FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY

CHAPTER I
Introduction to Lie Detection Techniques

A.) Polygraphy Operational Terms

1. Polygraphy– it is the scientific method of detecting deception, using a

polygraph.Polygraphy is the more popular term for Forensic
Psychophysiologyusing the polygraphalso called Polygraph Science a
technique used to determine the stress levels of a person regarding a specific
issue to ascertain whether he/she is deceptive or telling the truth.
2. Polygraph– is an instrument for the recording of changes in blood pressure,
pulse rate, respiration and skin resistance as indication of emotional disturbances
especially of lying when questioned.It is an instrument whereby multiple signals
from the sensors are recorded on a single strip of moving paper. A scientific
instrument that simultaneously records the changes in physiological processes of
the human body, other name for polygraph istruth verifier and lie detector.
The word was derived from two Greek word polymeans“many” and
graphemeans “writing”. Literally means “many writings”.
3. Polygraph Examination – is a form of Psychophysiological Veracity
Examination which involves the examination of a subject using the polygraph that
officially covers the moment the subject enters the polygraph suite until he
leaves. It may, however, include the time when the examiner officially accepted
the case and commenced gathering information from the requesting party.
4. Polygraph Test–is the specific part of the polygraph examination that
transpires from the moment the chart drive (kymograph) is turned on until it is
turned off. It is the actual test whereby the reactions of the subject on a specific
stimulus are being recorded using the polygraph instrument.
5. Polygraph Examiner/Polygraphist – is the expert in polygraph science who
uses polygraph instrument to verify truthfulness of a subject’s statement or
testimony. Other descriptions for the examiner are polygraphist, forensic
psychophysiology's (FP) and polygraph examiner (PE).
6. Detection– it is an act of discovery of existence, presence of fact or something
hidden or obscure.
7. Lie – refers to uttering intentionally false statement, falsehood, anything that
deceives or creates false impression, to make untrue statement knowingly
especially with intent to deceive and to give an erroneous or misleading
impression.
8. Lying– the uttering or conveying of falsehood or creating a false or misleading
information with the intention of affecting wrongfully the acts and opinion of other.
9. Liar– refers to a person who utters intentionally a false statement.
10. Chart or Polygrams– is the polygraph chart tracings obtained from a
subject. It consists of polygraph chart and the tracings (or recorded physiological
responses) of a subject from specific stimuli.
11. Subject– it refers to the person to be (or being) examined, usually a
suspected criminal. The subject is also called examinee.
12. Specific Response – is any deviation from the normal tracing of the subject.
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13. Normal Tracing – is a tracing on the chart wherein the subject answered in
the irrelevant question.

B.) Lie Detection Techniques

1. Forensic Assessment Interview Technique– Allows the interviewer to

assess non-verbal and verbal behavior without the need of attachments to make
the accurate determination of truth or deception.
a. Verbal – are signs of lying observe to a person through the words that
are spoken, speed of delivery of words, choice of words, tone of voice and the
tense of language.
b. Non-Verbal – are signs of lying observe to a person through patterns
of body movements, gestures, facial expressions, body posture, positioning and
movements use to explain chosen words.
2.Polygraphy
3.Word association test (WAT)introduced by Francis Galton in (1879). Is a form
of lie detection whereby he used a list of 75 stimulus words with which he read
and noted his responses to the words had a tendency to remain alike and they
were typically taken from his childhood experiences. A list of stimulus and non-
stimulus words is read to the subject who is instructed to answer as quickly as
possible. The answer to the questions may be a “yes” or a “no”. Unlike the lie
detector, the time interval between the words uttered by the examiner and the
answer of the subject is recorded. When the subject is asked questions with
reference to his name, address, civil status, nationality, etc. Which has no
relation to the subject-matter of the investigation, the tendency is to answer
quickly. But when the questions bear some words which have to do with the
criminal acts the subject allegedly committed, like knife, gun, or hammer which
was used in the killing, the tendency is to delay the answer. The test is not
concerned with the answer, be it a ‘yes” or a “no”. The important factor is the time
of response in relation to stimulus or non-stimulus words. Like the use of the lie
detector, the subject cannot be compelled to be subjected to the test without his
consent.
4.Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE)invented by Allen Bell Jr. andCharles
McQuiston (1972).It begun in United States when Dektor Counter-Intelligence &
Security, Inc. developed an instrument called Psychological Stress Evaluator
(PSE) that can detect emotional stress in a person’s voice.When a person
speaks, there are audible voice frequencies and superimposed on these are the
inaudible frequency modulations which are products of minute oscillation of the
muscles of the voice mechanism. Such oscillations of the muscles micro tremor
occur at the rate of 8 to 14 cycles per second and controlled by the central
nervous system.
When the person is under stress as when he is lying, the micro tremor in
the voice utterance in moderately or completely suppressed. The degree of
suppression caries inversely to the degree of psychological stress in the
speaker.The psychological stress evaluator (PSE) detects, measures, and
graphically displays the voice modulations that we cannot hear. When a person
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
is relaxed and responding honestly to the questions, those inaudible frequencies
are registered clearly on the instrument. But when a person is under stress, as
when he is lying, these frequencies tend to disappear.
Procedure:
The examiner meets the requesting party to determine the specific
purpose of the examination and to begin formulation of relevant questions. A pre-
test interview is conducted with the subject to help him or her feel at ease with
the examiner, to provide an opportunity to specify matters, to eliminate outside
issues, and to review questions that will be asked. An oral test of about 12 to 15
“yes” or “no” questions or given which is recorded on a tape recorder. The
questions are a mixture of relevant and irrelevant questions. Immediately
following the test or at a later time, the tape is processed through the
Psychological Stress Evaluator for analysis of the answers.
If stress is indicated, the subject is given opportunity to provide additional
clarification. A retest is given to verify correction and clarification.
5.Hypnosisfirst introduce by Anton Mesmer.The technique of inducing a person
into a state of consciousness whereby he can respond to questions and is very
susceptible to suggestions.(MS Encarta Reference Library, 2003)
This altered state of consciousness and heightened responsiveness to
suggestion can be used to elicit the truth from a person. However, not all
individuals are susceptible to hypnotic induction. People who are compulsive-
depressive and strong-willed (like lawyers, accountants, and physicians) are
usually non-hypnotizable. (Solis, P. 1987)
Reasons: (why it is not admissible in court)
It lacks the general scientific acceptance of the reliability of hypnosis per
se in ascertaining the truth from falsity. The fear that the Trier of fact will give
uncritical and absolute reliability to a scientific device without consideration of its
flaw in ascertaining veracity.The possibility that the hypnotized subject will
deliberately fabricate.The prospect that the state of heightened suggestibility in
which the hypnotized subject is suspected will produce distortion of the fact
rather than the truth. The state of the mind, skill and professionalism of the
examiner are too subjective to permit admissibility of the expert testimony.
6.Truth Serum invented by Dr. Edward Mandel House.In this lie-detection
method, the term truth serum is a misnomer (a fallacy of description). Giving a
drug to the examinee does not make him tell the truth, thus the chemical
administered is not a serum but is actually a mind-distorting drug. In this method,
common drugs used are hyoscinehydrobromide and scopolamine.The
procedure does not make someone tell the truth and the thing administered is not
serum but actually a drug. When the proper point is reached, the questioning
begins and the subject fells a compulsion to answer the questions truthfully. He
forgets his alibi which he may have built up to cover his guilt. He may give details
of his acts or may even implicate others. The drug acts as depressant in the
nervous system. Clinical evidence indicates the various segments of the brain
particularly the cortex. Statements taken from the subjects while under the
influence of truth serum are evolutionary obtained hence they are not admissible
as evidence.
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7.Narco-AnalysisThis method is similar to the preceding technique. However,
the drugs used in Narcoanalysis (also called Narcosynthesis) aresodium amytal
and sodium pentothal to sedate the subject. When the narcotic effects appear,
questioning starts. The drug causes depression of the inhibitory mechanism of
the brain and the subject talks freely. A psychiatrist with a long experience on this
drug should be only allowed to administer this drug and conduct subsequent
interrogation. The result of this technique is not admissible in court. (Solis, P. 1987)
8.Intoxication with Alcohol can reveal the real character behind the façade of a
person. The apparent stimulation effect of alcohol is really the result of the
control mechanism of the brain. The apparent stimulation effect of alcohol is
really the result of the control mechanism of the brain, so alcohol, like truth serum
and narcoanalysis drugs “inhibit the inhibitor”.
The ability of alcohol to reveal the real person behind the mask which all
of us are said to wear “mask of sanity” is reflected in the age-old maxim, “in vino
veritas”(in wine there is truth).
The person whose statement is to be taken is allowed to take alcoholic
beverages to almost intoxication.Confessions made by the subjects while under
the influence of alcohol may be admissible if he is physically capable to recollect
the facts that he has uttered after the effects of alcohol have disappeared. But in
most instances, the subjects cannot recall everything that he had mentioned or
he may refuse to admit the truth of the statement given.
The knowledge of the truth is an essential requirement for the administration of
criminal justice. The success or failure in making decisions may rest solely on the
ability to evaluate the truth or falsity of the statement given by the suspects or
witness. The task for its determination initially lies on the hand of the investigator.
9.Statement Analysis
10.Voice Stress Analysis (VSA). The Computer Voice Stress Analyzer
(CVSA) manufactured by the National Institute of Truth Verification (NITV) is the
latest in a series of instruments known to detect deception in voice responses.
11. Brain Fingerprintingpatented by Lawrence A. Farwell.The basic principle is
that different regions of the brain light up when people tell the truth or lie, and
further, that different regions are activated depending upon the type of lie. Dr.
Farwell's research, however, looks at a specific type of electrical brain wave,
called P300, which activates when a person sees a familiar object.
12. Functional MR Imaging (fMRI)

C.) Early Methods of Detecting Deception

Ordeal, Trial or Judicium Deiis a common method of deciding guilt or

innocence and a practice of referring questions to the judgment of God,
Determined by Various means, particularly by physical tests.
Ordeal defined a severe test of character or endurance; a trying course
of experience, A medieval form of judicial trial in which the accused was
subjected to various test.
A term of varying meaning closely related in the Medieval Latin“Dei
Indicum” meaning “Miraculous Decision”.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
The Holy Bible contains many events of surviving ordeal because of
God’s Intervention. One of them was Daniel in the lion’s den. In the new
Testaments, this Divine intervention continued, one famous incident was when
the Apostle Paul was bitten by a snake but did not die.
For the first decades of his renewed existence, the Medieval Coroner had
to be present at some curious and barbaric rites connected with the law. These
were the various “ordeals”, a semi-magical method of determining guilt or
innocence which goes right back to pre-historic times through many cultures prior
to the coming of the Anglo-Saxons.
The idea that lying produces physical side-effects has long been claimed.
In West Africa persons suspected of a crime were made to pass a bird's egg to
one another. If a person broke the egg, then he or she was considered guilty,
based on the idea that their nervousness was to blame. In ancient China the
suspect held a handful of rice in his or her mouth during a prosecutor's speech.
Since salivation was believed to cease at times of emotional anxiety, the person
was considered guilty if by the end of that speech the rice was dry.
Throughout Europe the ordeal existed in various forms under the sanction
of law and was closely related to the oath. The most prevalent kinds of ordeal
were those of fire, water, and the wager of battle.

Ayur-Veda “Hindu book of health and science”the earliest known

reference of the methods for detecting deception.Basis of the invention of
polygraph.

1. Red Hot Iron Ordeal

This ordeal is practiced in the hill tribe ofRajhmal in the North Bengal.
a.a.The accused had to carry a bar of red-hot iron in his hands while he
walked nine marked paces. In the unlikely event of no burns appearing on his
hands, he was adjudged innocent. Otherwise, he was promptly hanged.
b.b. The accused placed his tongue to a red hot iron nine times (9) unless
burned sooner. If burned, he is put to death.
2. Ordeal by Balance
This ordeal is practiced in the Institute of Vishnu, India.
a.a.A scale is used, in one end of the scale the accused is placed and in
the other end is a counter balance. The Person will step out of the scale and
listen to a judge to deliver an exhortation on the balance and get back in, if he
was found lighter that before, then he should be acquitted.
3. Ordeal by Water
This ordeal was the usual mode of trial allowed to member of the lower
classes.The water is regarded as symbol of flood in the Old Testament that
washed the sins from the face of the earth. The flood water allowed only the
righteous people to survive. In ancient England, water ordeal was the usual
mode of trial allowed for members of the lower classes.
There are two kinds of ordeal by water and of cold water.
a.) Boiling Water Ordeal– According to the laws of Athelstan the first
king of England.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
a.a. The ordeal of boiling water consisted of lifting a stone out of boiling
water, if the accused was able to lift a stone out of the boiling water he is
considered innocent otherwise he is guilty.
b.b. Used in modern Africa. The method is that the subject will plunged
their right arms into the boiling pot to the elbow and step into other side of the
fire. All are told to undergo the test without a murmur and when all are finished,
they are told to return at the same time the next afternoon. The one who by that
time had lost some or showed blisters would prove the thief. (points out who is
the one who steal among his tribe mates)
c.cPracticed in Asian Countries. The accused was forced to dip his
hands into boiling water or oil and ask to pick up stone in it. If remains unhurt the
he is innocent.
b.) Cold Water Ordeal–The usual mode of trial for witchcraft practiced
in Europe and early United States (17th century).
a.a.In this ordeal, the accused was tied at feet and hands and was
lowered to cold water by rope. This rope is tied around the defendant’s waist and
had a knot a particular distance from the torso. If both knot and accused dipped
beneath the surface of the water, the accused was proven innocent. If the knot is
dry or the water refused to receive him, the defendant was guilty.
b.b.This was the usual mode of trial for witchcraft. It involves a “no-win”
situation just like some other dangerous forms of ordeal. In this ordeal, the
accused was put into a sackthen thrown into an icy pond. If the accused sank
this showed he was innocent, but he might well drown anyway. If he floated, this
was taken proof that he was lying and he would be hanged.
4. Ordeal by Rice Chewing
This ordeal is practiced by Indians.
a.a.It is performed with a kind of rice called “sathee”, prepared with
various incantations(prayers or chants). The person on trial eats the sathee, with
the face to east and then spits upon a pea leaf. If saliva is mixed with blood or
the corner of his mouth swells or he trembles, he is declared to be a liar.
5. Ordeal of the Red Water
The ordeal is also known as “sassy bark” is used in the wide region of Eastern
Africa.
a.a.The accused is made to fast for twelve hours, and then swallows a
small amount of rice. Then he will be imbedded in dark colored water. The water
is actually emetic and if the suspect ejects all rice, he is considered innocent of
the charge. Otherwise, the accused is guilty.
6. Ordeal by Combat
This ordeal originated from India.In England, King Henry III abolished all legal
ordeals except Ordeal by Combat. This ordeal was vividly dramatized in the
movie “Ivanhoe” based on the novel of the same title.
a.a.The aggrieved party claimed the right to fight the alleged offender or
to pay a champion to fight for him. The victor is said to win not by own strength
but because of supernatural powers that had intervened on the side of the right,
as in the duel in the European ages in which the “judgment of God was thought
to determine the winner”. If still alive after the combat, the loser might be hanged
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
or burned for criminal offense or have a hand cut off and property confiscated in
civil actions.
7. Ordeal of the Corsnaed (Ordeal by Blessed Bread)
This ordeal is practiced in China and Alexandria, Egypt.
a.a.A priest puts the corsnaed or hallowed bread into the mouth of the
accused, with various imprecations (prayers). If the accused swallowed it, he was
freed from punishment.
8. Test of the Eucharist
This ordeal is practiced in European Countries.
a.a.This was applied chiefly among the clergies and monks. When they
look the host, it was believed the God would smite the guilty with sickness or
death. Others believe that if the accused is innocent, when given a poisonous
drink for him to take in, Angel Gabriel will descend from heaven to prevent the
accused from taking in the poisonous drink.
9. Ordeal of the Bier
This ordeal is practiced in Australian and European Countries.
a.a.It’s was an ancient belief that the slain dead could point out their killer.
In England, it was customary for the accused approach the bier on which the
corpse lay, in view of the witness, the wounds of the victim were observed to see
if they began to bleed again. They believe that murderer is near, which causes
the blood to flow out from the wound of the victim. This ordeal was recorded well
by Shakespeare in “Richard III”.
b.b. The corpse was brought on a Bier of boughs (trunk of trees) after
which the natives ask the corpse if it has been bewitched. If the victim died by
witchcraft, the corpse supposed to know more and if the sorcerer who killed him
was present, the corpse will touch him.
10. Ordeal of the Needle
This ordeal is practiced in Wanaka, Eastern Africa.
a.a.A red-hot needle was drawn through the lips of the alleged criminal
and if blood flowed from the wound, he was deemed guilty; but if none, he is
innocent.
11. Ordeal by Heat and Fire
This ordeal is practiced in East Germany, Early Scandinavian Countries and
early England.
a.a.The accused walked barefooted over coals of fire.
b.b. Made to walk through fire, if he was unharmed by the fire he was
considered innocent.
12. Trial of the Cross (Test of the Cross Ordeal)
This ordeal is practiced in Europe.
a.a.The accuser and the accused were placed under the cross with their
arms extended or crosswise and the first to move his hands or suffer them to fall
was held guilty.
b.b. The accused was placed before relics and two dice were then
produced, one marked with a cross, of these one taken up at hazard. If it
happened to bear the sign of the cross, the accused was acquitted.
13. Trial of the Waxen Shirt
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
a.a.The accused was dressed in cloth covered with wax and walked
barefooted over coals of fire. If he was unhurt by the fireand the wax did not melt,
he was considered innocent.
14. Hereditary Sieve Method
It was mentioned by Hans Gross, the Father of Criminalistics in his famous book
in criminal investigation.
a.a.Beans were thrown into the sieve as the name of the suspect was
called, mentioned this ordeal. If the beans jump out of the sieve, the owner of the
sieve is innocent. If the beans remained in the sieve the person named is athief.
15. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal
Psychological theory
a.a. The donkey is placed in one room alone and observed it, and if the
donkey cried the accused is guilty of the crime, because deep inside and in his
conscience, he is guilty.
16. Ordeal of the Tiger
Practiced in Siam (Thailand).
a.a. The accused and accuser are place on a cage of a tiger; if the tiger
spare one of them he is considered innocent.
17. Trial by Torture
a.a.The accused was put into a severe physical test.
18. Drinking Ordeal
This ordeal is practiced in Nigeria, Brahamic IndiaandIndia.
a.a.The Accused was given a decoction to drink by the priest, if innocent;
no harm befalls him, but if guilty, will die.
19.Wager of Battle
a.a. Involves a pledge to engage in a battle, especially in order to
establish guilt or innocence by single combat, he will go in a battle in order to
prove his innocence.
20. Crocodile Ordeal
a.a.The accused would cross a river full of crocodiles, if he reached the
other sideunharmed then he deemed innocent.

D.)Other Countries Practicing Ordeal

1. Burma– The (Ordeal by Divination) is being practiced in this country, whereby

it involves two parties being furnished with candles of equal size and lighted
simultaneously; the owner of the candle that outlast the other is adjudged to have
won his cause.
2. Madagascar– Legal authorities practiced trial by ordeal. The supposed
criminal was made to drink a decoction; a poisonous fruit called “tangena”, a
small dose is fatal, by managing to size of the dose, those who administer it can
decide result.
3. Borneo– The accuser and accused were presented shellfish placed on a
plate. Anirritating fluid was then poured on the shellfish and the litigant whose
shellfish moved first was adjudged the winner.
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4. Greece– The (Axe Ordeal) is being practiced in this country. A suspended axe
was spun at the center of a group of suspects. When the axe stopped, whoever
was in the line with the blade as supposed to be guilty out by the divine
providence.
5. Nigeria– aa. The priest “greased a cock’s feather” and pierced the tongue of
the accused, if feather passed through the tongue easily, the accused was
deemed innocent. If not, the accused is guilty. bb. The pouring of corrosive liquid
into the eyes of the accused who was supposed to be unharmedif innocent.cc.
Pouring of boiling oil over the hand of the accused with the usual requisites for
guilt or innocence is also practiced.
In the Middle of the 13th century some of the ordeal had died out in
England and on the other Continents.

CHAPTER II
Scientist and Manufacturers in the Development of Lie Detection
Techniques

In the middle of 19th century Dr. Hans Gross defined “search for truth” as
a basis and goal of all criminal investigation. He stated, a large of the criminal
work is nothing more than a battle against lies.
Throughout the centuries, man sustained to experiment with more
scientific methods in determining truth and deception with the following scientists
having contributed much in the development of polygraph.
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A.) Development of Polygraph

A. Angelo Mosso(1895) (student of Cesare Lombroso) – He stated that

fear influenced the heart and could be used as a basis for detecting deception.
He uses “Sphygmanometer” and scientific radio to study fear, there is however,
no evidence that mosso ever put this into practice.
He developed the mechanical device known as the “Scientific Cradle”
often called “Mosso’s Cradle”. The device was nothing more than a balanced
table-like platform, mounted on a fulcrum.

B. Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909) - An Italian scientist, employed the

first scientific instrument to detect deception known as Hydrosphymograph, this
instrument measures changes in pulse and blood pressure when suspects were
questioned about their involvement of a specific offense. He modified the
plethysmograph thus inventing a more modern device called
hydrosphygmograph.
He was accorded the distinction of being the first person to utilize a
scientific instrument successfully in the detection of deception.

C. William Moulton Marston(1915) (Father of Lie Detection) –He dealt

with the Sphygmomanometer and made researches on the usefulness of
Sphygmomanometer in detecting lies, which was used to obtain periodic
discontinuous blood pressure readings during the course of an examination
He recorded the respiration and noted the time of subject’s verbal
responses.
He also experimented with galvanometer to record skin resistance
changes and a gripping device to record tension.
He was the first to use polygraph in espionage case in 1917-1918.

D. Dr. John A. Larson(1921) (Father of Polygraphy) - He device an

instrument that records both blood-pressure and galvanic skin response. He
introduced this machine to the University of California and first applied in law
enforcement work by the Berkeley Police Department under its nationally
renowned Police Chief August Vollmer.
He designed the first two recording channel polygraph in the history. The
first mechanical form of the present day polygraph consists of two recording
components and that is the cardiosphymograph and the pneumograph.

E. Leonarde Keeler(1926)(Father of the Modern Polygraphy) - He

improves Larson’s Apparatus and in 1949 he invented the “Keeler Polygraph”.
He also designed a metal bellows and a kymograph that pulled at a constant
speed, a chart paper under the recording pens from a roll of chart paper located
inside the instrument.
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F. John E. Reid (1945) - He designed a special chair equipped with
metal bellows for recording unobserved muscular activities of the arms, thighs
and feet, located on the arm of the chair and on the seat, this transmit singular
muscular activity to the recording polygraph.
He introduced the first recording channel instrument to be developed.
This instrument is excellent for detecting deceptions because it does not only
have a recording pen for cardiosphymograph, pneumograph and galvanograph
but also it has the muscular movement pen for the arms and thighs.

G. Vittorio Benussi(1914)–He successfully detected deception with a

Pneumograph, an instrument that graphically measures an examinee’s
inhalation and exhalation,Benussi thus demonstrated that changes in breathing
patterns accompany deception.

H. Harold Burtt(1918) - He determined that respiratory changes were

indication of deception. He found out that changes in systolic blood pressure
were of greater value in determining deception than in changes in respiration.

I. Luigi Galvani(1791)- He is Italian physiologist who was accorded the

distinction for developing the galvanic skin reflex (GSR) or the galvanometer,
which records electric bodily changes by measuring changes in person’s skin
resistance to electricity in terms of ohms (the lowest current ever recorded).

J. Jacques-ArseneD’arsonval – Declared that electricity is generated by

the body and named external friction as source of generation. He assorted those
sweat glands which the body at times store the electricity and at other times
discharged them.

K. Fere (1888) – He discovered that electro dermal response is caused

by an increase in the action of the heart and vital energy converted with human
emotions. He asserted that human body has the ability to generate store,
discharged high voltage of static electricity.

L. Harold Sticker(1897) – He introduced the method of detecting

deception from the galvanic impression on the chart tracing.
M. Otto Veraguth(1926) – He was the first to use the word
“psychogalvanic reflex”. He believed that electrical phenomena are due to the
activity of sweat glands, and such activity is known as “psychogalvanic”.

N. Francis Franke – He invented “plethysmograph” which was used to

reveal periodic undulations (waves) in blood pressure caused by the breathing
cycle. (This instrument was used by Mosso to measure changes in pulse and
blood pressure.)

B.) Development of Questioning Technique

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A. Leonarde Keeler (1942) – He developed the “relevant-irrelevant”
test. The theory of this test is that guilty reacts only to relevant questions and
innocent shows no reactions.
Keeler is also credited with introducing the “card test” and specialized in
the “peak of tension test”.

B. John E. Reid(1950) - He developed the “reviewed control question”

consisting of a known lie incorporated in to relevant – irrelevant test. The theory
of the test is to stimulate the innocent subject, to identify the general nervous
tension and guilt complex reactor and to improve contract between innocent and
guilty subjects. He also discovered the “Guilt-Complex Test” administered to
the overly responsive subject.This question became known as the Reid Control
Question Technique (RCQT) represented a major breakthrough in polygraph
technique.

C. Cleve Backster(1947)(Bornon 27 February 1924 at Lafayette, New

Jersey) - In the late 1950s, he disassembled and remounted the Stoelting
instrument into a Samsonite luggage case thus introducing the first suitcase style
polygraph.Backster conceived the psychological set theory. Psychological set
postulates that an individual being asked a series of questions will mentally focus
on those questions that have the greatest salience, because they pose the
greatest interest or immediate threat to his general well-being at the point in time.
This forms the basis of his zone of comparison technique that provides constant
monitoring of the subject’s reactivity and designed to disclose outside issue. This
is known as the “Backster’s Zone Comparison Test”.

D. Thomas Hayes Jaycox – He conducted a “name test” which he

described as a group of names of men who might have committed the crime to a
suspect who gave little or no apparent response except to one name at which his
blood pressure and respiration became abnormal.

E. Ronald E. Decker- the head of the Army Polygraph School who

initiated the modification of the Reid Polygraph Technique and called it the
Modified General Question Test (MGQT).
F. Professor James Allan Matte(1977) –He developed the
PolygraphQuadri-Zone Comparison Technique (renamed in January 1995 as
Quadri-Track Zone Comparison Technique - QTZCT). QTZCT was a modification
of BZCT because it provided a fourth Track or Spot for quantification designed to
recover response energy lost by the other tracks/spots as a result of “inside
issue” factors, which Matte identified as “Fear of Error” by the innocent, and
“Hope of Error” by the guilty.
In the same year, he developed the Suspicion-Knowledge-Guilt (SKG)
test to provide the Polygraphist with a single test capable of identifying the
examinee(s) that has major involvement, some direct involvement, or guilty
knowledge, yet containing similar controls to that found in the QTZCT. At that
time, S-K-Y Test did not yet contain any earlier-in-life control questions.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY

G. Paul K. Minor (1980) – He is the Chief Polygraph Examiner of the

FBI, who modified in the R/I technique to include control questions of measured
relevance to the target issue but not designed to cause an arousal. This latest
modification of the R/I technique is known as Modified Relevant-Irrelevant
(MRI) Technique.

H. Nathan J. Gordon, William M. Waid, and Philip M. Cochetti (1987)

– They modified the BCZT to include two Backster exclusive control questions
and one Reid non-exclusive control question for comparison with three relevant
questions which, at the option of the Polygraphist, may be combined with
Irrelevant Questions. A symptomatic question, a sacrifice relevant question, and
a countermeasure question are also included in this format, which they named as
Integrated Zone Comparison Technique (IZCT).

C.) Early Publication and Laboratory on Lie Detection

A. Sir James Mackenzie(1906)–A famous heart specialist. It was said

that"polygraph" was used by him 1906 in his invention the "ink polygraph which
appeared in the British Medical Journal in 1908," which was used for medical
reasons. This early polygraph had accurate clockwork that drives paper ribbon
with time markers at one-fifth of a second
Makenzie wrote a second paper on the concept in 1915, when finishing
his undergraduate studies. He entered Harvard Law School and graduated in
1918, re-publishing his earlier work in 1917.According to their son, Marston's
wife, Elizabeth Holloway Marston, was also involved in the development of the
systolic blood-pressure test, it was his mother Elizabeth, Marston’s wife, who
suggested to him that 'When she got mad or excited, her blood pressure seemed
to climb (Lamb, 2001).Although Elizabeth is not listed as Marston’s collaborator in his
early work (Lamb &Matte (1996), and others refer directly and indirectly to Elizabeth’s
work on her husband’s deception research. She also appears in a picture taken
in his polygraph laboratory in the 1920s (reproduced in Marston, 1938)."The
comic book character, Wonder Woman by William Marston (and influenced by
Elizabeth Marston carries a magic lasso which was modelled upon the systolic
blood-pressure test.

B. Vittorio Benussi(1913) – He presented a paper before the second

meeting of the Italian society for psychology in Rome on the subject of his
experiments regarding respiratory symptoms of lying.

C. Richard O. Archer(1953) - The first polygraphist to record

simultaneously on regular basis the chest and abdominal breathing patterns.
He was also the first on to record simultaneously two galvanic skin reflexes.
In 1966, he founded the Journal of Polygraph Science, the oldest of the
polygraph publications.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
He appeared to be the first Polygraphist in 1970 to use what is known as
the Mode of Answer technique in which an examinee repeats a word from the
question before answering “NO”.

D. Richard I. Golden(1969) - He presented a paper at the Annual

Seminar of American Polygraph Association at Houston, Texas Regarding his
experiments using existing control question techniques but requiring the subjects
to answer each question twice. The first time truthfully and the second time with
lie, for the purpose or requiring additional psycho-physiological data from the
examinee by comparing his subjective truthful answer with a known lie to the
same question.

E. William Stern(1902) (Father of Statement Analysis) - Wrote an article

“Die Aussagepsychologie” (The Witness Psychology) hypothesizing that
person’s statement depends on the cognitive ability of the person as well as on
the interviewing process used to obtain the statement.

F. Daniel Defoe (1730) - wrote an essay suggesting that taking the pulse
is a practical and more humane method of determining a liar.
In relation to this, “GestaRomanorum” a book published in 1906, stated
that during the middle Ages, a nobleman tested the fidelity of his wife by taking
her pulse

G. Cesare Lombroso(1895)- published the 2nd edition of

L’HommeCriminel where he explained how he used plethysmograph and
sphygmograph during the interrogation of criminal suspects.

H. Wilhelm Wundt(1879) - He founded the first Psychological

Laboratory in Leipzig, Germany whereby he immediately attracted students from
all over the world. He modified Galton’s association method to an almost
standardized form.

I. Fred E. Inbau(1942) - He wrote a book entitled“Lie Detection and

Criminal Interrogation”that explained the “peak of tension test” in describing
the methodology for the administration of a guilty knowledge test where the
subject has not been informed of the essential details of the case such as the
object stolen, the amount of money missing, or the implement used in the
commission of the crime.

J. Dr. William J. Yankee (1968) – He presented a report of the

Computerization of Polygraphic Recordings to the Keeler Polygraph Institute
Alumni Association’s fifth annual seminar in Chicago. Yankee explained the
basics of scientific research and a method of quantifying those variables affecting
the polygraphic recordings as a means of computerizing the polygraph system.

D.) Other Pioneers in the Field of Deception Detection

 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY

A. Francis Galton(1879) - He developed the much acclaimed

psychological test known as the “Word Association Test”, whereby the patient
is presented with group of words sufficiently separated in time to allow the patient
to utter his first thought generated by each word. Dr. Carl Guztav Jung later
developed the work and experiment of Galton.

B. Paul Wilhelm and Donald Burns(1951) – Invented an electronic

psychometric using electrodermal response as a basis for lie detection. Both
have proven that results of lie detection test (during) using their instrumental 95%
accurate.

C.Chester W. Darrow(1930) – He devised a research “photo

polygraph” which records several responses simultaneously, which are;
a. Electro dermal response
b. blood pressure
c. heart beat frequency
d. time between verbal stimuli and verbal response
e. signal marks
f. involuntary tremors of one hand
g. breathing amplitude and frequency
h. voluntary movement of the hand

D.Erasistratus– Greek physician (300 B.C.) had successfully noted the

frequency of heartbeat, upon application of some stimuli related to the question
at hand.

E. Galileo (1581) – Devised a gadget called “Pulsilogium” instrument

used to measure heartbeat frequency. He did not use device for lie detection
purpose.

F. Dr. Charles E. Cady– He recommended the use of chloroform to solve

Lincoln’s assassination including the identification of the plotters.
Based on his three years of experience as army surgeon, he had
observed rebel officers divulge important information while they were partially
under the influence of chloroform.

G. Hugo Munsterberg(1908) – A German-American psychologist and

philosopher who introduced in United States the first forensic application of WAT
in lie detection and further suggested possibilities in detecting deception by
recording physiological changes.

H. Arthur Macdonald(1908) - an acquaintance of Lombroso who

appeared before the US congressional hearing proposing the creation of a
federal laboratory to study criminals and suggested the use of an apparatus
containing all of the elements of a modern polygraph
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I. Christian Ruckmick(1936)– He repudiated the term psychogalvanic

reflex because such reaction is not a reflex, explained that the psychological
nature of the so-called psychogalvanic reflex is not completely understood, thus
he proposed the term electrodermal response and probably the first to conduct
legitimate laboratory study (1938) involving a Peak-of-Tension (POT) test
resembling the current format.

J. Otto Lowenstein(1920) – a German psychiatrist who introduced an

apparatus that has two pneumographs which could record simultaneously the
movement of each foot, each hand, and the head in all three dimension; this
instrument was huge, impractical and difficult to maintain in working order, but it
was considered a true polygraph.

K.Akamatsu, Uchida and Togawa(1933) –they are Japanese

psychologists who suggested the use of electrodermal activity (EDA) for
deception detection because the conductance level was found to decrease
during emotional changes.

L. Alexander R. Luria – a Russian psychologist who modified the word

association technique that was introduced by Galton so that it is suitable in the
Russian setting.

M. Father Walter G. Summers – He developed the pathometer, which

measured apparent changes in skin resistance to electricity; he used control
questions, which he called emotional standards, carefully selected from the
suspect’s life in an attempt to evoke intense pychogalvanic reactions to surprise,
anger, shame or anxiety such as ‘Are you living with your wife?’ or ‘Were you
ever arrested?’.

N. C.W. Darrow (1930)–He developed the Darrow Behavior Research

Photopolygraph (manufactured by C.H. Stoelting Company in Chicago, Illinois)

O. FBI Special Agent E.P. Coffey – The first FBI polygraphist (FP) and
probably the first examiner in the US Federal Government; he established the
first federal polygraph research program. (The 1st FBI use of polygraph in
espionage was in 1938)

P. Captain Clarence D. Lee (1938) – He designed the Berkeley

Psychograph consisting of a chart drive or recording unit, a pneumograph or
respiration unit, a cardiograph or pulse-blood pressure unit, and a stimulus signal
unit.

E.) Manufacturer in the Field of Deception Detection

 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
A. Stoelting Company (Based at Chicago, Illinois) – They introduced in
1955 the Deceptograph model cat.no. 22500 – a polygraph that contained
vacuum tubes in its amplifier, which required significant warm-up time before use
(30 minutes). The deceptograph contained 3 recording channels for cardio,
pneumo and GSR.
The Stoelting Company also introduced in 1966 the Emotional Stress
Monitor (ESM) cat. no. 22600 which was a 3-pen polygraph instrument. The most
important innovation in this model was the replacement of the vacuum tubes.
In 1968, it introduced a 4-pen ESM consisting of double pneumograph
which recorded simultaneously the thoracic and abdominal breathing patterns, in
addition to the GSR and the cardiograph. This new instrument provided a
kymograph, which recorded tracings an 8-inch chart. This was considered a
major improvement in instrumentation by professional polygraphists.

B. Biometrics Inc. (Based at Waltham, Massachusetts) (1969)–They

developed a cardio activity monitor (CAM) designed to obtain from the wrist or
thumb the same recording and chart patter obtained with the conventional
sphygmograph using the cardio medical cuff normally placed against the brachial
artery at the inside upper arm.

C. Dektor Counter-Intelligence & Security, Inc. (Based in Savannah,

Georgia) (1971) –They developed a device for the detection of emotional stress
in a person’s voice; this device was called Psychological Stress Evaluator
(PSE) which was used extensively in both the public and private sector in US.

D. Lafayette Instrument Company (1973) – They initiated the electronic

trend in polygraph instrumentation when it introduced the electronic cardio
component.

E. National Institute of Truth Verification (NITV) – (Based in West

Palm Beach, Florida) (1980) - produced in the late 1980s what they termed as
Computer Voice Stress Analyzer (CVSA) The CVSA is marketed as a convenient
replacement for the polygraph.
In the early 1990’s, PSE began to be supplanted by the CVSA. Like the
PSE, the CVSA analyzes micro-tremors in a person’s voice. However, unlike
PSE the CVSA provides real-time graphical outputs or charts that examiners can
score or numerically evaluate.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY

CHAPTER III
Types of Liars, Lies and Signs of Lying

Children and those who suffer from autism cannot lie, Children cannot lie,
but as they acquire language, they learn to co-operate with others and learn
about deception, in order to survive in society. Lying has an unquestionable
value in human culture, for the ability to deceive one’s peers has evolved into
one of the most advanced and powerful of our cerebral functions. It is a power
that helps us succeed in love, war and commerce.

A.) Types of Liar

1. Panic Liar – a person who lies in order to avoid the consequences of

confession. He or she is afraid of embarrassment to love ones and is a serious
blow to his or her ego.
2. Occupational Liar – a person who has lied for years. This Person is a
practical liar and lies when it has a higher payoff than telling truth.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
3. Tournament Liar – a person who loves to lie and is excited by the challenge
of not being detected. He views as another contest and wants to win. He lies
because it is the only weapon remaining with which to fight. This person realizes
that he or she will probably be convinced but will not give anyone the satisfaction
of hearing him or her confess. He wants people to believe that the law is
punishing an innocent person.
4. Ethnological Liar – a person who was trained not to be a squealer. This
person loves to be interrogated and has taken a creed either personal or with
others, that he or she will never reveal the truth, the creed of underworld gangs.
5. Psychopathic Liar – this type of liar has no conscience. He shows no regret
for his dishonest actions and no manifestation of guilt. This is the most difficult
type of liar because he is good actor he can fool most investigator.
6. Pathological Liar – a person who cannot distinguished what is right from
wrong. These are those people who are mentally sick.
7. Black Liar – a person who always pretends and a hypocrite.

B.) Types of Lies

1. Direct Denial - This Is Direct Denial of The Act in Question That Creates an
Emotional Sense of Disturbance. This disturbance refers to the conflict between
what is true and the attempted deception that creates an internal battle in the
mind. Example; “I didn’t do it”. The vague response permits the person to evade
inner conflict while seeming to answer the question. The reply given to a query
must be evaluated in terms of what asked to know if the answer is proper.
2. Lie of Omission - This type of lie that people usually used because it is
simple to tell. Individuals who will make use of this type of lie will tell the truth
while omitting details that could create possible troubles.
3. Lie of Fabrication – This is the most difficult type of lie that a subject could
use in an interview.
4. Lie of Minimization - This type of lie, individual will accept that something has
occurred/but downplays the implication. Lie of minimization could be used if a
subject wanted to stay close to the truth’ however he covers the truth for his or
her own benefit.
5. Lie of Exaggeration - This is a lie often used to exaggerate things for the
hope of obtaining some advantages. This is also often found on resume, where
applicant exaggerates his or her experiences, knowledge, skills, salary and
length of service. The exaggerated claims can be verified by looking for
inconsistencies of the subject story.

C.) Other Forms or Types of Lie

1. Bald-Faced Lie - A bald-faced (or barefaced) is a lie that is told when it is

obvious to all concerned that is it a lie. Example: a child who has chocolate all
over his face and denies that he has eaten the last piece of chocolate cake.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
2. Lie-to-Children - is a lie often a platitude that may use euphemism that is told
to make an adult subject acceptable to children. A common example is “The
stork brought you”.
3. Benign or White Lie - A white lie would cause no discord if it were uncovered
and offers some benefit to the liar, the hearer, or both. White lies are often used
to avoid offense, such as telling someone that you think that their new outfit looks
good when you actually think that it is a horrible excuse for an outfit. The lie is
told to avoid the harmful implications and realistic implications of the truth.
4. Noble Lie - A noble lie is one that would normally cause discord it if were
uncovered, but that offers some benefit to the liar and perhaps assist in an
orderly society and thus potentially gives some benefit to others also. It is often
told to maintain law, order and safety. A noble lie usually has the effect of helping
an elite maintain power.
5. Emergency Lie - An emergency lie is a strategic lie told when the truth may
not be told because, for example, harm to a third party would come of it.
Example: a neighbor might lie to an engaged husband about the whereabouts of
his unfaithful wife, because said husband might reasonably be expected to inflict
physical injury to his husband.
6. Perjury - It is the act of lying or making verifiably false statements on a
material matter under oath or affirmation in a court of law or in any of various
sworn statements in writing.
Perjury is a crime because the witness has sworn to tell the truth and, for the
credibility of the court, witness testimony must be relied on an being truthful.
7. Bluffing - Pretending to have capability or intention one doesn’t. Bluffing is an
act of deception that is not usually seen as immoral because it takes place in the
context of a game where this kind of deception is consented to in advance by the
players.
8. Misleading - A misleading statement is one where there isn’t an outright lie,
but still has the purpose of making someone believe in an untruth. Dissembling,
A polite term for lying, though some might consider it to refer to being merely
misleading.
9. Jocose Lie - Are lies that are meant in jest and are usually understood as
such by all present parties. Sarcasm can be an example. Storytelling traditions
that are present in some places, where the humor comes from the storyteller’s
insistence that he or she is telling that absolute truth despite all evidence to the
contrary.
10. Promotion Lies - Advertisements often contain statements that are not
credible, such as “we are always happy to give a refund.”
11. Belief Systems - It is alleged that some belief systems may find lying to be
justified.
Example: Religious lies
12. Red Lie - This is common to communist countries. This lie is used to destroy
other ideologies by means of propaganda.
13. Malicious Lie- A chronic lie purely used to mislead justice, a pure dishonesty
to obstruct justice.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
14. Bad Faith – It is lying to oneself. Specifically, it is failing to acknowledge
one’s own ability to act and determine one’s possibilities, falling back on the
determinations of the various historical and current totals which have produced
one as if they relieved one of one’s freedom to do so.
15. Big Lie – It attempts to trick the victim into believing something major which
will likely be contradicted by some information the victim already possesses, or
by their common sense. When the lie is of sufficient magnitude it may succeed,
due to the victim’s reluctance to believe that an untruth on such a grand scale
would indeed be concocted.
16. Bullshit – It does not necessarily have to complete fabrication; with only
basic knowledge about a topic, bullshit is often used to make the audience
believe that one knows far more about the topic by feigning total certainty or
making probable predictions. It may also merely be “filler” or nonsense that, by
virtue of its style or wording, gives the impression that it actually means
something.
17. Butler Lie – It describes small or innate lies which are usually sent
electronically, and are used to terminate conversations or to save face. For
example sending an SMS to someone reading “I have to go, the waiter is her”,
when you are not at a restaurant.
18. Half-Truth – It is deceptive statement that includes some element of truth.
The statement might be partly true, the statement may be totally true but only
part of the whole truth, or it may utilize some deceptive element, such as
improper punctuation, or double meaning, especially if the intent is to deceive,
evade, blame or misrepresent the truth.
19. Haystack Answer – It is volume of false or irrelevant information, possibly
containing a true fact (the needle in the “haystack”). Even if the truth is included,
it is difficult or impossible to detect and identify.
20. Honest Lie or Confabulation – It is characterized by verbal statements or
actions that inaccurately describe history, background and present situations.
There is typically no intent to deceive and the individual is unaware that their
information is false.
21. Lying through your Teeth – This is when one lies face-to-face with the
intended recipient. This also may be an expression describing the act of lying
with a smile or other patronizing tone or body language.
22. Polite Lie – It is a lie that a politeness standard requires, and which is usually
known to be untrue by both parties. Whether such lies are acceptable is heavily
dependent on culture. A common polite lie in international etiquette is to decline
invitations because of “scheduling difficulties”.
23. Puffery – It is an exaggerated claim typically found in advertising and
publicity announcements, such as “the highest quality at the lowest price”, or
“Noynoy para sa tuwid na daan”.
24. View from Nowhere – It refers to journalism and analysis that misinform the
audience by creating the impression that opposing parties to an issue have equal
correctness and validity, even when the truth of their claims are mutually
exclusive.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
25. Augustine’s Taxonomy of Lies - Lies in religious teaching, Lies that harm
others and help no one, Lies that harm others and help someone, Lies told for
the pleasure of lying, Lies told “please others in smooth discourse”, Lies that
harm no one and that help someone, Lies that harm no one and that save
someone’s life, Lies that harm no one and that save someone’s purity.

C.) Signs of Lying

1. Verbal Clues

A. Methods of Responding to the Question–in general truthful people tend to

be direct; untruthful tend to be cautious about their answer.
B. Length of Time Before Giving Response– In general, truthful persons
answer questions immediately after the question is asked; untruthful persons
take their time in giving a response
C. Repetition of Questions– The question may be repeated word for word, or
the respondent may frame the answer with a request to repeat the question.
D. Fragmented or Incomplete Sentences – Untruthful person often speak in
disjointed or curtailed sentences. Statement such as I…..Think ……. It seems to
me…….. if I recall correctly…….
E. Being Overly Polite– The Suspect Who Has Been Accused and Is Lying Will
Often Say, sir, ma’aam, boss or chief.
F. Oaths–lying persons will frequently utter oaths, such as “I swear to God I
didn’t do it” or “I swear on my Father grave”.
G. Clarity of Response– honest people tend be very clear in their answers,
while untruthful persons tend to speak softly and broaden their answers.
H. Use of Words– As General Rule, Truthful subjects have no trouble denying
the allegation is precise terms, while untruthful one will have problems with the
use of words.
I. Assertiveness–Truthful persons are confident about their innocence, and
deceitful ones are not confident unless they are practiced liars.
J. Inconsistences– Contradicting testimonies made by witness are one of the
best indications of dishonesty; liars get caught up in their own web of deceit.
K. Slip of the Tongue– Liars, as “Freud” discovered, quite often slip up and
divulge them through a “slip of the tongue.
L. Pauses– “Ekman” says gap in speech patterns may be one reliable clue to
deception.
M. Speed of Speech– Persons who are tense or upset frequently increase the
swiftness of their speech, words tend to run together and the conversation can
be fragmented.
N. Tirades – a long and angry speech.

2. Non-Verbal Clues

A. Emblems– Emblems are often performed deliberately, these are expressions

made with the body, whose meanings are clearly understood.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
B. Manipulators – These are usual of touching one’s self. Manipulators
encompass grooming the hair, wringing the hands, picking imaginary fur from a
coat.
C. Breathing– Many persons, under prolonged periods of stress, hyperventilate.
An increase in breathing rate or volume may be a sign of deception.
D. Sweating– This is another uncontrollable body function. Perspiration occurs
with heat as well as with emotion.
E. Frequent Swallowing– A dry mouth frequently accompanies deep emotion.
F. Facial Muscles– Other muscles are not easy to control but people can control
certain facial muscles with spirit.
G. Eyes– The eyes most likely express as much emotion as any other part of the
anatomy. Blinking, Pupil dilation, and tears are some of the signs indicative of
emotion in the eyes.
H. Face– People believe that lies will commonly show up in the face and eyes.
Reddening or blushing of the face is supposed to be a sign of embarrassment
and cannot be controlled.
The polygraph is used to test or question individuals for the purpose of detecting
deception or verifying truth of statements through a visual, permanent and
simultaneous recording of a person’s cardiovascular and respiratory pattern as a
minimum instrumentation requirement.

CHAPTER IV
The Polygraph and Attachment of Major Components

A polygraph (commonly referred to as a lie detector) is an instrument that

measures and records several physiological responses. This instrument does not
detect lies. It can only detect whether deceptive behavior is being displayed.
The instrument is carefully and accurately engineered for recording
changes in the blood pressure, pulse, respiration and skin conductivity while the
subject is asked and answers a series of questions, on the basis that false
answers will produce distinctive measurements. The polygraph chart tracing will
reveal attempted deception as shown by physiological changes that are recorded
reliably. The polygraph measures physiological changes caused by the
sympathetic nervous system during questioning.
Today, polygraph examiners use two types of instrumentation: analog
and computerized. In the United States, most examiners now use computerized
instrumentation.

A.) Functions and Major Parts of the Polygraph

1. Cardio-Sphygmograph (Red) - records the changes of blood pressure and

pulse rate. It is consisting of arm cuff. The arm cuff is place around the subject’s
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
arm with the covered rubber bladder part centered at the brachial artery about an
inch above the elbow and must be inflated by a pump bulb to put air into the
system, which recorded in a sphygmomanometer in millimeters of mercury
(generally 60-80 mm). After inflation, the arm cuff becomes so susceptible to
monitor changes of blood pressure as well as pulse rate and amplitude to be
sending out to the recording bellow and be recorded by the cardio pen on the
chart.
*Cardio Section:
a. Pump Bulb Assembly
b. Blood Pressure Pump Connection
c. Blood Pressure Cuff Assembly
d. Connector Block
e. Sphygmomanometer Pipe Line

2. Pneumograph(Blue) - component of the polygraph records the subject's

respiratory rate. One tube is placed around the subject's chest and a second is
placed around his or her abdomen. These tubes are filled with air or contains
certain of volume of air. When the subject breaths, changes in the air pressure
in the tubes are recorded on the polygraph.
*Pneumograph Section:
a. Rubber Jellows
b. Beaded Chain
c. Rubber Flexible Tubing
d. Pneumograph Tube Connection
e. Pneumograph Connecting Tube
f. Pneumograph Distributing Ink
g. Pneumograph Pipe Line
h. Vent Valve and Vent Bottom
i. Tambour Assembly
j. Sphygmomanometer
k. Resonance Control

3. Galvanograph(Green) - section records the amount of perspiration produced.

It consists of electrical sensors called galvanometers that are attached to the
subject's fingertips. The skin of the fingertips contains a high density of sweat
glands, making them a good location to measure perspiration. The GSR
(Galvanic Skin Reflex) comprise of finger or palm electrodes that is attached on
the subject’s finger primarily the index and ring finger or palm to check and detect
skin resistance towards a small amount of electricity, to operate the
galvanometer supply a current and the mechanical movement of a seven(7)
inches recording pen will take place.
*Galvanograph Section:
a. Hand Electrode
b. Electrode Bellow
c. Galvanometer
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
4. Kymograph - is sometimes referred as a chart drive module. This is motor
that pulls or drive the chart paper under the recording pen at the same time at the
rate of six (6) to twelve (12) inches per minute. A chart roll is about 100 feet
long, 6 inches width with ½ inch margin apart. Paper is imprinted with
horizontal line spaced and ¼ inch interval (20 division) and vertical lines at 1/10
inch interval with heavy line ½ inch interval. Each ½ inch division across the
paper signifies five seconds of time. Pulse rate per minute may then be
calculated by multiplying the number of beats counted in one division by 12.
*Kymograph or chart driving mechanism:
a. Chart Roll Arbor
b. Idler Roller
c. Pen Table
d. Paper Guides
e. Sprocket Roller
f. Cutter Bar
g. Off and On Power Switch
h. Synchronous Motor
*Pen and Inking System:
a. Capillary Pen
b. Ink Well Plates
c. Ink Dropper
d. Duct Bill

B.) Other Parts of Polygraph

1. Pen Lifter– raises or lowers pens to 3 positions.

2. Program Pacer– a programmable cueing device for question and answer
spacing.
3. Paper Tear Bar – provides cutting edge for convenient removal of charts.
4. Foam Pen Hold-Down– keeps pens in place when instrument is being
transported.
5. Attache Compartment– storage for all forms and supplies. Slightly smaller in
executive Ultra Scribe.
6. Accesory Storage & Optional Calibration Checking Fixture– slightly
smaller in executive ultra-facilitates set-up and storage.
7. Subject Connection– stylish grouping provides neat, professional
appearance. Facilitates set-up and storage.
8. Mechanical Pneumo Module– recording part of Mechanical Pneumo
Channel.
9. Galvanic Skin Response Module - recording part of GSR channel.
10. Multi-Function Module– Selectable recording module. Can be used as;
a. Electronic Pneumo Channel
b. Electronic Cardio Channel
c. Cardio Activity Monitor (CAM)
d. Cardio Tech, or other Accessories
11. Mechanical Cardio Module– recording part of mechanical Cardio Module.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
12. Paper Storage Compartment– holds two spare rolls of chart paper or other
supplies.
13. Ac Power Receptacle– power cords connect here; international standard
design for easy cord replacement.
14. Power Switch and Circuit Breaker– applies power to instrument, Built-in
resettable circuit breaker protects instrument and eliminates need for fuses. To
re-set, simply press “off” and then “on” again.
15. Chart Drive Roller Lever – lifts chart drive roller for paper changes and chart
removal.
16. Power Analyzer– automatically indicates whether wall outlets are properly
wired and grounded for proper instrument operation and subject safety.
17. Stimulus Marker – marks significant events on the charts.
18. Sphygmomanometer Dial – reads operating pressure of cardio channels.
19. Pneumo 2 (Blue)– pneumatic connection for upper (thoracic) pneumograph.
Not connected in instrument with only one pneumo Channel.
20. Pneumo 1 (Silver) – pneumatic connection for lower (abdominal)
pneumograph.
21. Cuff– pneumatic connection for Cardio Channel subject cuff tubing.
22. Pump– pneumatic connection for hand pump used to inflate subject cuff.
23. Mechanical Cardio Switch– disengages mechanical cardio module from
pneumatic system for low pressure electronic cardio operation.

C. Attachment of the Major Components of Polygraph

A polygraph is in fact several instruments combined to simultaneously
record changes in blood pressure, pulse, respiration and skin resistance. The
electrical conductivity of the skin’s surface can also be measured through the
increasing sweat gland activity that reduces the skin’s ability to carry electrical
current.
The pneumograph tube is fastened around the subject’s torso and belly.
The blood pressure cuff is place on the right arm in such a way that the rubber
bladder part should be located over the brachial artery. The electrodes or
galvanic skin reflex (GSR) is attached on the index finger and ring of the left hand
of the subject. Position the subject in a manner that he looks straight ahead with
the instrument and the examiner to the right side or rear somewhat ahead of the
kymograph or chart drive so that the polygraph tracings will not distract him.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY

CHAPTER V
The Examiner and Examination Proper

Within the U.S. federal government, a polygraph examination is also

referred to as a Psychophysiological Detection of Deception (PDD)
examination. Several other technologies are also used in the field of lie detection,
but the polygraph is the most famous.

I.) Examiner

A. The Polygraph Examiner

Is one who skilled and capable to detect deception or verify truth of
statement through instrumentation or the use of mechanical devise. The
instrument or devise utilized to detect deception or verify truthfulness of the
statements must meet the basic instrumentation requirement of being capable of
recording simultaneously on a moving chart the physiological responses.
The Following are qualifications and qualities expected of a polygraph
examiner are;
1. He must remember that he is an impartial seeker of truth. Conducts
examination in a professional and ethical manner, and never allow his personal
feelings, sympathies, or prejudice influence the results of the examination.
2. He constantly bears in mind his primary obligation to his subjects is to afford
them all possible safeguards against error and must not accept any subjects
whose physical or mental health or state makes him unfit.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
3. Technically, he must have a complete knowledge of the instrument and its
capabilities and limitations, the most modern polygraph technique, proficiency in
the conduct of the polygraph examination, test construction and chart
interpretation.
4. Morally, he must have a sincere desire to be a polygraph examiner in its
strictest sense, by devoting himself to the polygraph profession
throughmaintenance of a high personal integrity and increasing personal
proficiency through constant study and research.

B. Responsibilities of Polygraph Examiner to His Subject

In conducting polygraph examination, the examiner should be reminded
of his responsibilities to his subject.
1. The polygraph examiner recognizes the fact that his primary responsibility
must be to the person who has voluntary submitted him to a polygraph
examination.
2. He should never conduct examination on person without first the appraisal of
the subject’s constitutional rights, rights against self-incrimination.
3. He should never perform examination to any person unless the instrument he
is going to utilize is in good working condition and makes a continuous
permanent recording on a moving chart of at least two physiological tracings.
4. He should never render a certain or conclusive verbal or written opinion based
on the chart analysis without having administered at least two or more charts.
5. He should not suggest testimony concerning the charts or conclusions
presented by another examiner unless he is methodically familiar with the
technique and procedures employed.

C. Responsibilities of the Investigator to the Examiner

In asking polygraph assistance, the investigator must always confer first
with the examiner on the requirement for the test, selection and fitness of subject,
and appropriate schedule for the test. The following should guide the investigator
in asking assistance for polygraph examination.
1. He must not wait until the last minute, after all investigative methods and
techniques have failed, and the test should never be used as a last resort;
2. He must not fail to investigate the case as a last resort.
3. He should not depend on the mass screening of possible suspects to produce
the guilty party except when no reasonable amount of investigation had produce
a likely suspect or materially narrowed down the number of possible suspect;
4. Not to stop investigation if polygraph examination is deferred or temporarily
delayed;
5. He must not ask the test to bolster the evidence submitted to the court. This is
a display of doubt as to his investigative findings of guilt on the part of the
accused. Such doubt always builds up to the benefit of an accused, and in
numerous instances, the opinion of the examiner is accepted by the court in favor
of the defense rather for the prosecution;
6. He must not use polygraph as a props, ruse or trickery to secure confession or
for the evaluation of the mental and physical state of the suspect; and
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
7. He should not tell anyone that the polygraph would decide whether the subject
or suspect is innocent or guilty. The court makes the decision.
8. He must not think that investigation is over if the test indicated that the subject
lied or confessed. Evidence and testimonies should be gathered to prove the
facts of the offense and the allegation against the subject.

D. Responsibilities of Investigators to the Subject

In asking a person involved in a criminal case under investigation to take
polygraph test, the investigator should;
1. Be knowledgeable about the polygraph so that he can talk openly and freely to
the person about the test. The subject may know very little or may have been
misinformed about it;
2. Not to divulge details of an offense which may be utilized in application of a
peak of tension test;
3. Recommended the test as a means for the subject to indicate his truthfulness.
4. Stress the test’s capacity for indicating through the recorded response whether
a person is telling the truth;
5. Guarantee the subject that the examiner is qualified and impartial to all
persons involved in the case; and
6. Avoid any claim for the instrument or examiner that is not backed up by fact.

II.) Examination Proper

A.)The Examination Room or Polygraph Suite

1. It must be private and free from all outside noise and detracting influences.
2. Adequately lighted and well ventilated with an even comfortable temperature.
3. Devoid of pictures, paintings, decors or other ornaments.
4. Preferably sound-proof (90%)
5. Without any furniture other than a polygraph desk, Subjects chair with arm rest
and an examiner’s stool.
7. With one-way mirror and remote sound system for monitoring the test
proceedings to an authorized audience. (Lawyer or Investigator)

B.)Selection of Test Subject

1. Permanent physical illness such as mental derangement, addiction to
narcotic drugs,a person who is being forced to do so, a person who suffers from
a serious heart condition, a person who suffers from a severe nervous condition,
a person who suffers from a severe respiratory illness and a quadriplegic
(paralysis on both arms and legs).
2. Temporary illnessconditions such as sickness, injury, pain, physical
discomfort, external physical or mental fatigue, colds, coughs, fever, allergies,
and influences of sedatives and liquor are causes for deferment of the test until
such time that the subjects regainhis ordinary physical condition, a pregnant
women, unless he has obtained prior written permission from a physician to do
so.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
Note:Treatment of the subjects before being asked to make or while awaiting
test affects the success of the examination.
Note:Prolonged interrogation with constant accusation directed against the
subjects may condition him to react falsely to the test, or may result to a flat
emotionless chart.
Note:A person’s daily habit should not be upset more than necessary. Long
delay should be avoided.

III.) Phases of Polygraph Examination

AA.)Phase I - Initial Interview with the Investigator Handling the Case

Test question are formulated by the polygraph examiner based from
information obtained from the investigator. General facts, theories and suspicions
are not enough basis for a polygraph test. Question formulation depends greatly
upon detailed and accurate information regarding all the available facts.
The investigator on case should personally inform the examiner of such
facts as:
1. Unpublicized facts of the offense known only to the victim, the investigator and
the offender.
Specific articles or exact amounts of money stolen.
2. Exact time and place the offense occurred.
3. Peculiar aspects of the offense or any strange or obscene acts committed at
the scene.
4. Known facts about a suspect’s action or movements immediately preceding of
after the incidents.
5. Facts indicating a connection between suspects, victims and witnesses,
especially when they deny any connection.
6. Exact type of firearm, weapon or tool used.
7. Results of laboratory test if any.
8. Background information particularly previous police records or verifies facts
which subjects denies.

BB.)Phase II - Pre-Test Interview

Before the actual testing is done, the examiner must first make an
informal interview of the subject which may last from 20 to 30 minutes to
condition the subject psychologically for the test, to apprisethe subject of his
constitutional rights, a written consent which must be freely and voluntary given
is taken.
Purpose of the Pre-Test Interview;
1. To determine whether the subject has any medical or psychiatric condition or
has used drugs that will prevent the testing.
3. To explain to the subject the purpose of the examination.
4. To develop the test questions, particularly those of the types to be asked.
5. To relieve the truthful subject of any apprehension as well as to satisfy the
deceptive subject as to the efficiency of the technique.
6. To know any anti-social activity or criminal record of the subject.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
Rights of the Subject;
1. To be examined by a qualified examiner
2. To be determined if fit for examination
3. To be informed of the reason for the lie detector test
4. To have an explanation of the lie detector machine and what it does
5. To give consent to the lie detector test
6. Not to be compelled to undergo prolonged questioning
7. Not to be expose to oral criticism or abuse
8. Not to be exposed to physical, mental or psychological abuse, and
9. To refuse to submit to the lie detector test

CC.) Phase III – The Conduct of Instrumentation or Actual Test

Questions are formulated from the information given by the investigators,
from declaration of witnesses or the subject himself, from records, interviews and
from other factual in nature. Questions in the same exam must be related to one
another. If distinctly separate issues must be covered, they must be asked in a
separate examination. Personal and disturbing questions have no place in a
properly conducted polygraph examination. There are general and specific rules
to be followed in the formulation of the test questions. The questions to be
formulated must;
1. Short
2. Simple and Direct
3. Beanswerable by either ‘Yes” or “No” only
4. Phrased in the language easily understood by the subjects
5. The questions must be clear and must have reference to only one
element of an offense of fact.
6. Not involve legal terminologies like murder, rape, etc.
7. Not be in the form of an accusation
8. Not contain influence to one’s religion, race or belief
9. Never contain an inference that presupposes knowledge on the part of
the subject

a.a. Types of Question

1. Irrelevant Question- These are questions which have no bearing to the case
under investigation.The question may refer to the subject’s age, educational
attainment, marital status, citizenship, occupation, etc.The examiner asks these
types of questions to ascertain the subject’s normal pattern of response by
eliminating the feeling of apprehension.
2. RelevantQuestion - These are questions pertaining to the issue under
investigation. They must be unambiguous, unequivocal and understandable to
the subject.They must be related to one issue or one criminal act.It is equally
important to limit the number of relevant questions to avoid discomfort to the
subject.
a. Strong Relevant or Primary or Crucial Question – These questions
are intended and created to test for direct participation only and specifically
designed to produce and emotional response in guilty subject.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
b. Weak Relevant or Secondary Question – These are questions
concern in several secondary aspects of the crime or problem and often deal with
guilty knowledge and partial involvement.
3. Control Question- These are questions which are unrelated to the matter
under investigation but are of similar nature although less serious as compared
to those relevant questions under investigation.
a. Primary Control Question – is based on known lie. It must concern
about actions that transpired within three (3) to five (5) years’ time prior to case
under investigation occurred. Example: Before turning the age of 15, have you
ever rape a goat?
b. Secondary Control Question – is more precise in nature and is
based on another experience of unlawful activity, which will improve the chance
for responsiveness. It range covers up to the current period. The question for
responsiveness must not be connected to the case under investigation.
4. Evidence Connection Question – This is intended to arouse the guilty
subject and focus his attention on the probability of incriminating proof that would
tend to establish his guilt. In formulating the question, the examiner must know
from the investigator whether or not pieces of evidences were collected from the
scene of the crime. Example: Was the evidence found at the scene of the crime
yours?
5. Knowledge Question – This question is intended to discover whether the
subject possesses information regarding the identity of the offender, or as to the
location of the evidence or other secondary elements of the facts of the case
under investigation. Example: Did you know who committed the crime?
6. Sacrifice or DYAT Question – This is intended to obtain responses usually
produced by the introduction of the first relevant question in the sequence. These
divulge the subject’s norm plus stimulus and excitement stage. Example:
Regarding the stealing incident, do you intend to answer all of these questions
truthfully?
7. Symptomatic or Introductory Question – These questions are intended to
identify and assess the occurrence of the outside issues that might restrain
subject’s responses to the relevant question. An outside factor in a case, which
he is concerned, but not the issue under investigation. Example: Do you
understand that i will only ask you questions we discussed?
8. SKY Question – These are three groups question place as one by Backster
and they are intended to verify the previous charts and detect indirect
participation or guilty knowledge. The “S” stands for “suspect”, the “K” stands for
“know”, and “Y” stands for “you”. Example: Do you know who stole the money of
Pedro?

b.b. Test Construction Applied are of Two Main Types.

1. General Peak Tension Test- The general question test consist of a series of
relevant and irrelevant questioned asked in a planned order.
Example:
Have you ever been called by the name Fred? (Irrelevant)
Is today Friday? (Irrelevant)
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
Do you have anything to do with the robbery at Goodwill Grocery last night?
(Relevant)
Did you robbed the Goodwill Grocery last night? (Relevant)
Are you over twenty years of age? (Irrelevant)
Do you know is any of the fingerprints found at goodwill Grocery is yours?
(Relevant)
Do you drink water? (Irrelevant)
Do you know of anyone involved in the robbery of Goodwill Grocery last night?
(Relevant)
2. Peak of Tension Test
This valid test is only made when there is no widespread publicity about the
crime.
Example:
Do you know whether the stolen watch from Fred is Boluva?
It is an Elgin?
Is it a Colorado?
Is it a Rolex?

c.c.There are Three Basic Approaches to the Polygraph Test:

1. The Control Question Test (CQT) - This test compares the physiological
response to relevant questions about the crime with the response to questions
relating to possible prior misdeeds. "This test is often used to determine whether
certain criminal suspects should be prosecuted or classified as uninvolved in the
crime" (American Psychological Association).
2. The Directed Lie Test (DLT) - This test tries to detect lying by comparing
physiological responses when the subject is told to deliberately lie to responses
when they tell the truth.
3. The Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT) - This test compares physiological
responses to multiple-choice type questions about the crime, one choice of which
contains information only the crime investigators and the criminal would know
about.
Objectives;
1. Ascertain if a person is telling the truth by verifying statement and/or
comparing conflicting statements.
2. Obtain additional investigative leads to the facts of an offense.
3. Locate fruits or roots of crime or whereabouts of wanted persons.
4. Identify other persons involved.
5. Obtain valuable information from reluctant witnesses.
6. Most important is the elimination of innocent suspects.

D.) Polygraph Technique

1. Concealed Information Test- It has the best theoretical foundation and

validation research.It serves as an important tool in the post test
interrogation.Useful in circumstances where the CQT may produce less than
optimal results.The foundation of CIT is the orienting response/reflex theory.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
(O’Gorman, 1979; Siddle, Kyriacou, Heron, & Mathews, 1979; Sokolov, 1963,1966; Verschure, Crombez, De Clerq, &
Koster,2004)
When a person is involved in a significant event, a memory of that event
is created. If presented with information that is important because it is linked to
the memory of the event, his or her body will have an orienting response to the
key. Because an innocent person does not have a memory of that event.

Guidelines in Conducting CIT

a.a. Educating Crime Scene Investigators
1. Investigators must be taught with the CIT techniques during their
professional training, it should be included as part of their investigative practices.
2. Investigators should be exposed on all aspects and approaches of CIT,
from theory to applications.
b.b. Gathering Information
Early involvement of the examiner for the investigation helps secure critical
information and ensures that information is not to be released to anyone but
those individuals responsible for working the investigation.
- ocular/visit of the crime scene
- early participation in the investigation
cc. Constructing CIT’s
Each CIT include one key item.Non key item is always placed as the first
item in the sequence.Key item is randomly placed in the sequence after the first
non-key item.Key Item must be something that the perpetrator is most likely to
have paid attention to, and to be able to recall during the test.
Example:
If you killed Mary Smith, you know the object that was used to strike her. Repeat
after me these object.
Non Critical Item : Steam Iron
Non Critical Item : Table Lamp
Key Item : Stone book end
Non Critical Item : Wine Bottle
Non Critical Item : Tire Jack
Non Critical Item : Hammer

Pre Test Practices

Subject is informed that she or he will be undergoing a knowledge-based
examination, and that it is necessary to determine whether the topic to be tested
is known to the examinee. The Polygraphist should also collect and inform the
following;
1. Overview of the entire process of the CIT
2. Securing of forms, waivers, medical background.
3. Examinee is asked to write everything they know about the incident; and
4. The examinee is reassured that the knowledge of the information does not
mean that they have committed the crime, and that there are instances when
others involved in the investigation leak information (investigator, victim, witness,
media, etc).
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
Note:It should be stated that the goal of the examiner is to conduct a fair
examination and to eliminate any potentially corrupted data) to ensure that key
information was concealed from a possible innocent examinee.Verbal review of
the written statement to written statement to confirm the concealment of the key
information.Examinee must verbally commit to the information as their only
knowledge about the crime.Explanation of the procedure or
instrumentationPractice examination is conducted to acclimate the examinee of
the instrumentation, the examiner voice, and ensure that the examinee can
properly follow the movement and answering instruction.Examinee is instructed
to answer each question by repeating the alternative ending.

2.) Acquaintance Test- Examinee is instructed to answer each question by

repeating the alternative ending.
a.a. Example A:
*Examiner: Regarding the color of your shirt today, is it blue?
*Subject: Blue
Reviewing the Question
1.To ensure that the examinee understands all of the questions and how to
pronounce it.
2. To identify any problematic items, and
3. To verify that the examiner does not know the key stimulus from the control
stimuli in the test.
Before each test, review the general question that is to be asked, and
inform the examinee to repeat the alternative ending.

b.b. Example B:
*Examiner: Regarding where the house was entered, was it at the ___?and
you don’t know the correct answer to that question, do you?
Note:If NO proceed with the test.
Note:If YES, document the information
Only the Question is reviewed

c.c. Example C:
1. Key items are presented only once.
2. Read each item with same voice inflection
Scoring Rules(Lykken Scoring)Ranking of EDA responses computed from 2 to
0.
1. If the largest EDA response takes place on the key item, the score is 2.
2. If the second largest EDA response takes place on the key items, the score is
1.
3. All others are scored 0.
Note:Reactions to the first buffer is ignored.
Decision Rules
Note:Decisions are based on the total score
RI = equal to the number of CITs
NRI = score lower than the total number of CITs
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
NO = no reaction to any of the CITs
Strengths
1. The most scientifically supportable techniques.
2. Scoring methods allows the examiner to calculate the precise likelihood of a
false positive error.
3. Less intrusive than the CQT.
4. Easy to set up, conduct and score.
5. Can be used in emotionally charge case where the CQT might fail.
6. Conducted either visually or aurally.
Limitations
1. It is designed only to determine whether the examinee knows certain
information about the crime.
2. Cannot be used in circumstances where the examinee might legitimately have
knowledge of potential key items. (Victims or Witness)
3. Development of key items - educate the investigators in the necessity to
withhold information from the public in general, and from the potential suspects in
particulars.

3.) Demonstration Test

a.a. Purpose:
1. To familiarize the examinee with the testing procedures.
2. To provide a glimpse of the examinee’s normal physiological pattern.
3. To set the instrument proper gains and centering.
4. To test for examinee cooperation or countermeasure.
5. To reassure the innocent, and focus the guilty.
6. For practice in conducting and interpreting Peak of Tension test.
7. To look for evidence of drugs, such a very unresponsive tracings or unusual
tonic physiological levels.
b.b. General Rules
1. There should be no trickery involved, nor the appearance of trickery.
2. If demonstration test are used, they should be given to all examinees, and
conducted as the first chart.
3. Do not use responses on demonstration test as template for response patterns
of typical examinee.
4. A Demonstration Test must have a proper pre-test and posttest.
5. The examiner should not manipulates the tracing.
6. Sometimes emphasis on reactions on the DT may give feedback to an
examinee using a countermeasure.
c.c. Kinds of Demonstration Test
1.1Calibration and Verification of Sensitivity (CVOS)
Procedure:
i.Advise the examinee that you are going to run a special test to calibrate the
instrument to him.
ii.Reassure that the test is easy and review all the questions to him.
iii.The 1stquestion is neutral questions for which the truth is known, such as
examinee’s name or other verified detail that is not emotionally evocative.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
iv.The 2nd question is another neutral question for which the truth is known, such
as the location of the examination.
v.On the 3rd question advise the examinee that you will ask a simple math
question for the purpose of confirming that he can process information. Tell the
examinee to figure out the answer, to tell it to you.
vi.Do not reveal what the math question is. Ensure the difficulty of the math
question.
Example: “How much is 6 times 6, minus 11?”
vii.For the 4th question, tell the examinee you will ask: “Have you taken any drugs
or medication today?”
viii.For the 5th question, tell the examinee you will ask: “Regarding this test, do
you intend to answer each question truthfully?”
ix.When the question review is complete, have the examinee prepare for the test.

2.2Fail-Proof Blind Numbers Test

Procedure:
i.Ask the examinee to select a number between 2 and 6, and write it on a sheet
of paper.
ii.Tell the examine to fold up the paper and place it under a leg or arm.
iii.Advise the examinee; I’m going to give you a test on the number you just
wrote down. I want you to answer “no”to all of them including the number you
pick.
iv.Begin the testing, gives the preparatory statement. “Regarding the number you
wrote down was it the number ____?” read the numbers in order. Continue the
next sequenceTry to determine what the number was.
v.Conduct mixed test, the first number should be the least likely, and the second
should also be unlikely. The third number should be the most likely, followed by
number one as the fourth number; the fifth number should be the second guess.
Finish with the last number.
vi.For the third test, advised the examinee to answertruthfully to the question. If
the truthful answer is no, answer no to the question and if the answer is yes, say
yes. Ask the examinee if he/she understand the instruction.
vii.Ask the examinee of your first guess. If correct, turn off the polygraph.
Comment is optional.
viii. If the first choice is incorrect, the next number should be the number 1, read
all the numbers, and then read last your second choice. Then turn off the
polygraph. Comment is optional.
ix.If neither choice was correct, turn off the polygraph at the end of the test. Do
not comment on the test at that point.
x.You can truthfully advice the examinee about the readability of the test if he is
interested at the end of the polygraph test.

3.3True Blue Control Test- Before the test, draw a large red “1” on one card, a
large blue “2” on one card, a large “3” with the top of the number red and the
bottom half is blue on one card, a large blue “4’ on one card, A red “5” on one
card and a large “6” that is ¾ blue and ¼ red.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
Advise the examinee that you are going to verify that the charts look
differently when the examinee tells a lie and tells the truth. State that if there are
no difference between his lies and truthfulness on the charts, there is no reason
to continue the examination.
Procedure:
i.Before the test begins, hold up the first card, and ask the examinee what is the
color of number 1, continue the procedure trough the remaining cards.
ii.Advise the examinee that when the red number is shown, he should lie, when
the blue number is shown, he should answer truthfully.
iii.Advise the examinee that when the mixed –color 3 is shown, he will be ask if
the “3” is blue. He should answer yes, and therefore he will be telling a half lie.
iv.Advise the examinee that when the mixed question “6” is shown, he will be
asked if and the “6” is red. He should answer no, and therefore he will be telling a
small lie.
v.Conduct the test with the cards in order of 1 to 6.
vi.Discuss the test with the examinee when it is completed. Emphasizing that you
now have a recording of responses when the examinee is completely truthful,
when he is telling full, half and small lies.

E.)Validated Techniques and Scoring Models for PDD Test Data Analysis
American Polygraph Association New Standard of Practice
1. Mandatory use of a motion sensor for all examination.
2. Obligatory polygraph instrument functionality test recorded semi-annually.
3. General requirement for using only validated technique.
4. Criteria for the admissibility of particular technique in specific type of
examinations, evidentiary, paired testing, investigation, and screening.
5. Test format that conforms to valid principles relating to: target selection,
question formulations, and in-test presentation of the stimulus questions.
a.a. Validated methods for Test Data Analysis(PDD validated techniques)
1. Federal Zone Comparison Test (FZCT)
2. Utah Zone Comparison Test (UZCT)(PLC/DLC)
3. Air force Modified General Question Test (AFMGQT)
4. DLST
5. Backster You- Phase
6. Concealed Information Test (CIT)
7. Integrated Zone Comparison Test (IZCT)
8. MQTZCT
b.b. Seven (7)Position U.S. Federal Government Scoring System
1. Utah Scoring System (USS) - Introduced by David Raskin (1970) simplified
version of the numerical scoring system techniques introduced by Backster in
1963 and modified by the US Army in 1970. Uses a 7 position scale numerical
scoring relevant question is normally compared to the preceding comparison
question If the preceding CQ is distorted by an artefact, use the closest artefact
free CQ for evaluation. Scores are assigned in each channel without reference to
scores in the other channels.
-Positive (+) scores are assigned when the reaction to a CQ is stronger.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
-Negative (-) scores are assigned when the reaction to a RQ is stronger.
-A zero is assigned if there is no difference between CQ and RQ
0 = No Difference
+/-1 = Noticeable difference
+/-2 = Strong and clear difference
+/-3 = Dramatic difference, stable tracing &strongest on the chart
2. Empirical Scoring System (ESS)- Introduced in 2008 by R. Nelson, M.
Handler and D. Krapohl, Derived from experiment and observation rather than
theory. Simple, least complicated
Use five diagnostic features;
Respiration
1. decrease in amplitude for 3 cycles
2. decrease in rate for 3 cycles
3. temporary increase in baseline
EDA
4. amplitude
Cardio
5. amplitude

Respiratory Features (X1)

EDA (X2)
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
Cardio (X1)

*ESS Rules
1. Assign 3- position scores to each component, using the bigger is better Rule
on the stronger bracketing CQ for each component.
- If you can see it, point to it, and argue it is BIGGER, then you can score
it.Score all EDA with +/-2
2. Score only timely reactions.
- Don’t score reactions that begin before the stimulus onset/latency long after the
answer
3. Don’t score ugly, unstable, and artifacted data.
- Leave blank, mark “A” or “/” or score zero (0). Use three position scores (+/-)
Weights are applied regardless of the magnitude of difference in
responseexample; even tiny difference in EDA are scored +/-2
3. Lykken Scoring System (LSS)- Introduced by David Lykken (1959-1960) use
for CIT/GKT.
Entails the ranking of the electro dermal response amplitude from 2 to 0, if the
largest EDR takes place on the key item, the score for the test is 2, if the largest
EDR takes place on the key item, the score is 1, all others are scored 0.
Reactions to the first buffer are ignored. The cut off for the result of RI (reaction
indicated) is equal to the number of CIT subtest.
4. Backster Scoring System - complex, with high rate of false-positive errors.
5. U.S. Army Military Police School Polygraph Branch (1970)- simplified the
criteria and rules of Backster method and uses up to 27 physiological features.
6. University of Utah Scoring System- reduce the number of physiological
features from twenty seven(27) to ten(10) and assessment of reaction is based
on principles of psychophysiology.
7. Emperical Scoring System- base on Bigger is better scoring principle.

i. Test Data Analysis- The systematic process by which a particular set of

decision is applied to the evaluation of diagnostic features and other
physiological data resulting in one of the three outcome decisions.
a. Deception Indicated or Reaction Indicated (DI/RI/SR)
b. No Deception Indicated or No Reaction Indicated (NDI/NRI/NSR)
c. Inconclusive or No Reaction (INC/NR/NO)
ii. Types of TDA
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
1. Global Test Data Analysis - A system of rendering an opinion by viewing the
polygraph chart as a whole as opposed to making a systematic comparison
among questions.
- Use in relevant/irrelevant technique, peak of tension test and Reid’s GQT.
2. Numerical Test Data Analysis - A systematic assignment of numerical values
to physiological responses, and decision rules that are based on the sum of
those numerical values.
- Used in ZCT, MGQT
a. Seven-Point Scale
+3 = Maximum Truthful Score
+2 = Truthful Score
+1 = Minimum Truthful Score
0
1 = Minimum Deception Score
2 = Deception Score
3 = Maximum Deception Score
b. Three-Point Scale
+1 = if the reaction to the CQ is stronger
0
-1 = if the reaction to the RQ is stronger
iii. Four (4)Major Standardized TDA Methods
1. Lykken Scoring
2. Us Federal Government Scoring System
3. University of Utah Scoring System
4. Empirical Scoring System

E.) Scoring
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
Respiration is scored first, to note any artefacts that may affect other channel
(DB’s, MVT’s and SNF).
Reactions are indicated by reduction in respiratory activity
1. decrease in amplitude
2. elevated baseline
3. apnea (blocking)
4. slowing of rate
Respiratory Features

-Reaction cannot begin before .5 seconds after question onset

-Amplitude measured from onset to peak
-If reaction started early, measure from point of inflection
-Use caution when evaluating reaction that occur during recovery
+/-1 = amplitude is double or 1.5 plus duration or complexity
+/-2 = amplitude is triple or 1.5 plus duration or complexity
+/-3 = amplitude is quadruple, tracing is stable and largest on chart

Electrodermal Features
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY

-Rise in tracing, usually clearer on diastolic side

Duration
+/-1 = ratio of 1.5 to 1
+/-2 = ratio of 2 to 1
+/-3 = ratio of 3 to 1
-Only one 3 scores per chart and it has to be the largest reaction on the chart

Cardio Features

Decision Criteria
1. Single Issue = grand total is +/- 6
NDI = grand total of +6 or greater
DI = grand total of -6 or less
INC = scores between -5 and +5
Note:if INC, conduct additional two chart and cutting score of +/- 6 remains the
same for 5 charts.
2. Multiple-Faceted= if/then
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
1. Used in examinations where the subject may be truthful to some but not to
all the RQ.
2. If spot totals are al positive or all negative,
Then, use the +/-6 grand total rule.
3. If any of the spot totals are opposite, some positive and some negative
(ignoring scores of 0),
Then, use a SPOT SCORE RULE (SSR) for each spot.
Spot Score Rule
NDI = +3 or greater at every spot
DI = -3 0r less at any spot
Examinees fail the test not on individual questions

A. Zone Comparison Test

Total score of more than +2 (ignore spot) = NSR/NDI
Total score less than -4 = SR/DI
If INC, then any spot less than -7 = SR/DI
B. BI Zone/You Phase
Total is more than +2 (ignore spot) = NSR/NDI
Total of less than -4 = SR/DI
If INC, then any spot less than -6 = SR/DI
C. MGQT and DLST
if any subtotal is less than -3 = SR
when all subtotal is more than +1 = NSR
other result = INC
D. US Federal Government Scoring System (Oldest) -A modification of the
Backster Scoring SystemOriginally based on 22 diagnostic features
(USAMPS).In 2006, DoDPI made changes in physiological features (kept 8 main
features and introduced 3 auxiliary features Variation of U.S. Federal Govt. TDA
7 position Scale,7 position evidentiary and3 position scale.
a.a. Respiration – Reaction begins from the start of question to one full cycle
after the answer for at least 3cycles.
Pneumograph Diagnostic Features
- suppression (decrease in amplitude)
- apnea
- change in inhalation/exhalation ratio
- progressive decrease in amplitude
- slowing of rate
- temporary change in baseline( secondary)
b.b. Electrodermal- Reaction begins from the stimulus on et to the answer up to
return to baseline.
EDA Diagnostic Features
- amplitude (main feature)
- complexity
- duration
Note:Complexity and duration is taken into account only when both compared
EDA amplitudes are similar
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
c.c. Cardio- Start of reaction is from stimulus onset to the end of the answer.
Range of reaction is from start to return to baseline.
Cardio Diagnostic Features
- increase of baseline (main feature)
- decrease in pulse rate(if main feature does not occur)
- duration (auxiliary)
Note: When compared changes of baseline are equal

3. General Guidelines
a.a. Seven (7) Position Scale:
0 = no response to compare
+/-1 = subtle difference
+/-2 = definite difference
+/-3 = dramatic difference

b.b. Pneumograph
+/- 1 = usual score
+/- 2 = rare score
+/- 3 = never
In case of two equivalent diagnostic features, measure the time window of
longer reaction and then compare the length line (RLL) in the same time window
of reaction.
Respiration Line Length- refers to the linear measurement of a waveform over
a specified period of time
1. apnea blocking
2. decrease in Amplitude
3. progressive decrease in amplitude
4. decrease in cyclic rate
5. inhalation/exhalation (i/e) ratio change
c.c. Electrodermal
+/- 1 = if ratio is not more than 3:1
+/- 2 = if ratio is 3:1
+/- 3 = if ratio is more than 4:1
If there is no reaction to one of the compared questions, apply the rule
regarding quantity of chart division;
+/- 1 = up to 2 division
+/- 2 = from 2 to 3 division
+/- 3 = more than 3 division
d.d. Cardio
+/- 1 = up to 2 times greater increase in baseline
+/- 2 = from 2 to 3 times greater reaction
+/- 3 = at least 3 times greater reaction
If there is no reaction to one of the compared questions, apply the rule
regarding quantity of chart division;
+/-1 = up to 2 division
+/-2 = from 2 to 3 division
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
+/-3 = more than 3 division

4. Cut off Score

a.a. Zone Comparison Technique
DI = if grand total is less than -6 or any subtotal less than -3
NDI = if every subtotal is more than +1 and grand total more than
+6
INC = other results
b.b. You Phase (BI-Zone)
DI = when grand total is less than -4 or any subtotal less than -3
NDI = if all subtotal is greater than +1 and grand total is more
than +4
INC = other result
c.c. UTAH Probable Lie Test (UPLT)- The first polygraph technique developed
by psychologists who explicitly incorporated basic knowledge and principles from
psychological science and psychophysiology into the pre-test interview,
questions structure, recording methods and evaluation methods (Handler and Nelson,
2009),with high reliability and validity. (Ad Hoc Committee on Polygraph Techniques, 2011;Kraphol,
2006)
1.1. Uses of UPLT
1. Single Issue Test
-Introductory (Naniniwalakabanawalaakongitatanongnahindinareview?)
-Sacrifice Relevant (Tungkolsanakawansa GSPPC noongAbril 23, 2016,
sasagutinmobaangbawattanongngkatotohanan?)
-Irrelevant 1 (Nakaupokabangayon?)
-Comparison 1 (Bagosumapitang 2016,
kumuhakabanganumanbagaynghindinagpapaalamsa may ari?)
-Relevant 1 (primary) (Ikawbaangnagnakawsa GSPPC noongAbril 23, 2016?)
-Irrelevant 2 (NatawagkanabasapangalannaMando?)
-Comparison 2 (Noongnagaaralkasakolehiyo,
nandayakabasataongnagtitiwalasaiyo?)
-Relevant 2 (primary) (NoongAbril 23, 2016, ninakawanmobaang GSPPC?)
-Irrelevant 3 (Ngayonba ay arawngMartes?)
-Comparison 3 (Bagokanagkaedadng 28 taon,
nagsinungalingkabaparamakaiwassaginawa mong mali?)
-Relevant 3 (primary)
(Ikawbaangnagnakawngalinmansanawalangmahalaganggamitsa GSPPC
noongAbril 23, 2016?
2. Multi-Facet Test
-Introductory
(Naiintindihanmobanawalaakongitatanongnahindinatinnapagusapan?)
-Sacrifice Relevant (TungkolsapagkakapataykayMagno,
sasagutinmobaangbawattanongngkatotohanan?)
-Irrelevant 1 (Nakaupokabangayon?)
-Comparison 1 (Bagoangtaong 2016,
nakagawakanabangkahitanumannapagkakamali?)
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
-Relevant 1 (primary) (IkawbaangsumaksakkayMagnonoongMarso 2016?)
-Irrelevant 2 (NatawagkanabasapangalannaHudas?)
-Comparison 2 (Satanangbuhaymo, nagsinungalingkanabasaisangkaibigan?)
-Relevant 2 (secondary) (KasabwatkabasapananaksakkayMagno?)
-Irrelevant 3 (KasabwatkabasapananaksakkayMagno?)
-Comparison 3 (Nagsinungalingkanabaparamakaiwassaginawa mong mali?)
-Relevant 3 (secondary) (KilalamobaangsumaksakkayMagno?)
3. Mixed Issue Test
-Introductory (Naniniwalakabanawalaakongitatanongnahindinareview?)
-Sacrifice Relevant (Tungkolsagagawainna test,
sasagutinmobaangbawattanongngkatotohanan?)
-Irrelevant 1 (Ngayonba ay arawngMartes?)
-Comparison 1(Noon nagaaralkasakolehiyo,
nagsinungalingkabaparasangpansarili mong interes?)
-Relevant 1 (issue 1) (Gumamitkanabangbawalnagamot?)
-Irrelevant 2 (Nakaupokabangayon?)
-Comparison 2 (Sapagitanngedadna 23 at 28,
nagsinugalingkabasataongnagtitiwalasaiyo?)
-Relevant 2 (issue 2) (Ikawba ay meyembrongalinmangruponasangkotsagawain
illegal?)
-Irrelevant 3 (Natawagkanabasapangalanna Dario?)
-Comparison 3
(Nagsinungalingkanabaparamagmukhangmabutisapaninginngiyongkapwa?)
-Relevant 3 (issue 3)
(Tumatayakabangmalakinghalagasaanumangklasengsugal?)

Questions Rotation
Position 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Chart 1 I S N1 C1 R1 N2 C2 R2 N3 C3 R3
R
Chart 2 I S N3 C2 R3 N1 C3 R1 N2 C1 R2
R
Chart 3 I S N2 C3 R2 N3 C1 R3 N1 C2 R1
R
Chart 4 I S N1 C1 R1 N2 C2 R2 N3 C3 R3
R
Chart 5 I S N3 C2 R3 N1 C3 R1 N2 C1 R2
R

4. Four (4) Questions Multiple-Facet

-Introductory(Naiintindihanmobanaangitatanongkosaiyo ay
angatingmganapagusapanlang?)
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
-Sacrifice
Relevant(Sasagutinmobangkatotohananangbawattanongtungkolsapagkawalangp
erasa GWRT noongPebrero 15, 2016?)
-Irrelevant 1(Ikawba ay nakatirasa Manila Zoo?)
-Comparison 1(Saunang 24 nataonngiyongedad,
kumuhakabanganumanbagaynahindimopagaari?)
-Relevant 1 (primary)(Ikawbaangkumuhangalinmansanawalangperasa vault
nang GWRT?)
-Relevant 2 (secondary)(Ikawbaangnagnakawngperasa vault ng GWRT?)
-Comparison 2(Sapagitanngedadna 18 at 24, kung may natatandaanka, may
nandaya o may nagawakana bang paglabagsabatas?)
-Relevant 3 (secondary)(Kasabwatkabasapagkawalangperasa vault ng GWRT?)
-Relevant 4 (secondary) (Nakatanggapkabang parte galingsaninikawnaperasa
vault ng GWRT?)
-Comparison 3(Bagosumapitang 2016,
nagsinungalingkabaparamakaiwassaginawa mong mali?)
-Irrelevant 2(Nakabukasbaangilawsakuwartongito?)
5. Four (4)Questions Mixed-Issue
-Introductory (Naniniwalakabanaangitatanongkosaiyo ay
angatingnapagusapanlang?
-Sacrifice RelevantSasagutinmobaangbawattanongngkatotohanan?)
-Irrelevant 1 (Ikawba ay nakaupongayon?)
-Comparison 1 (Bagosumapitang 2017, nandayakabasataongnagtiwalasaiyo?)
-Relevant 1 (topic 1) (Mayroonna bang nag-
aloksaiyonaperakapalitnganumanimpormasyontungkoliyongpinagtatrabauhanko
mpanya?)
-Relevant 2 (topic 2) (Mayroonna bang nag
anyayasaiyoparasumapisaibanggrupo at
isabotaheangiyongkinaanibangkompanya?)
-Comparison 2 (Bagokanagkaedadna 34 nataon, ikawba any
nagsinungalingparapagtakpanangginawa mong mali?)
-Relevant 3 (topic 3) (Mayroonna bang
naganyayasaiyoparalumipatngibangkompanya?)
-Relevant 4 (topic 4) (Mayroonka bang
itinatagonggalitsasinumangnamamahalasaiyongkasalukuyangtrabaho?)
-Comparison 3 (Noongnagtatrabahokabilangisang SG,
nagsinungalingkabaparapagtakpanangginawa mong mali?)
-Irrelevant 2 (Angpalayawmoba ay Tonyo?)

Questions Rotation
Position 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY

Chart 1 I SR N1 C1 R1 R2 C2 R3 R4 C3 N2
Chart 2 I SR N2 C2 R4 R1 C3 R2 R3 C1 N1
Chart 3 I SR N1 C3 R3 R2 C1 R1 R4 C2 N2
Chart 4 I SR N2 C1 R2 R4 C2 R3 R1 C3 N1
Chart 5 I SR N1 C2 R1 R3 C3 R4 R2 C1 N2
a.a. Scoring
Charts are scored channel by channel using 3- position or 7- position
scoring system.
In the three-question version, each RQ is scored against the immediately
preceding CQ, unless the tracing of the CQ is unstable due to artifacts or loss of
signal. In that case the RQ is scored against the nearest CQ.
Ex: C1 R1 N2 C2...
In the four- question version, each RQ is scored against the stronger of the two
nearest CQ.
Ex: C1 R1 R2 C2...
b.b. Decision Rules
1. Single – Issue
DI = if the total is -6 or lower
NDI = if the total score is +6 or more
INC = scores between -5 to +5
2. Multiple - Facet
+/- 6 cut off scores is use if the total score for each relevant question are all
positive or all negative.
If the total scores for each RQ are on opposite side of 0, decisions are made
by individual questions.
DI = -3 or lower
NDI = +3
INC = other score
3. Mixed- Issue
SR = -3 or lower
NSR = +3 or greater
NO = other score

F.) Exclusionary Phrases

a. Exclusionary Phrases
-Before this year,
-During your 20’s,
-While in high school,
-Between the ages of 18 and 25,
-When you were in college,
-As a soldier,
-Not related to this incident,
-Prior to the year,
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
-Before moving to this area,
-As a teenager,
b. Probable Lie Comparison Questionis designed to be a probable lie for the
examinee, similar in nature but unrelated by time, place or category of the
specific issue.Broad in scope and time so that it captures as many of the
examinee’s past life as possible.
1. Physical Attacks
Have you ever wanted to hurt someone badly?
Have you ever threatened anyone with physical harm?
Have you ever thought about hurting another person?
Have you ever harmed anyone out of anger?
Have you ever lied about hurting another person?
Have you ever done anything to get even with someone?
Have you ever done something malicious to someone you were angry
with?
Have you intentionally hurt someone but claim it was an accident?
Have you ever lost your temper and struck anyone?
2. Sex Crimes
Have you ever done anything sexually unusual?
Have you ever lied about your sexual activities?
Have you ever touched yourself sexually in a public place?
Have you ever wanted to have sex with anyone under the age of 18?
Have you ever used pornography excessively for sexual purposes?
Have you ever touched someone sexually without permission?
3. Damage to Property
Have you ever damage anything?
Have you ever deliberately broken the property of someone else?
Have you ever caused any damage to someone else’s belongings?
Have you ever damage someone’s property out of revenge?
Have you ever lied about damaging someone’s property?
Have you ever damage any property in the school you attended?
Have you intentionally broken something without taking responsibility?
4. Stealing
Have you ever stolen anything?
Have you ever cheated anyone?
Have you ever obtained anything dishonestly?
Have you ever stolen anything from an employer?
Have you ever padded your expense account?
Have you ever cheated anyone out of anything?
Have you ever dishonestly taken someone else’s property?
Have you ever lied about stealing anything?
5. Lying
Have you ever lied to cover up something?
Have you ever lied for personal gain?
Have you ever lied to a person in a position of authority?
Have you ever lied to get someone into trouble?
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
Have you ever lied to make yourself look better?
Have you ever lied to someone who trusted you?
Have you ever done anything that would dishonour your family if it were
known?
Have you ever blamed someone else for your mistake?
Have you ever lied about something important?
6. Victims of Sexual Offenses
Did you ever lie about something important?
Have you ever lied to make yourself look more important?
Have you ever lied to someone who trusted you?
Have you ever lied to advance your own interests at the expense of
someone else?
Did you ever say something hurtful about another person because you
were angry?
Have you ever lied to someone in a position of authority?
c. Directed Lie Comparison Questiona comparison question that addresses a
minor transgression to which most people will readily admit, upon acknowledging
having committed such a transgression, the examinee is directed to lie when
asked that questions on the test.
In your entire life, did you ever make a mistake?
In your entire life, did you ever tell even one lie?
In your entire life, did you ever commit a traffic violation?
d. Directed Lie Questions
Have you ever later regretted something you’d said to someone?
In your life, have you cheated in any contest or competitions?
Did you ever lie to a co-worker?
Have you ever spread false information about another person?
Have you ever lied about yourself to impress someone?
Have you ever lied to a past employer?
Have you ever intentionally done something to make someone mad?
Do you ever lose your temper?
Do you ever lie to a friend about something significant?

G.) Test Procedure

1.) The questions should not more than twelve (12)
2.) At least three (3) charts are taken, each lasting not more than four (4)
minutes,
3.) Five (5) to ten (10) minutes interval between charts.

DD.)Phase IV - Post-Test Interview or Interrogation

This phase includes all consideration that bears on the examination just
after the instrument are turned off. If there are significant fluctuations that show
up on the polygraph test result this may signal that the subject has been
deceptive, especially if the person displayed similar responses to the question
that was repeatedly asked, the examiner will then proceed to conduct short
interrogation. The purpose of which is to obtain confession or admission.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
However, if the chart of the polygraph indicates that the subject is innocent; the
examiner will just release the subject cordially and thanks him/her for his/her
cooperation. To clarify the findings, to learn if there are any other reasons for the
subject’s responding to a relevant question, other than the knowledge of the
crime.To obtain additional information and an admission for law enforcement
purposes, if he results suggest deception.
Some Techniques of Interrogation
1. Emotional Appeal – The interrogator must create a mood that is conducive to
confession. He may be sympathetic and friendly to the subject. The subject may
be willing to disclose more information if he is treated in a kind of approach.
2. Mutt and Jeff Technique – In this technique there must be at least two
investigators with opposite character; one (Mutt) who is arrogant and relentless
who knows the subject to be guilty and will not waste time in the interrogation,
and the other (Jeff) who is friendly, sympathetic and kind. When Mutt is not
present Jeff will advise the subject to make a quick decision and plea for
coordination.
3. Bluff and Split-Fair Technique – This is applicable where there are two or
more persons who allegedly participated in the commission of a crime. All of
them are interrogated separately and the results of their individual statements are
not known to one another. While one of them is under interrogation, the
interrogator claim that the subject was implicated by the author and that there is
no use for him to deny participation.
4. Stern Approach – The questions must be answered clearly, and the
interrogator utilizes harsh language. Immediate response from the subject is
demanded.
Limitations
a. It is an invaluable investigation aid, but never a substitute for investigation.
b. It is not a lie detector; it is a scientific diagnostic instrument.
c. It does not determine facts; it records responses to that which the subject
knows to be true.
d. It is only as accurate as the examiner is competent.
The underlying theory of the polygraph is that when people lie they also
get measurably nervous about lying. The heartbeat increases, blood pressure
goes up, breathing rhythms change, perspiration increases, etc. A baseline for
these physiological characteristics is established by asking the subject questions
whose answers the investigator knows. Deviation from the baseline for
truthfulness is taken das sign of lying.
EE.) Chart marking
a. Signs and Symbols Commonly Used;

1. X / 60 / 1.5A
a. First marking of the examiner on the chart.
2. X
a. Indicates the beginning or the start of the test.
b. Is placed on the chart below the cardio tracing.
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
c. Wait for fifteen (15) to twenty (20) seconds before asking the first
question in order to record the normal tracings of the subject.
3. 60
a. Millimeter of mercury shown in sphygmamometer dial.
4. 1.5A
a. ohms of skin electrical resistance.
5. XX
a. Indicates end or ending of the test.
b. Is placed on the chart below the cardio tracing.
6. / //
a. When a question is asked, a stimulus mark or a vertical line is placed
on the chart below the cardio tracing.
b. The single stimulus mark or the vertical line indicates the beginning of
the question and double stimulus mark or the vertical line indicates the
ending of the question.
7. +, - and No sign
a. Plus sign or positive sign indicates that the subject answer the question
with “Yes” Minus sign or negative sign indicated “No” and No sign
indicates that subject fails to answer the question being asked.
8. “T” or“T”--------“T”
a. Talking by the subject other than the subject talks “Yes” or “No”,
indicate on the chart at the point subject’s starts to talk and again where
the subjects stopped talking.
b. Draw horizontal line between the two (two) symbols to show the length
of talking.
9. “TI”
a. It is for talking instruction
b. It is made on the chart below the cardio pattern when the subject is
diplomatically instructed regarding talking.
10. “C”
a. It is for Coughing
b. It causes a sharp ring in the galvo and a break on cardio pattern,
depending on its intensity.
11. “M” or “M”--------“M”
a. It indicates subject’s moves. Prolong movement is indicated with the
first “M: when movement is noticed and second “M” when movement
stopped, and draw horizontal line between the two (2) symbols to
determine the length of the movement.
12. “MI”
a. It is for Movement instruction.
13. or
a. The mechanical adjustment is done only when necessary and shall be
preceded by an irrelevant question and is indicated by an arrow either
pointing up or down adjacent to respective pattern where the adjustment
is made.
14. “CT”
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
a. Is placed on the chart for clearing throat and is frequently placed bellow
the pneumo tracing, both galvo and cardio appears as a result of any
noise or sound sufficient to cause disturbance in the pattern.
15. “OSN”
a. Indicated on the chart for outside noise and shall be placed on the
chart where the galvo or pneumo activity appears as a result of any noise
or sound sufficient to cause disturbance in the pattern.
16. “S”
a. It is indicated on the chart for Sigh and shall be placed inside the
pneumo tracing exactly where it took place. It may be indicative of
deception or merely denotes relief, because of the psychological
implications involved, it must be distinguished from deep breath.
17. “SN”
a. It is indicated on the chart for Sniff and shall be placed below the
pneumo tracing where the sniff was noted.
18. “SZ”
a. It is indicated on the chart for Sneeze and should place just below the
pneumo tracing at the point where the sneeze occurred. Such occurrence
will affect all three (3) tracing to varying degrees.
19. “B”
a. It is indicated on the chart for Burp or Belch with affects both pneumo
and galvo tracings.
20. “Y”
a. It is indicated for Yawn on the chart, it is placed below the pneumo
tracing.
b. Yawning will also affect the cardio and galvo tracings.
21. “L”
a. It is placed on the chart if the subject Laughs and should be placed
below the pneumo tracings. This will also affects the cardio tracings.
22. “VC”
a. It stands for change of voice when the subjects answer the question. It
is indicated on the chart and the symbol is placed at the break point of the
cardio tracing where stimulus mark showed subject answer. The change
of voice when subject answer the question will also affect the galvo and
pneumo tracing.
23. “IM”
a. It is indicated on the chart for involuntary movement at the break point
of the cardio tracing.
b. The subject will actually jerk occasionally; thus, this will affect the galvo
and pneumo tracings. Involuntary movement frequently contains
deception criteria.
24. “ARM”----------“ARM”
a. Extraneous factors due to blood pressure cuff discomfort will affect all
the three (3) tracings; it is indicated on the char with “ARM”. If the
discomfort continues, draw a horizontal line for the duration of the
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
apparent discomfort with the additional “ARM” at the termination of
discomfort.
25. “BI”
a. Indicated on the chart as breathing instruction and placed below the
cardio tracings. This is being done when the subject is carefully and
properly instructed regarding deep breathing.
26. “RQ”
a. It is indicated below the cardio tracing when the subject requests a
repetition of the question.
27. “PJ”
a. Indicated for paper jam below the cardio pattern at the time of the
wedge.
28. “C+” or “C-“
a. C positive or plus is indicated if the sensitivity of galvo was increased,
while C negative or minus is indicated if the sensitivity of galvo was
decreased.
29. “IS”
a. It is indicated when the ink of the polygraph stop.

FF.) Chart Interpretation

A. Accuracy of the Instrumental Detection of Deception
The accurateness of instrumental deception detection is (85-95%) but it
will still dependent upon the examiner’s capability to diagnose or deception by
reading and interpreting the chart of the subject. If one can precisely interpret the
polygrams produced by the combination of psycho physiological events, and in
turn render a fair and impartial report to interested parties, no purpose will have
been accomplished.
B. Keynotes to Accurate Chart Interpretation
The keynote to accurate chart interpretation is the question formulation. If
a relevant question is phrased and delivered properly, to determine its particular
purpose, it will influence subject’s fight mechanism in a manner, in which will
make chart interpretation easy.
C. The pneumograph tracing normally, found at the top of the chart
The pneumograph pattern consists of inhalation and exhalation strikes
with a normal amplitude from ½ to ¾ inches. The normal cyclic rate is from 13 to
18 breaths per minute and may vary in reasons of exceptional physical build
condition or respiratory defects. The classification of abnormal is generally
applied to those patterns that deviate from the established individual.
1. Descriptive types of breathing are;
a. Normal
b. Rapid
c. Slow
d. Shallow
e. Shallow
f. Deep
g. Deviations caused by coughing and mechanisms of answering
 FORENSIC POLYGRAPHY
2. Pneumograph changes from the individual norm which may be
considered indicative deception are;
a. Change of rhythm or regularity
b. Change in amplitude or volume
c. Change in the inhalation or exhalation ratio
d. Notched or serrated inhalation or exhalation
e. Change of baseline
f. loss of base line
g. Hyperventilation
h. Suppression
i. Respiratory block
C. The galvanograph tracing, normally located at the center position
If the chart, when properly balanced takes from of as lightly wavering line
across the middle portion of the chart with a minor response to spoken stimuli.
Galvanic tracings which may be indicative of deception;
a. Vertical rise at point of deception
b. Double saddle response
c. Long duration and or degree of response following point of deception
d. Plugging galvo tracing
D. The cardio-sphygmograph tracing normally found at the bottom of the
chart.
Is the three physiological phenomena, a systolic strokes and a dichotic
notch. Normal pulse rate of the average individual is 72 to 80 beats per minute
and may vary due to emotional tone of the subject. Amplitude or volume is also
subject to variation and dictated by the physiological structure of the person and
the cuff pressure. Tracing taking the form of specific responses indicative of
deception are;
a. Increase or decrease in blood pressure
b. Increase or decrease in pulse rate
c. Increase or decrease in amplitude
d. Change in position or disappearance of dichotic notch
e. Extra systoles (premature contradiction of an auricle or ventricle while
fundamental rhythm of the heart is maintained)
E. Cardinal Rule in Chart Interpretation
“Any change from normal requires an explanation”. The accountability lies
particularly with the examiner for determining whether a change from normal is
psychological or physiological in nature, whether it results from direct, indirect,
implied, related, careful, sensitive, fearful or distasteful sources; sources
immediately at hand or extraneous; a result of one or a interpretation of chart
tracings. He must be right, law objectively goes out of the window and
subjectively reigns.
There are rules to be followed in the Chart Interpretation
1. There must be a specific response.
2. To be a specific response, the response must from deviation from
norm.
3. It must appear in at least two (2) test charts.
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4. The best indication of deception is the simultaneous specific responses
in three (3) tracing of the chart.
F. Chart Probing
Every after the taking of each chart, chart probing should be conducted.
The examiner shows the recorded result with brief explanation as to the
importance of the recorded reactions. He points out the difference between
reactions as to the importance of the recorded reactions. He points out the
difference between reactions accompanying irrelevant question and irrelevant
questions. The examiner informs the subjects that the probing being dine is
essential, in order to attain the test objective.
Purpose of Chart Probing
1. To determine the reason of the recorded responses.
2. To composed an overly stimulated subject.
3. To clarify confusion that might have been caused by the questions
asked.
4. To convince a doubtful subjects who may be testing the instrument or
the competence of the examiner.
5. To re-stimulate a subjects who has little response or no response at all.
6. To know the cause or origin of a flat or unemotional chart.
7. To gain additional information essential to any specific issues.
8. To set the stage for the following chart by correcting the given
questions that needs rephrasing.
9. To sustain a kind psychological pressure.
10. To confirm whether or not subject has been truthful in answering the
questions asked during the test.

Chapter VI
Admissibility and Legal Aspects of Polygraph

A. Common situations requiring the use of Polygraph services

i. General situations that may require the use of polygraph examination are;
1. Criminal/Police investigation
2. Pre-employment screening
3. Internal-affairs investigations of law enforcement agencies
4. Civil litigation
ii. In crime detection and investigation, the common objectives of using polygraph
services are the following:
1. To ascertain if a person (witness/suspect) is telling the truth
2. To locate the fruit/s and/or instruments of the crime under investigation
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3. To obtain additional investigative leads to the facts of the case/offense
4. To locate the whereabouts of suspects and wanted persons
5. To identify suspects, witnesses, and/or victims involved in the criminal/civil
case
6. To recover valuable information from reluctant witnesses
7. To eliminate innocent suspects

B. Admissibility of Polygraph Examination

In most cases, polygraph evidence is used during pre-trial investigation
and preparations rather than during the actual trial.
A polygraph examination result is admissible in court if allowed by the
judge. The judge will unlikely to use polygraph test if unaccredited and
inexperienced examiner administered the test. There is a great deal of action in
the court system today concerning the use of polygraph, the law is changing
rapidly.
The polygraph test is an invaluable aid to investigation. If a subject
agrees to voluntarily submit to take the test and it is properly conducted, his
rights are not violated, in the same manner; no polygraph test can be effectively
employed on a reluctant subject. The charts derived there from would be
indicative more of bodily movements, reticence and anger rather than an
objective basis for an opinion of lying, hence voluntary consent is essential.
The public’s opinion on the result of polygraph testing is not allowed in
court under any circumstances.
Polygraph and expert testimony relating thereto can be admissible upon
stipulation to support other evidence of a defendants involvement in crime
charged or to support or change his testimony under the following conditions.
1. That the admissibility of the polygraph test result is subject to the decision of
the trial judge like for example if the trial judge is not persuaded that the
examiner is competent, he may reject to accept such evidence.
2. That counsel of both parties and the subject sign a written condition providing
for his admission to the examination and for the succeeding admission at trials of
the graphs and the examiner’s opinion thereon in behalf of either the defendant
or the state.
3. That if the examiner’s opinion is offered as evidence, the opposing party shall
have the right to cross-examine the examiner respecting;
i. The qualifications and trainings of the examiner;
ii. The stipulation under which the test was administered;
iii. The restrictions and possibilities for the test were administered;
iv. At the good judgment of the trial judge, any other matter deemed
important to the inquiry; and
v. That if such evidence is admitted, the examiner’s testimony does not
inclined to prove or disprove any element of the crime with which a defendant is
charge but at most tends only to specify that at the examination, subject was not
telling the truth. The trial judge shall determine the weight and effect of such
testimony.
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C. The Law Regarding the Basic Admissibility Issue
Admissibility of polygraph test result as evidence in court differs between
jurisdictions. Manny jurisdictions allow introduction of evidence of polygraph test
result if the parties to the case jurisdictions allow the introduction of evidence of
polygraph test results if the parties to the case stipulate to its admissibility. Its
introduction as evidence at trial may not be allowed in other jurisdiction but will
permit introduction in other situations such as at sentencing hearing, probation
and parole hearings and in certain administrative hearings.
New Mexico has offer the admissibility of polygraph evidence without
stipulation of the parties, including the qualifications of the examiner and if
polygraph examination conditions have been met. Jurisdictions vary regarding
the admissibility of polygraph results, but most jurisdictions agree that voluntary
statements and confessions made during a polygraph examination are
admissible. In considering the admissibility of polygraph results, it is important to
consult the law of the relevant jurisdiction.
Few representative cases in United States regarding polygraph
admissibility;
In the O. J. Simpson civil trial, the results of a polygraph were admitted
into evidence.  This established a precedent across United States allowing
polygraph examinations in civil trials such as divorce cases.
The first appellate court decision upon the admissibility of the results of a
deception test was rendered in 1923 by Federal court in Fry vs. United States, in
which the accused (on trial for murder) offered as evidence of the results of a
Marston “systolic blood pressure test”. The trial court refused to permit Dr.
Marston to testify concerning his results, and upon appeal this ruling was
affirmed. The reason which impelled the court to arrive at the conclusion of
inadmissibility is very clear, stated in the following except from its reported
opinion.
Ten years after the fry case the Wiscons Supreme Court was called upon
to consider the admissibility of the results of a Polygraph examination. In case,
State v. Bohner, defense counsel offered to prove that the results of a polygraph
examination established the truthfulness of the defendant’s alibi to a robbery
charge, which offer the trial court refused. Upon appeal the Wiscons in Supreme
Court sustained the trial court’s ruling and held that although the Polygraph
technique may have some utility at present, or may ultimately be of great value in
the administration of justice too hasty acceptance of it during this stage of its
development may be assumed to have.
Two cases regarding the admissibility of the results of tests conducted
with galvanic skin reflex recorder were decided by the New York court in 1938.
One of the cases, People V. Kenny, was a trial court decision; the other, People
V. Forte, a decision of New York’s highest court, the court of Appeals. In the
Kenny case the defendant (on trial of robbery) offered in evidence and permitted
the jury to consider the witness opinion as to the defendant’s innocence or guilt.
The court in the Kenny case apparently was impressed with Father Summer’s
assertion to the effect that his pathometer was effectively 100 percent efficient.
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Moreover, the effect of the Kenny casemust viewed in the light of the latter and
more authoritative decision of the New York Court of Appeals in the Forte case.
In the case the defendant (on trial for murder) requested the court’s
permission to be tested on the same instrument and by the same examiner
(Summers) as in the Kenny case. This request was denied on the ground that
despite the view taken by the court in the Kenny case, the validity of such a test
judicial acceptance. Upon appeal the trial court’s ruling was affirmed by the New
York Court of Appeals.
In the Philippine setting, PVE using the polygraph is not fully developed.
The following are the reasons why at this stage, results of PVE are not
admissible as evidences in the Philippine trial courts;
1. Qualifications of the polygraph examiners are not standardized.
2. PVE using the polygraph is not standardized.
3. No standard instrumentation

Other cases related to Polygraphy;

a. Arizona State v. Mendez
b. California People v. Espinoza
c. Delaware Foraker v State
d. Hawaii State v. Okumura
e. Indiana Sanchez v. State
f. Kansas State v. Wakefield
g. North Carolina State v. Fleming
h. Ohio State v. Hesson
i. Texas Perkins v. State
j. Federal Courts U.S. v. Possado
U.S. v. Thomas
U.S. v. Picciononna
U.S. v. Galbreth

D. Can someone beat the Polygraph

If you know that you are lying, the polygraph will detect the signs of
deception. Unless you are a sociopath that can tell a lie and honestly believe it,
you cannot beat the polygraph. Any experienced polygraph examiner can detect
deception, while an honest person that has done nothing wrong has no reason to
try, some people will try to beat the test.
Attempts to beat the test using medications use of diazepam (valium) or
methylphenidate (ritalin) are usually unsuccessful. A study published in 1983
showed that the accuracy rate actually improved in examinees taking these
medications before the test. If the use of drugs is suspected, a pre-test (or post-
test) drug screening is advised. While the use of certain drugs and medications
may affect the examination, such use generally results in an "INCONCLUSIVE"
test rather than changing the result from deceptive to truthful.Inconclusive is
when the polygraphist is unable to make a determination. A lot of polygraphists
will preface their inconclusive ruling with a statement similar to "the subject may
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not have committed the act, but they are reacting because they have knowledge
of the act, or maybe they saw something."

E. Errors in polygraph examination

While the polygraph technique is highly accurate, it is not infallible and errors do
occur. Polygraph errors may be caused by the examiner's failure to properly
prepare the examinee for the examination, or by a misreading of the
physiological data on the polygraph charts.Errors are usually referred to as either
false positive or false negative. False positive occur when a truthful examinee is
reported as being deceptive. False negative occur when a deceptive examinee
is reported as truthful. Some research indicates that false negatives occur more
frequently than false positives. Other research studies show the opposite
conclusion.

F. Effect of Failure of Counsel to Object to Admissibility of Test Results

In accordance with the general evidentiary rule, a failure of counsel to
object to evidence ordinarily considered inadmissible constitute a waiver,
although there are certain exceptions that are not particularly relevant at this
point. A rather unequal aspect of this general rule did occur, however, in 1974
Utah case, which is deserving of attention. In case, State v. Jenkins for one
reason or another, the defence was able to introduce polygraph test result,
favourable to the defendant, but without objection from the prosecution. He was
nevertheless found guilty, and upon appeal his counsel contended that since the
results showed the defendant was telling the truth the prosecution’s case against
him was not established beyond a readable doubt, as constitutionally required.

E. Confession
a. Kinds of Confession
1. Extra-Judicial Confession– this is a confession made outside of the court
prior to the trial of the case.
Sec. 3, rule 133, rules of court– Extra-judicial confession, not sufficient ground
for conviction; an extra-judicial confession made by an accused, shall not be
sufficient ground for conviction, unless corroborated by evidence of corpus delicti
(body of the crime).
Kinds of Extra-Judicial Confession
i. Voluntary Extra-Judicial Confession– the confession is voluntary when the
accused speaks of his free will and accord, without inducement of any kind, and
with a full and complete knowledge of the nature and consequence of the
confession, and when the speaking is so free from influences affecting the will of
the accused, at the time the confession was made that it renders it admissible in
evidence against him.
Ii. Involuntary Extra-Judicial Confession– Confessions obtained through force,
threat, intimidation, duress or anything influencing the voluntary act of the
confessor.
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2. Judicial Confession – This is a confession of an accused in court. It is
conclusive upon the court and may be considered to be a mitigating
circumstance to criminal liability.
A plea of guilty when formally entered on arraignment is sufficient to
sustain a conviction of any offense, even a capital one, without further proof.
Sec. 2, rule 129, rule of court – Judicial Admission; admissions made by the
parties in the pleadings, or in the course of the trial or other proceedings do not
require proof and cannot be contradicted unless previously shown to have been
made through palpable mistake.