
to obtain a current
T3 output in V-I with less harmonic content. The analysis is shown in Figure 12.

T4
T5
T6

T7
T8

Iout
Figure
12. 12. Switching
Switching patternsignals
pattern signals for
for V-I–CSI
V-I–CSItotofsvi = 35
fsvi kHz
= 35 andand
kHz fscsi =f 70 kHz.
Figure scsi = 70 kHz.

TheThe twotwo states

states ON/OFF of
ON/OFF of the
the V-I
V-I have
have aa time
time duration
durationTonTon andand
Toff,Tin ,which several
off in which several
commutations occur in the CSI converter. The current of the CSI was short-circuited when two
commutations occur in the CSI converter. The current of the CSI was short-circuited when two
transistors of one leg were switched at the same time (T3 and T4 in Ts1). In Ts2, two transistors were
transistors of one leg were switched at the same time (T3 and T4 in Ts1 ). In Ts2 , two transistors were
closed in the upper and lower aspects of different branches (T3 and T8), and the current flowed
closed in the the
through upper
loadand lower aspects
connected of different
to the CSI. branches
This occurred (T3 and
as long T8 ), and the
as transistors current
of V-I and Tflowed through
1–T2 were

turned on (Ton). In time, Ts3, the conduction of the current, continued, but now it passed through T3,
which was in the upper part of the branch, and through T6, which belonged to the lower part of the
leg 2, and also through the load that of CSI. These sequences were repeated, whereas the V-I converter
was in the ON state. If the transistors were open, the current descended and presented a slope of fall
for the duration of Toff, as shown in Figure 12.
 T8

Iout
Figure 12. Switching pattern signals for V-I–CSI to fsvi = 35 kHz and fscsi = 70 kHz.

Energies 2018, 11, 2798 10 of 23

The two states ON/OFF of the V-I have a time duration Ton and Toff, in which several
commutations occur in the CSI converter. The current of the CSI was short-circuited when two
thetransistors of one leg
load connected were
to the switched
CSI. at the same
This occurred timeas
as long (Ttransistors
3 and T4 in Ts1). In Ts2, two transistors were
of V-I and T1 –T2 were turned on
(Ton ). In time, Ts3 , the conduction of the current, continued, but(Tnow
closed in the upper and lower aspects of different branches 3 and T8), and the current flowed
it passed through T3 , which was
through the load connected to the CSI. This occurred as long
in the upper part of the branch, and through T6 , which belonged to the lower as transistors of V-I
partand T1–Tleg
of the 2 were
2, and
turned on (Ton). In time, Ts3, the conduction of the current, continued, but now it passed through T3,
also through the load that of CSI. These sequences were repeated, whereas the V-I converter was in
which was in the upper part of the branch, and through T6, which belonged to the lower part of the
the ON state. If the transistors were open, the current descended and presented a slope of fall for the
leg 2, and also through the load that of CSI. These sequences were repeated, whereas the V-I converter
duration of Toff , as shown in Figure 12.
was in the ON state. If the transistors were open, the current descended and presented a slope of fall
Under modulation conditions of B, the frequency of V-I was double that of CSI, and the current
for the duration of Toff, as shown in Figure 12.
of CSI Under
was again short-circuited, when two transistors of one leg were switched at the same time
modulation conditions of B, the frequency of V-I was double that of CSI, and the current of
(Ts1 ), the current having
CSI was again short-circuited, a slope positive.
when In the next
two transistors period
of one Ts2 , the
leg were current
switched flowed
at the sameby transistors
time (Ts1), the of
two different legs
current having a slope(T –T ), and
3 positive.
8 closed for the load that was connected to CSI, then having a positive
In the next period Ts2, the current flowed by transistors of two different
ramp
legs but
(T3–Ta 8lower slope.for
), and closed This thehappened
load that wasas long as thetotransistors
connected of V-I aTpositive
CSI, then having A –TB wererampturned on (Ton )
but a lower
(Figure 13).
slope. This happened as long as the transistors of V-I TA–TB were turned on (Ton) (Figure 13).

Ton
T1-T2 Ts1 Ts2 Toff

T3
T4
T5
T6

T7
T8

Iout
Figure
Figure 13.13. Switchingpattern
Switching patternsignals
signalsin
inV-I-CSI
V-I-CSI to
to ffsvi
svi ==70
70kHz
kHzand
andfScsi = 35
fScsi kHz.
= 35 kHz.

These
These twocases
two caseswere
werecompared,
compared, and
and the THD THD ofofthe
theV-I
V-Ioutput
outputcurrent
currentwas
wasanalyzed
analyzed with a DC
with a DC
component. The results obtained were shown in Figure 14. As shown, somewhat less distortion
component. The results obtained were shown in Figure 14. As shown, somewhat less distortion with with a
higher harmonic
a higher harmonic order
orderappeared
appearedinin
case B, B,
case i.e.,i.e.,
thethe
CSICSI
switching frequency
switching was double
frequency the V-I
was double one.
the V-I one.
The next step was to develop an analysis that consisted of moving the angle-shift for the carrier
signals of the converters. The displacement was a range of 0◦ to 180◦ in steps of 30 grades. After
that, performing a calculation of THD for each set point of phase-shift with the previously selected
frequency values regarding the result shown in Figure 15, the THD was reduced to 1.98% when the
shifting between the carrier signals was 90◦ .
To understand the THD related to the phase change between carrier signals, the CSI and V-I
activation signal map was analyzed. Also, the conduction and short-circuit sequence were established
for each instant of turning ON and OFF the V-I converter. For the situation of 0◦ degrees of phase shift,
the signal activation map of CSI and V-I is shown in Figure 16.
Where C is the situation of conduction, and * is the situation of the short circuit. The sequence for
this situation is C*CC*CC|C*CC*CC, and it is repeated for all cycles. The signals map for the phase
angles of 90◦ and 120◦ are shown in Figure 17; in these situations, the highest and lowest value of THD
is produced.
In the first situation, (a) it was observed that there were two short-circuit states with short
durations when the V-I converter was in the OFF state, and two short-circuits with a short times of
duration in the ON state. In (b) situation, it was observed that there were three short-circuit states for
each ON and OFF state of the V-I. From this analysis, it can be concluded that the more short-circuit
states a with minor time of duration in the CSI, the higher a THD is generated, and when there are less
short-circuit states with minor times, a reduction in the THD is obtained. Finally, the duration time of
the short-circuit also increments the THD for the same number of short-circuit states. Table 3 shows
Energies 2018, 11, 2798 11 of 23

the result of THD for each situation of angle shift and sequence of the conduction–short circuit that
is obtained.
The output currents and the THD analysis for the condition of fsvi = 35 kHz and fscsi = 70 kHz
with an offset angle between the signals carriers of 90◦ are shown in Figure 18.
In addition, the same analysis was realized but now with the V-I frequency ratio of 70 kHz, the CSI
Energies 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW◦ 11 of 24
at 35 kHz and shift-angles of 0 , 90◦ and 120◦ . The results are shown in Figure 19.
The results of these switching patterns indicate that if the frequency of the V-I is double that of
the CSI, the short-circuit the time increase. This produces a greater harmonic distortion in the output
currents. The THD obtained in these three phase situations are shown in Table 4.
In this way it was determined that situation B is the most optimal, and when the shift angle
between the carriers is 90◦ in this condition, the smallest THD value of the whole analysis is obtained.
Energies 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 24

(a)

(a)

(b)
Figure 14. THD comparison. (a) THD in the DC output current in V-I–CSI to fsvi = 35 kHz and fscsi =70
kHz. (b) THD in the DC output current in V-I–CSI to fsvi = 70 kHz and fscsi =35 kHz.

The next step was to develop an analysis that consisted of moving the angle-shift for the carrier
signals of the converters. The displacement was a range of 0° to 180° in steps of 30 grades. After that,
(b)
performing a calculation of THD for each set point of phase-shift with the previously selected
Figurevalues
frequency
Figure 14.
14. THD
THD comparison.
regarding the(a)
comparison. THD
result
(a) in the
shown
THD DC output
inDC
in the Figure current
output theinTHD
15, currentV-I–CSI
in was toreduced
V-I–CSI fsvito
= 35
fsvikHz
to and
1.98%
= 35 fscsiwhen
kHz =70 the
and
kHz.
shifting (b) THD
fscsi between in
= 70 kHz. the the DC
carrier
(b) THD output
signals
in the current in
was 90°.
DC output V-I–CSI to fsvi = 70 kHz and fscsi =35 kHz.
current in V-I–CSI to fsvi = 70 kHz and fscsi = 35 kHz.

The next step was to develop an analysis that consisted of moving the angle-shift for the carrier
signals of the converters. The displacement was a range of 0° to 180° in steps of 30 grades. After that,
performing a calculation of THD for each set point of phase-shift with the previously selected
frequency values regarding the result shown in Figure 15, the THD was reduced to 1.98% when the
shifting between the carrier signals was 90°.

Figure 15.THD
Figure15. THDresults
resultsfor
forfsvi
fsvi==35
35kHz
kHzand
andffscsi = 70kHz
scsi =70 kHzwhen
whenthe
thecarrier
carrierphase
phaseisissifting.
sifting.

To understand the THD related to the phase change between carrier signals, the CSI and V-I
activation signal map was analyzed. Also, the conduction and short-circuit sequence were established
for each instant of turning ON and OFF the V-I converter. For the situation of 0° degrees of phase
shift, the signal activation map of CSI and V-I is shown in Figure 16.
Energies 2018, 11, 2798 12 of 23

Table 3. THD result with angle-shift and sequence.

Sequence
Angle of Shift Values of THD
Energies 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW ON OFF 12 of 24
0◦ 2.10% C*CC*CC|C*CC*CC
* 30c◦ c c * c c c * c * c c c
c 2.22% * c c * c c
CC*CC*C|CC*CC*C
* c c * c c

T1-T2 60◦ 2.39% *CC*C*C|*CC*C*C

90◦ 1.98% C*CC*CC|C*CC*CC
120◦ 2.25% *CC*CC*|*CC*CC*
T3 150◦ 2.13% C*CCC*C|C*CCC*C
180◦
Energies 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2.15% CC*C*CC|CC*C*CC 12 of 24
Pulses to transistors

T4 c * c
c * c c * c c c * c c c * c c * c c * c c * c c

T1-T2
T5
T3
T6
Pulses to transistors

T4
T7
T5
T8
Current
T6
Iout
T7 time
Figure 16. Map signal in CSI and V-I with 0° of phase shift between the signal carrier.
T8
Current
Where C is the situation of conduction, and * is the situation of the short circuit. The sequence
Iout is C*CC*CC|C*CC*CC, and it is repeated for all cycles. The signals map for the
for this situation
phase angles of 90° and 120° are shown in Figure 17; in these situations, the highest and lowest time value
of THD is produced.
Figure 16. Map signal in CSI and V-I with 0°◦of phase shift between the signal carrier.
Figure 16. Map signal in CSI and V-I with 0 of phase shift between the signal carrier.

Where C is the situation of conduction, and * is the situation of the short circuit. The sequence
for this situation is C*CC*CC|C*CC*CC, and it is repeated for all cycles. The signals map for the
phase angles of 90° and 120° are shown in Figure 17; in these situations, the highest and lowest value
of THD is produced.

(a)

Figure 17. Cont.

(a)
Energies 2018, 11, 2798 13 of 23
Energies 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 24

(b)
Figure17.
Figure 17. Signal
Signal map
mapininCSI
CSIand
andV-I:
V-I:(a)(a)
Situation forfor
Situation of◦ phase
90°90 shift,
of phase (b) situation
shift, for 120°
(b) situation for of
120 ◦ of
phase
shift.
phase
Energiesshift.
2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 24

In the first situation, (a) it was observed that there were two short-circuit states with short
durations when the V-I converter was in the OFF state, and two short-circuits with a short times of
duration in the ON state. In (b) situation, it was observed that there were three short-circuit states for
each ON and OFF state of the V-I. From this analysis, it can be concluded that the more short-circuit
states a with minor time of duration in the CSI, the higher a THD is generated, and when there are
less short-circuit states with minor times, a reduction in the THD is obtained. Finally, the duration
time of the short-circuit also increments the THD for the same number of short-circuit states. Table 3
shows the result of THD for each situation of angle shift and sequence of the conduction–short circuit
that is obtained.

(a)angle-shift and sequence.

Table 3. THD result with

Sequence
Angle of Shift Values of THD
ON OFF
0° 2.10% C*CC*CC|C*CC*CC
30° 2.22% CC*CC*C|CC*CC*C
60° 2.39% *CC*C*C|*CC*C*C
90° 1.98% C*CC*CC|C*CC*CC
120° 2.25% *CC*CC*|*CC*CC*
150° 2.13% C*CCC*C|C*CCC*C
180° (b2.15%
) CC*C*CC|CC*C*CC
Figure
Figure 18. Simulation
18. Simulation results
results ofofthe
themethod
method for
for the
the second
secondpart:
part:(a)(a)
currents
currentsof output in situation
of output B
in situation B
Theand ◦a 90° currents
output shift angle;and
(b) THD
the analysis
THD of the output
analysis for current.
the condition of f svi = 35 kHz and fscsi =70 kHz with
and a 90 shift angle; (b) THD analysis of the output current.
an offset angle between the signals carriers of 90° are shown in Figure 18.
In addition, the same analysis was
Table 4. realized
Result but with
of THD now with the V-I
an angle frequency ratio of 70 kHz, the
shift.
CSI at 35 kHz and shift-angles of 0°, 90° and 120°. The results are shown in Figure 19.
Shift-Angle Values of THD
V C C C C C C
T1-T2
*
0◦ * *
2.29% * *

90◦ 2.74%
120◦ 2.45%
T3
Pulses to transistors

T4

T5

T6
 (b)
Figure 18. Simulation results of the method for the second part: (a) currents of output in situation B
and a 90° shift angle; (b) THD analysis of the output current.

In addition, the same analysis was realized but now with the V-I frequency ratio of 70 kHz,
Energies 2018, 11, 2798
the
14 of 23
CSI at 35 kHz and shift-angles of 0°, 90° and 120°. The results are shown in Figure 19.

V * C C C * * C C C * *
T1-T2

T3
Pulses to transistors

T4

T5

T6

T7

T8

I
Iout
time
Energies 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 24
(a)
V * * C C C * * C C C * C
T1-T2

T3
Pulses to Transistors

T4

T5

T6

T7

T8
I
Iout
time
(b)

(c)
Figure
Figure 19.
19. Simulation
Simulation results
resultsfor
forffSV-I = 70 kHz and fscsi= 35 kHz. (a) Situation at 0° of ◦shift angle. (b)
SV-I = 70 kHz and fscsi = 35 kHz. (a) Situation at 0 of shift angle.
Situation at 90°
(b) Situation at 90 ◦
of shift angle.
of shift (c) Situation
angle. at 120°
(c) Situation of ◦shift-angle.
at 120 of shift-angle.

The results of these switching patterns indicate that if the frequency of the V-I is double that of
the CSI, the short-circuit the time increase. This produces a greater harmonic distortion in the output
currents. The THD obtained in these three phase situations are shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Result of THD with an angle shift.

Shift-Angle Values of THD

Energies 2018, 11, 2798 15 of 23

4. Analysis of Power Losses, Temperature and Efficiency

4.1. Power Losses and Efficiency in the V-I Power Converter

The power losses analyzed were the conduction and switching losses. The parameters of device
SiC are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Parameters of simulations.

Parameter Mosfet SiC Parameter Diode SiC

Model SCT2450KE Model C3D10065I
Voltage DS 1200 V VRRM (V) 650 V
Current 10 A QC (nC) 110 nC
Rds 450 mΩ IF (A) 10 A
Power Dissipation 85 W
Operating Junction 175 ◦ C

The conduction losses in the MOSFET SiC and diode SiC could be expressed for (9) and (10);
the switching losses in the Mosfet SiC and SiC diode were expressed in (11) and (12) [4–24]:

Pcond_MOSFET = Rds(ON) Irms 2 (9)

Pcond_Diode = I2rms RD + IDC VD (10)

where Rds is the drain-source resistor of SiC MOSFET, Irms were the effective current flowing in the
device. IDc is the value of the current flowing through the diode, respectively:

PswM = fsw(Eon +Eoff ) (11)

PswD = fsw(EswD ) (12)

where EON is the turn-on switching energy, EOFF is the turn-off switching energy in the MOSFET
SiC and EswD is the energy of switching in the SiC Schottky diode [18]. The Eon , Eoff , and EswD are
calculated by (13)–(15):
Z tri + tfv  
tri + tfv
Eon = Vds (t)ID (t)dt = Vdc Ion_rms + Qrr Vdc (13)
0 2
Z tri + tfv  
tri + tfv
Eoff = Vds (t)ID (t)dt = Vdc Ioff_rms (14)
0 2
Z tri + tfv
1
EswD = Vd (t)If (t)dt = Q V (15)
0 4 rr dc
where VDS is the voltage drain source, ID the continuous drain current, Vdc is the voltage Dc link; the tri ,
tfv , and Qrr are the current rise time, voltage fall time, and the reverse recovery charge, respectively [24].
All these parameters are in the datasheet of the devices.

4.2. Inductor Core Losses

The losses in the inductors are from the following sources, hysteresis loss, copper or winding loss
and eddy current loss. The hysteresis loss is due to the materials intrinsic properties, due to the energy
used to align and re-align the magnetic domains. The general form of the losses for hysteresis Pm is
calculated by the Expression (16):
Pm = k.fa Bdmax (16)

where a, d, and k are constants, depending of the type of material, for this case is ferrite. Eddy current
loss from the circulating currents within the magnetic materials, due to the differential in flux voltage
Energies 2018, 11, 2798 16 of 23

inside the cores itself [25]. These losses were highly dependent upon the thickness of the walls of the
cores. The eddy current loss per unit of volume could be calculated by Expression (17):

η2 f2 B2max
Pec = (17)
6ρ

where η is the Steinmetz hysteresis constant, and ρ is the density of the material. The copper losses in
Energies 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 24
the inductor are calculated by Expression (18):
where η is the Steinmetz hysteresis constant, and ρ is 2the density of the material. The copper losses
Pcopper = idc Rcoil (18)
in the inductor are calculated by Expression (18):
2
The total power losses in the inductor Pare copper =i dc R coil
obtained by the Expression (19) and are (18)
shown in
Table 6:
The total power losses in the inductor are obtained by the Expression (19) and are shown in
Table 6:
Pinductor = Pm +Psc +Pcopper (19)

Pinductor =Pm +Psc +Pcopper (19)

Table 6. Inductor core losses.

Table 6. Inductor core losses.

Parameter Value
Hysteresis
Parameterlosses 0.0517 W/cm3
Value
Eddy current losses 0.2738W/cm
W/cm 3
Hysteresis losses 0.0517 3
Copper losses 29.93W/cm
W/cm 3
Eddy current losses 0.2738 3
3
Total of losses in the inductor 30.255 W/cm
Copper losses 29.93 W/cm 3

Total of losses in the inductor 30.255 W/cm3

The rated power of the V-I converter is 1 kW. Figure 20 shows the analysis of power losses and
efficiencyThe rated
in the power
V-I of the
power V-I converter
converter is 1 kW.
switching Figure
at 35 kHz,20with
shows the analysis of
a phase-shift of power
90◦ inlosses
PWMandcarriers.
efficiency in the V-I power converter switching at 35 kHz, with a phase-shift of 90° in PWM carriers.
Efficiency is calculated with Expression (20):
Efficiency is calculated with Expression (20):

ηη= PPout
out (20)
= P + ∑ (20)
P out
out +  P PLosses
Losses

(a)

(b)
Figure
Figure 20.20. Result
Result ofofanalysis
analysisin
in the
the V-I
V-I power
powerconverter.
converter.(a)(a)
Power losses
Power (b) Efficiency.
losses (b) Efficiency.

4.3. Power Losses and Efficiency in the Current Source Inverter

In the case of the CSI converter, the important rule for the calculation of losses is that there is at
least one device turned on in the converter [24]. The expressions that were implemented to calculate the
losses for switching and conduction were as in the previous section. However, this time the topology
Energies 2018, 11, 2798 17 of 23

4.3. Power Losses and Efficiency in the Current Source Inverter

In the case of the CSI converter, the important rule for the calculation of losses is that there is at
least one
Energies device
2018, turned
9, x FOR PEERon in the converter [24]. The expressions that were implemented to calculate
REVIEW 18 ofthe
24
losses for switching and conduction were as in the previous section. However, this time the topology
of aaSchottky
SchottkySiC SiCdiode
diode connected
connected in series
in series with
with eacheach SiC MOSFET
SiC MOSFET was considered.
was considered. The results
The results of power of
power losses in the CSI converter by switching and conduction to 70 kHz, and 90 ◦ of phase shift in the
losses in the CSI converter by switching and conduction to 70 kHz, and 90° of phase shift in the PWM
PWM carriers
carriers are presented
are presented in Figure
in Figure 21. The21. Thepower
rated rated of
power of the
the CSI CSI converter
converter was 1.5 kW.
was 1.5 kW.

Figure
Figure 21.
21. Power
Power losses
losses and
and efficiency
efficiency in
in the
the CSI
CSI power converter.

4.4. Power
4.4. Power Losses
Losses in
in the
the Electric
Electric Motor
Motor
This section
This section presents
presents the
the analysis
analysis of
of the
the power
power losses
losses in
in the
the electric
electric motor,
motor, considering
considering four
four
situations of operation previously analyzed, 0 degrees, 60 degrees, 90 degrees
situations of operation previously analyzed, 0 degrees, 60 degrees, 90 degrees (angle with lower(angle with lower THD),
120 degrees
THD), of phase
120 degrees ofshift
phasein shift
PWMincarriers for V-I and
PWM carriers CSI and
for V-I converters. This analysis
CSI converters. aims to perform
This analysis aims to
perform a comparative study and to show that the reduction of harmonics allows forof the
a comparative study and to show that the reduction of harmonics allows for the improvement the
efficiency of the electric motor.
improvement of the efficiency of the electric motor.
In the
In the permanent
permanentmagnet magnetsynchronous
synchronousmotor motor (PMSM),
(PMSM), there
there areare
twotwo
mainmain electrical
electrical losses,
losses, the
the core losses in the iron core, and the copper losses in the winding. The fundamental
core losses in the iron core, and the copper losses in the winding. The fundamental iron loss consisted iron loss
consisted
of of hysteresis
hysteresis loss and losseddyand eddy loss,
current current
andloss, and copper
copper losses, losses,
which which were caused
were caused by the bystator
the stator
coil
coil resistance R s [26,27]. The copper losses were the losses due to the heat (Joule effect)
resistance Rs [26,27]. The copper losses were the losses due to the heat (Joule effect) that produced the that produced
the current
current whenwhenit wasit was circulated
circulated by aby a conductor,
conductor, andand it could
it could be expressed
be expressed by (21).
by (21). In analysis,
In the the analysis,
the
the data of a PMSM engine implemented in another previous study
data of a PMSM engine implemented in another previous study was considered [27,28]. was considered [27,28].
¥
U
PCU mRs Is 2I 2++ 
PCU==mR 2
∑II2n Rn Rn,acn,ac (21)
(21)
h=3
h=3

where m is the number of phases, Rs is the resistance, and I is the DC current, In is the root mean
where m is the number of phases, Rs is the resistance, and I is the DC current, In is the root mean
square (RMS) of the nth current harmonic. Rn,ac is the value of the ohmic for the nth harmonic that is
square (RMS) of the nth current harmonic. Rn,ac is the value of the ohmic for the nth harmonic that is
determined by Expression (22).
determined by Expression (22).
dc ( K n.se +K n,pe )


Rn,ac ==R
R n,ac Rdc Kn.se +Kn,pe (22)
(22)
where K is the resistance gain cause for the effect skin, and Kn,pe is the resistance gain caused by the
where Knse
nse is the resistance gain cause for the effect skin, and Kn,pe is the resistance gain caused by the
proximity effect. The iron losses are calculated on the basis of Expression (23):
proximity effect. The iron losses are calculated on the basis of Expression (23):
 !2 
 2 2  !2 2 2

f f 3  B   B 
PironP= kP=kP 3
Md  Bdd  +Mce  Bce ce
   (23)
FEo
FEof M
o   d  Bo 
+M ce B  (23)
iron f B  B 
o
 o   o  o  

where k is the coefficient of additional losses in iron, P , for magnetic sheet M250-50A, fo is the
where k is the coefficient of additional losses in iron, PFEo FEo, for magnetic sheet M250-50A, fo is the
frequency, Bo is the maximum induction value, Bd is the maximum induction in the teeth, Bce is the
frequency, Bo is the maximum induction value, Bd is the maximum induction in the teeth, Bce is the
maximum induction in the stator crown, Md is mass of the teeth, and Mce is the mass of the stator
crown. The result of power losses in the PMSM for the four situations are showed in Figure 22.
 Energies 2018, 11, 2798 18 of 23

maximum induction in the stator crown, Md is mass of the teeth, and Mce is the mass of the stator
crown.
Energies
Energies The
2018,
2018, 9,9,xresult
xFOR of
FORPEERpower
PEER losses in the PMSM for the four situations are showed in Figure 22.
REVIEW
REVIEW 1919ofof2424

Figure22.
Figure 22.Power
Powerlosses
lossesininpermanent
permanentmagnet
magnetsynchronous
synchronousmotor
motor(PMSM)with
(PMSM)withshift
shiftangle 0◦60°,
angleinin0°,
0°, 60◦ ,
, 60°,
90°,◦
90°, , and
90 and 120°
and120° ◦
120inin the
the
in power
power
the converters.
powerconverters.
converters.

Therepresentation
The representationofofthe
theefficiency
efficiencyofofthe
themotor
motorfor
forthe
thesituations
situationsofofshift
shiftphase
phaseangles (0◦60°,
angles(0°,
(0°, 60◦ ,
, 60°,
90◦ ,and120°)
90°,and
90°, and ◦
120 are
120°) ) are
areshown
showninin
shown inFigure
Figure2323are
Figure arecompared
comparedforfordifferent poweroutputs.
differentpower outputs.

Figure 23.
Figure23. Efficiency
Efficiencyin
23.Efficiency an
inin electric
anan motor
electric
electric for for
motor
motor shift angles
forshift of 0◦ , of
shiftangles
angles of◦0°,
60 , 0°,◦ , and 120◦ in the power converters.
9060°,
60°,90°,
90°,and
and120°
120°ininthe
thepower
power
converters.
converters.
The weighted average efficiency of the whole system (power converters + motor) in the situations
◦ and 90◦ is shown in Table 7 and Figure 24. The study allows for the demonstration that by using
of 0The
Theweighted
weightedaverage
averageefficiency
efficiencyofofthe
thewhole
wholesystem
system(power
(powerconverters
converters++motor)
motor)ininthe
the
the proposed
situations of method,
0° and an
90° isimprovement
shown in in
Table the
7 efficiency
and Figure of
24.the
Thesystems
study analyzed
allows is
for obtained.
the demonstration
situations of 0° and 90° is shown in Table 7 and Figure 24. The study allows for the demonstration
thatby
that byusing
usingthe
theproposed
proposedmethod,
method,an
animprovement
improvementininthetheefficiency
efficiencyofofthe
thesystems
systemsanalyzed
analyzedisis
Table 7. Parameters of simulations.
obtained.
obtained.
System Efficiency at 0◦ Efficiency at 90◦ Power Out
Table 7. Parameters ofofsimulations.
Table 7. Parameters simulations.
V-I 88.25% 90.1% 1 kW
CSI
System 93.8%
System Efficiency
Efficiencyatat0°0° Efficiency94.22%
Efficiencyatat90°
90° Power 1.5
PowerOut kW
Out
Motor 91.2% 91.38% 1.5 kW
V-I
V-I
Average 88.25%
88.25%
91.08% 90.1%
90.1%92% 11kW
kW
1.5 kW
CSI
CSI 93.8%
93.8% 94.22%
94.22% 1.5kW
1.5 kW
Motor
Motor 91.2%
91.2% 91.38%
91.38% 1.5kW
1.5 kW
Average
Average 91.08%
91.08% 92%
92% 1.5kW
1.5 kW
Energies 2018, 11, 2798 19 of 23
Energies 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 24

Figure
Figure 24.
24. Efficiency
Efficiency in
in all
all systems.
systems.

Application
Application ofofthe
theproposed
proposedmodulation
modulation patterns
patterns produced
produced a gain
a gain in efficiency
in efficiency thatnot
that was was not
highly
highly significant
significant (0.91%),(0.91%), but
but it was it was
good enoughgood enoughthe
to reduce to thermal
reduce stress
the thermal stress converters,
of the power of the powerthe
converters, the thermal
thermal behavior behavior
of the whole of theaswhole
system, system,
well as as well as the
the improvement improvement
of the wave shapeofofthe wave
motor shape
currents.
of motor currents.
Finally, a comparative study was carried out with a hybrid DC–DC converter and VSI topology
withFinally, a comparative
silicon IGBTs and SiC study was
diodes. carried
This out with
was done a hybrid
for the DC–DC
purpose converterand
of comparing andvalidating
VSI topology
the
with silicon
efficiency IGBTs these
between and SiC diodes. with
topologies This was done for
frequency the purpose
of operation of 5ofkHz
comparing
for DC–DC,andand
validating
10 kHzthefor
efficiency betweenofthese
VSI. The features topologies
devices used forwith frequency
the hybrid of operation
DC–DC and VSIof 5 kHz forare
topologies DC–DC, and 10
presented kHz for
in Table 8.
VSI. The features of devices used for the hybrid DC–DC and VSI topologies are presented in Table 8.
Table 8. Parameters of simulations.
Table 8. Parameters of simulations.
Parameter Mosfet SiC Parameter Diode SiC
Parameter
Model Mosfet SiC
HGTG30N60BD3 Parameter
Model Diode SiC
C3D10065I
Voltage
Model
CE HGTG30N60BD3
600 V VModel
RRM (V) 650 V
C3D10065I
Current
Voltage CE 15600
A V Q C (nC)
VRRM (V) 650 110
V nC
Power Dissipation 208 W IF (A) 10 A
Current 15 A QC (nC) 110 nC
Operating Junction 150 ◦ C
Power Dissipation 208 W IF (A) 10 A
Operating Junction 150 °C
The comparison between the two topologies in terms of power losses are shown in Table 9 and
Figure
The25.comparison between the two topologies in terms of power losses are shown in Table 9 and
When
Figure 25. obtaining the THD of the currents of the VSI topology (Figure 26) and comparing it with
the previous analysis, it can be seen that the harmonic distortion increases to 2.52%. This causes losses
throughout the system Tableto 9.
increase.
Power losses between SiC topology and Hybrid Topology.
These results justify us that the V-I topology with the CSI inverter of SiC devices presents
All-SiC Topology Hybrid Topology
better responses
Parameterin losses and in harmonic distortion, with respect to the proposed VSI topology for
V-I–CSI DC/DC–VSI
the comparison.
Pconduction Mosfet SiC/IGBTs 44.98 W 134.94 W 64.9 W 194.24 W
Pconduction diodes
Table 9. Power losses between SiC topology and Hybrid Topology. 129.42 W
43.16 W 129.48 W 44.57 W
Pswitching SiC/IGBTs 22.87 W 26.88 W 27.88 W 45.08 W
Pswitching diodes 0.0296 W All-SiC Topology
0.178 W Hybrid
0.0006 W Topology
0.036 W
Parameter
V-I–CSI DC/DC–VSI
Total 402.51 W 506.29 W
Pconduction Mosfet SiC/IGBTs 44.98 W 134.94 W 64.9 W 194.24 W
Pconduction diodes 43.16 W 129.48 W 44.57 W 129.42 W
Pswitching SiC/IGBTs 22.87 W 26.88 W 27.88 W 45.08 W
Pswitching diodes 0.0296 W 0.178 W 0.0006 W 0.036 W
Total 402.51 W 506.29 W
 Energies 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 24

Energies 2018, 11, 2798 20 of 23

Energies 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 24

(a) (b)
Figure 25. Power losses comparison results. (a) Power losses in V-I SiC vs. DC–DC hybrid topologies.
(b) Power losses in CSI SiC vs. VSI hybrid topologies.

(a) (b)
When obtaining the THD of the currents of the VSI topology (Figure 26) and comparing it with
the previous
Figure 25.analysis,
Figure25. Power it can
Powerlosses
losses be seen that
comparison
comparison the (a)
results.
results. harmonic
(a)Power distortion
Powerlosses
lossesininV-I increases
V-ISiC
SiCvs. to 2.52%.
vs.DC–DC
DC–DC This
hybrid causes losses
topologies.
hybrid topologies.
throughout
(b)
(b)Powerthe
Power system
losses
lossesininCSItoSiC
CSI increase.
SiCvs.
vs.VSI
VSIhybrid
hybridtopologies.
topologies.

When obtaining the THD of the currents of the VSI topology (Figure 26) and comparing it with
the previous analysis, it can be seen that the harmonic distortion increases to 2.52%. This causes losses
throughout the system to increase.

(a)

(a)

(b)
Figure 26.
Figure 26. Results
Results in
inVSI
VSItopology.
topology.(a)
(a)Current
Currentofof output
output in in VSI
VSI topology.
topology. (b)(b)
THDTHD spectrum
spectrum result
result for
for 6.76%.
6.76%.

4.5. Heatsink Estimation

These results justify us that the V-I topology )
(bwith the CSI inverter of SiC devices presents better
responses
Figure in losses
26. of
Results and in harmonic
in VSIsystem
topology. distortion,
(a) Current with respect to the proposed VSI topology for the
The use a cooling or heat sink isofimportant
output in VSI topology.
for the (b) THD
operation spectrum
of converter result
topologies.
comparison.
for 6.76%.
Using a simple thermal model for SiC devices, containing a junction and a case before the heatsink,
and assuming that all devices are placed on the same plate, a maximum thermal resistance for the
These results justify us that the V-I topology with the CSI inverter of SiC devices presents better
responses in losses and in harmonic distortion, with respect to the proposed VSI topology for the
comparison.
Energies 2018, 11, 2798 21 of 23

heatsink can be estimated following the method described in [29]. The maximum allowable thermal
resistance for the heatsink is calculated for Expression (24):

Th −Ta
Rthhs = n (24)
∑ Pd,i
i=1

where the Rthhs is the heatsink temperature, Ta is the ambient temperature, and Pd is the power
dissipated by the component. Applying this method gives a heatsink estimate of the heatsink of
0.68 ◦ C/W for the V-I converter, and 0.22 ◦ C/W for the CSI inverter, with an operating temperature of
142 ◦ C and 25 ◦ C of the ambient temperature.

5. Conclusions
This paper presents a method for reducing the total harmonic distortion in the output currents
of a CSI topology, with a V-I power converter based on SiC. The method consists of adjusting the
switching frequency and the phase-shift angle between two carrier signals. The method proposed
shows positive results that allow accurate synchronization between converter topologies. Among the
results obtained, it is observed that the frequency of operation of the CSI has to be higher (double),
that of the V-I, to obtain a reduction of the THD.
In addition, an improvement in the efficiency is observed by varying the phase angle between
PWM carriers of both power converters switching modulators, V-I and CSI. According to the
comparative analysis, the results show that the efficiency increases from 91.08% to 92% by changing
the phase angle from 0◦ to 90◦ of shift angle.
Finally, as a general conclusion, the use of SiC devices in the topologies of inverters with current
sources (CSI) allows for an increase in the frequency of switching, and improvements in their efficiency.
This efficiency could even be increased by a proper adjustment of switching frequencies. These
advantages could translate into a substantial reduction of inverter cost and volume, higher reliability,
greater power, and improved engine efficiency, allowing for the consolidation of these topologies in
electric traction systems.

Author Contributions: E.F. performed the design of method and validation in simulations. A.P. performed and
assisted with the power losses and state-of-the-art methods. V.S. and L.R. contributed to objective definitions and
the revision of the paper’s methodology and conclusions. All authors carried out the theoretical analysis and
contributed to writing the paper.
Funding: This research received no external funding
Acknowledgments: This work was supported in part by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness
under the TRA2016-80472-R Research Project.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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