Research Article

Protean Career Orientation, Management and Labour Studies

1–15
Career Decision Self-efficacy © 2021 XLRI Jamshedpur, School of
Business Management
and Career Outcomes of & Human Resources
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DOI: 10.1177/0258042X21991016
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Poonam Kaushal1 and Sakshi Vashisht2

Abstract
The present study explored a relationship between protean career orientation (PCO) and career out-
comes (i.e., subjective and objective career success) on millennial IT professionals. A model proposing
that the effect of PCO on career outcomes is mediated by career decision self-efficacy was assessed.
Data were collected from 1,000 respondents, out of which 685 questionnaires were considered for
analysis purpose. Of all the respondents, 470 (68.6%) respondents were male and 215 (31.4%) were
female. All the respondents were within the age group of 25–40 years (completed age as of 2019). From
the total respondents, 40.4% (277) were BTech, 25.8% (177) were MCA, 17.7% (121) were MBAs
and 16.1% (110) respondents were from other educational background. Confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA) was conducted using AMOS for verification of the questionnaire. Hayes process model, type-4 in
SPSS 21, was used for testing the mediation. The findings of the study revealed that protean individuals
experienced higher levels of subjective and objective career success (on salary). Mediation effect was
supported for subjective career success.

Keywords
Career decision self-efficacy, career outcomes, IT sector, millennial, objective, protean career, subjective

Introduction
The essence of ‘career’ has transformed because of significant changes in the work environment such as
technological advancements, global competition, flattened organizational structures, job mobility and
lack of role clarity. Besides these structural changes, a change is also witnessed in the attitude of the
individuals, who want to take more control of how their career progress (Supeli & Creed, 2015).
A traditional career approach—that reflects stable work environment, predictable organizational structure

1
ICFAI Business School, The ICFAI University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India.
2
Panipat Institute of Engineering and Technology, Delhi, India.

Corresponding author:
Poonam Kaushal, ICFAI Business School, The ICFAI University, Central Hope Town, Rajawala Road, Selaqui, Dehradun,
Uttarakhand 248197, India.
E-mail: poonamkaushal47@gmail.com
2 Management and Labour Studies

and growing hierarchical progress of an individual—no longer appears satisfactory to exhibit various
individuals’ career experience. Contemporary career approaches such as protean career orientation
(PCO) are taking over the traditional career approach. Protean career is emerging as a new career
approach. Baruch (2006, p. 129) described the protean career as ‘one of the most innovative approaches
for capturing the new notions of career systems’. Individuals who have a protean attitude tend to be self-
directed towards their career management and are less reliant on the organizational career development
plans. The protean view reflects the transfer of responsibility for self-development to the individual
(Hall, 1976) as opposed to the traditional career development plan where the development of an
individual is dependent on the organizational plans. As protean individuals take a strong sense of control
over their career decisions, they engage more into activities concerning career exploration, which in turn
enhances their self-efficacy.
A millennial generation or Generation Y encompasses workers born between the years 1979–1994
(Smola & Sutton, 2002). As per a survey by PricewaterhouseCoopers (PWC, 2011), Millennials will
represent 50% of the global workforce, and thus it is essential that the organizations should recognize the
values and beliefs of this generation to attract and retain them. Millennials are internationally educated,
confident, assertive and very optimistic. They like to speak out and are also focused on their work
(Srinivasan, 2012). Millennials have great expectations from themselves and their employers. They
‘want it all’ and ‘want it now’ (Ng et al., 2010). They expect well-defined job description, fair pay,
responsibility, training programmes, autonomy, achievement, thoughtful supervisor, fixed hours of work,
sound and transparent organizational policies and practices, work–life balance, instant gratification,
speedy promotions, and clear communication (Srinivasan, 2012). Millennials are also considered as
being self-focused (Arnett, 2007), who demand fulfilment in the work they do. They look for challenges
in work and thus seek assignments that solidify their self-efficacy. The millennial generation has
characteristics such as career self-planning, career decisions based on their own values and mobility.

Figure 1.  Research Model

Source: The authors.
Kaushal and Vashisht 3

Such characteristics are compatible with new careers like PCO. Researchers in the past have found an
association between millennials and PCO (Aydogmus, 2018; Cordeiro & Albuquerque, 2017).
The aim of the present study is to examine the relationship between PCO and subjective and objective
career success of millennial generation information technology (IT) professionals. Protean career stance
is essential for one’s career success. Individuals with protean orientation set tough goals for themselves
and put in an extra amount of effort to attain success. They create and influence circumstances at work
in a manner that enhances the prospects of career success. Previous studies have supported the relationship
between PCO and career success (Herrmann et al., 2015; Volmer & Spurk, 2010). The present study also
investigates the interceding role of career decision self-efficacy between PCO and career success. Self-
efficacy plays a significant role in career success. Various studies have found self-efficacy as an
antecedent to career success (Cao et al., 2013; Herrmann et al., 2015; Volmer & Spurk, 2010). However,
no study has specifically examined the role of career decision self-efficacy amid the relationship between
PCO and career success. Therefore, in the present study, it is suggested that self-efficacy will mediate the
relationship between PCO and career success (see Figure 1). The study is organized as follows: First, the
literature on PCO, career success and career decision self-efficacy are briefly reviewed, leading to the
proposal of hypotheses. Next, the methodology is discussed for testing the hypotheses. Finally, the
empirical results, findings and the implications of the study are discussed.

Protean Career Orientation and Career Success

Individuals’ career development and work lives are the results of their career orientation (Cotezee & De
Villiers, 2010). Of the various career orientations, PCO has gained prominent importance in the literature
of career success. Briscoe and Hall (2006) defined people with PCO as the individuals who have both
characteristics, namely, values-driven in characterizing their career needs and identity, as well as self-
focusing in adjusting to the career demand of performance and learning. Such individuals are capable of
learning continuously, and thus are transformational (Briscoe & Hall, 2006).
Career success is ‘the positive psychological or work-related outcomes or achievements one
accumulates as a result of work experiences (Seibert et al., 1999). There are two main dimensions of
career success, namely, subjective career success (SCS) and objective career success. Subjective career
success is a multi-dimensional assessment of various career aspects. Subjective career success is an
individual’s self-perception of success. It is typically measured as career satisfaction (Greenhaus et al.,
1990) or growth and development, and authenticity (Shockley et al., 2016). Objective career success
focuses on more concrete measures which can be directly observed by others and are measured in a
standardized manner (Arthur et al., 2005). Salary, job level and the number of promotions are some of
the objective measures that evaluate an individual’s career against societal norms or standards.
In the current literature, PCO has been understood as a precursor of career success. For instance,
Herrmann et al. (2015) in their study, showed a positive relationship between PCO and career satisfaction.
Volmer and Spurk (2010) found that individuals with a protean attitude towards career reported higher
levels of SCS (like career satisfaction) and objective career success (like salary). Cao et al. (2013)
suggested PCO as a significant precursor of subjective career success. De Vos and Soens (2008) reported
that protean career attitude was significantly and positively related to career insight. Also, the study
reported higher levels of career satisfaction and perceived employability among individuals with PCO
(De Vos & Soens, 2008). As previous researchers have revealed a significant positive relationship
between PCO and subjective and objective career success, the present study also anticipates a similar
relationship between the constructs for IT professionals. Thus, it is hypothesized that,
4 Management and Labour Studies

H1a: There is a positive relationship between PCO (self-directed) and objective career success.
H2a: There is a positive relationship between PCO (value-driven) and objective career success.
H3a: There is a positive relationship between PCO (self-directed) and subjective career success.
H4a: There is a positive relationship between PCO (value-driven) and subjective career success.

Protean Career Orientation and Career Decision Self-efficacy

Career decision self-efficacy (CDSE) assumes a considerable role in a person’s career management and
advancement (Choi et al., 2011). Career self-efficacy is the degree of belief of an individual that they can
complete the tasks required for making career decisions (Betz et al., 1996, p. 48). There are two domains
of career self-efficacy: content domain and process domain (Hackett & Betz, 1981). Content domain
self-efficacy is the self-efficacy in the specific career discipline like science, maths or writing. Process
domain of self-efficacy focuses on using required strategies for effectively steering a decision-making
process. The present study focuses on the process domain of self-efficacy as the study is interested in
knowing how individuals with PCO make career-related decisions. SCCT (Bandura, 1986) provides a
schema for understanding the job of PCO in people’s career decision-making. As per this schema,
individual inputs such as orientation and logical impacts like career expectations together affect an
individual’s self-efficacy and outcome expectations. This further affects an individual’s career choice
and career interests and behaviours (Lent et al., 1994). Individuals with PCO are self-directed towards
their career. Such individuals feel satisfied and competent at work (Hall & Mirvis, 1996). They attribute
the success experiences to themselves, thus creating a sense of competence in them (Bandura, 2001).
Protean career-oriented individuals are more probable to own career decision self-efficacy as they engage
themselves more into activities corresponding to career exploration (Cheung & Jin, 2015). Based on the
above discussion, it is proposed that,

H5a: There is a positive relationship between PCO (self-directed) and career decision self-efficacy.
H6a: There is a positive relationship between PCO (value-driven) and career decision self-efficacy.

Career Decision Self-efficacy and Career Success

CDSE is the trust that a person has on himself that he/she can carry out particular tasks comprising a
career decision (Betz & Luzzo, 1996). CDSE represents ‘confidence to effectively make career-related
decisions and produce positive outcomes’ (Kim et al., 2016, p. 141). On various parameters of success,
such as promotions and salary, Day and Allen (2004) argued that individuals with high self-efficacy
exceed less efficacious individuals. The researchers in their study on municipal employees found a
significant positive relationship between employees’ career self-efficacy and subjective and objective
career success (Day & Allen, 2004). Similarly, Valcour and Ladge (2008) reported a positive relationship
between self-efficacy and subjective career success. Abele and Spurk (2009), in their longitudinal study
found occupational self-efficacy as a predictor of objective career success (salary, salary change and
hierarchical status) and SCS (career satisfaction). Kim et al. (2008) reported a significant and positive
correlation between employees’ self-efficacy and salary. Higgins et al. (2008) showed an effect of self-
efficacy on the job satisfaction of employees (i.e., subjective career success; similarly Saks, 1995).
Numerous studies have concluded that self-efficacy is linked to motivation, performance, success,
perceived career options, career decidedness and career preparation (Komarraju et al., 2013; Lent et al.,
Kaushal and Vashisht 5

1994; Tsai et al., 2017; Zajacova et al., 2005). Studies on self-efficacy have reported that it mediates the
relationship between personality factors and career interests (Nauta, 2004), PCO and career decidedness
(Li et al., 2019), and PCO and career optimism (Chui et al., 2020). In the present study, it is posited
that self-efficacy will mediate the relationship between PCO and career success. Thus, the study hypoth-
esizes that,

H7a:  Mediating role of CDSE between protean career (self-directed) orientation and subjective
career success.
H8a:  Mediating role of CDSE between protean career (value-driven) orientation and subjective
career success.
H9a:  Mediating role of CDSE between protean career (self-directed) orientation and objective
career success.
H10a: Mediating role of CDSE between protean career (value-directed) orientation and objective
career success.

Method

Participants and Procedure

The population of the present study was the millennials (born between 1979–1994; Smola & Sutton,
2002) employed in the IT companies of western India. Respondents were enrolled in certification courses
(such as Oracle certification, which included AWS Certified Solutions Architect, AWS Certified DevOps
Engineer, AWS Certified Developer; Big data certification like Hadoop and Sapark; Microsoft
certifications like MOS, MTA, MCAD, etc.) for career advancement. Data was collected from selective
IT companies based in Pune, Nagpur, Mumbai, Bengaluru and Ahmedabad. List of companies was
obtained from NASSCOM (2019) report. The sample size (n = 1000) was selected to obtain a sample
sufficient enough to attain the statistical significance and a decent model fit in the structural equation
modelling (SEM) as proposed by Kline (2011). Information was collected during seven months’ time
span from November 2019 to May 2020. Snowball sampling (referral sampling) technique was used,
where existing respondents recruit future respondents from among their acquaintances. The questionnaires
considered for analysis purpose were 685 after exclusion of unfinished and inappropriate questionnaires.
Of all the respondents, 470 (68.6%) were male and 215 (31.4%) were female. All the respondents were
within the age group 25–40 years (completed age as of 2019); 40.4% (277) of respondents were BTech,
25.8% (177) were MCA, 17.7% (121) were MBAs and 16.1% (110) respondents were from other
educational backgrounds.
In this study, exploratory methodology and hypothesis investigation were used. As this investigation
was explanatory by nature; accordingly, the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was applied. The
hypotheses proposed for the various associations in the model of this investigation were investigated
using SPSS 21. Additionally, to investigate the influence of the mediating variable in the association
between IV and DV, Hayes process model, type-4 was used.

Measures
Protean career orientation: PCO was determined by employing Briscoe and Hall’s (2006) protean career
scale. PCO scale comprises of a total of 14 items. Eight items of PCO scale measuring self-directed
6 Management and Labour Studies

career management, akin, ‘when development opportunities have not been offered by my company, I’ve
sought them out on my own’, ‘I am in charge of my own career’. Six items of PCO scale measuring
value-driven characteristics like ‘It doesn’t matter much to me how other people evaluate the choices I
make in my career, what I think about what is right in my career is more important to me than what my
company thinks’. Respondents reported their response on a Likert-type interval scale extending from 1
= to little or no extent, to 5 = to a great extent.
CFA revealed a good fit for PCO as the minimum discrepancy was reported as CMIN/DF = 4.44,
CFI = 0.96, GFI = 0.93, AGFI = 0.90, RMSEA = 0.07. On the whole, PCO scale reliability was computed
as 0.95. Sub-dimensions of PCO also showed good reliability, computed as: a = 0.92 of self-directed
career management and a = 0.91 of value-driven.

Career decision self-efficacy: The CDSE scale determines the confidence of an individual that they can
complete career assignments. Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form (CDSE-SF) was used,
developed by Betz et al. (1996), to measure CDSE of respondents. CDSE-SF consists of 25 items like
‘How much confidence do you have that you could choose a career that will fit your preferred lifestyle’.
Respondents reported their response on a Likert-type interval scale ranging from 1 = no confidence at
all, to 5 = complete confidence.
CFA revealed a poor fit of the items for CDSE as CMIN/df = 8.59, CFI = 0.84, RMSEA = 0.10,
GFI = 0.86 and AGFI = 0.81. When items were examined, it was found that few items of the scale had
non-significant regression weights. Exclusion of these items resulted in a 15-items configuration that
showed a better fit as CMIN/df = 4.75, CFI = 0.90, RMSEA = 0.07, GFI = 0.92 and AGFI = 0.89.
The items removed were the item numbers 13, 14, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 and 25. The overall reliability
of the scale was calculated as 0.86.

Subjective and objective career success: In the present study, ‘subjective career success’ was assessed
regarding career satisfaction of respondents. Career satisfaction was computed with the career satisfaction
scale developed by Greenhaus et al. (1990). Career satisfaction scale contains five items like ‘I am
satisfied with the progress I have made toward meeting my overall career goals’. Respondents responded
on a 5-point interval scale ranging from 1 = not at all, to 5 = very much. CFA revealed a good fit for items
of career satisfaction, as the minimum discrepancy was reported as CMIN/DF = 2.78, CFI = 0.994,
GFI = 0.995, AGFI = 0.977 and RMSEA = 0.05. The reliability of the scale was calculated as 0.83.
Researchers measure ‘objective career success’ as salary, promotions and hierarchical position obtained
through the participant self-report. Monthly salary was assessed, ranging from ‘less than Rs.30,000’
coded as 1; ‘between Rs.30,000 to Rs.60,000’ coded as 2; ‘between Rs.61,000 to Rs.90,000’ coded as 3;
‘between Rs.91,000 to Rs.1,20,000’ coded as 4 and ‘more than Rs.1,20,000’ coded as 5. For promotions,
respondents were solicited to specify the total promotions they had gotten in the previous 3 years,
including promotions associated with a change in employer (No promotion coded 1, 1 promotion coded
2, 2 promotions coded 3, 3 or more coded 4) (Stumpf & Tymon, 2012). Hierarchical position was
measured as—top level management, middle level management, lower level management and non-
managerial posts.

Confirmatory factor analysis of full model before adding mediator: CFA revealed a good fit, as the
minimum discrepancy was reported as CMIN/DF = 3.52, CFI = 0.95, GFI = 0.92, AGFI = 0.90 and
RMSEA = 0.06.
Kaushal and Vashisht 7

Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Full Model after Adding Mediator: CFA revealed a good fit, as the
minimum discrepancy was reported as CMIN/DF = 2.39, CFI = 0.94, GFI = 0.90, AGFI = 0.89 and
RMSEA = 0.04.

Results and Discussion

Relationship Among the Variables

Means, standard deviations and zero-order correlations among study variables are listed in Table 1. Most
variables in the study were correlated in the same direction as expected. SDP variable was correlated
significantly and positively with VDP (r = 0.796, p < 0.01), SCS (r = 0.232, p < 0.01), Salary ( r = 0.204,
p < 0.01), CDSE (r = 0.260, p < 0.01) and HP (r = 0.087, p < 0.05). VDP variable was correlated
significantly and positively with SCS (r = 0.278, p < 0.01), Salary (r = 0.180, p < 0.01) and CDSE (r =
0.330, p < 0.01). SCS was associated significantly and positively with salary (r = 0.125, p < 0.01) and
CDSE (r = 0.589, p < 0.01). Salary was related significantly and positively with promotion (r = 0.613, p
< 0.01), HP (r = 0.555, p < 0.01) and CDSE (r = 0.230, p < 0.01). Promotion was related significantly
and positively with HP (r = 0.560, p < 0.01) and CDSE (r = 0.098, p < 0.05). HP was correlated positively
with CDSE (r = 0.080, p < 0.05). Hence, hypothesis H1a, H2a, H5a and H6a is accepted and H3a and
H4a are partially accepted.

Mediating Effect of Career Decision Self-efficacy

Baron and Kenny (1986) have specified certain conditions for mediation analysis. One such condition is
that the independent variable predicts the dependent variable. As shown in Table 1, no significant
relationship was found between dimensions of PCO (SDP and VDP) and output variable, namely,
promotions. Further, no significant relationship was found between dimension VDP and output variable,
namely, the hierarchical position of respondents. Therefore, mediation analysis was not conducted for

Table 1.  Means, Standard Deviations and Correlations Among Variables (N = 685)

S. No. SDP VDP SCS Salary Prom. HP CDSE

1 Mean 22.64 16.84 11.93 2.96 3.06 3.31 35.71
2 Standard deviation 8.39 6.65 4.43 1.21 1.14 1.25 9.59
3 Self-directed protean (SDP) 1 – – – – – –
4 Value- driven protean (VDP) 0.796** 1 – – – – –
5 Subjective career success (SCS) 0.232** 0.278** 1 – – – –
6 Salary 0.204** 0.180** 0.125** 1 – – –
7 Promotions (Prom.) 0.069 0.057 0.040 0.613** 1 – –
8 Hierarchical position (HP) 0.087* 0.069 0.012 0.555** 0.560** 1 –
9 Career decision self-efficacy 0.260** 0.330** 0.589** 0.230** 0.098* 0.080* 1
(CDSE)
Source: The authors.
Note: * = p < .05; ** = p < .01
8 Management and Labour Studies

PCO (SDP and VDP) and output variable, namely, promotions; and for VDP and output variable, namely,
hierarchical position of respondents.
To test the hypotheses that the career success is affected by PCO, and more specifically whether
CDSE mediates the association between PCO and career success, regression testing was applied using
PROCESS macro developed by Andrew F. Hayes (2013) through SPSS 21. Hayes’s model template 4
illustrates the mediating role of mediator M on the association of independent variable X and dependent
variable Y. Hence, to analyse the association as discussed in this article, template 4 was employed.
Bootstrapping approach with recommended sample 5000 was applied (as proposed by Preacher &
Hayes, 2004). Path c’ (the effect of X on Y, when a mediating variable is controlled) was calculated using
PROCESS macros with recommended model 4 as proposed by Hayes (2013).

Protean Career Orientation and Subjective Career Success

1. CDSE as a mediator in self-directed protean (SDP)–SCS relationship: As per mediation model
(see Figure 2), the association between variables demonstrates that it will be useful to perform
mediation investigation further. In regression analysis, a positive and significant relationship was
found between SDP and mediator variable CDSE {B = 0.297, t (683) = 7.04, p = 0.001}. Further,
mediator, that is, CDSE was found to be positively and significantly related with SCS {B = 0.262,
t (682) = 2.72, p = 0.001}. Since, both the paths a and b were important, bootstrapping technique

Figure 2.  Effect of Mediator Variable (CDSE) on the Relationship Between SDP and SCS
Source: The authors.
Notes: ** = p < 0.01; *** = p < 0.001
Path a = Independent variable to mediating variable
Path b = Mediating variable to dependent variable
Path c = Independent variable to dependent variable (Total effect, i.e., direct effect + indirect effect)
Path c’ = Independent variable to dependent variable, controlling for the mediating variable (direct effect)
Indirect effect of mediating variable = c- c’or product of a and b (i.e., ab)
SE = Standard Error
LLCI & ULCI = Lower and upper levels for confidence interval
Kaushal and Vashisht 9

Figure 3.  Effect of Mediator Variable (CDSE) on the Relationship Between VDP and SCS
Source: The authors.
Note: ** = p < 0.01; *** = p < 0.001

with bias-corrected confidence estimates was employed to test mediation impact. The outcome
of the mediation analysis verified that there was a significant indirect effect of SDP on SCS
through mediating variable CDSE (B = 0.044, CI = 0.0113 to 0.0774). The outcome also revealed
that the previously significant association between SDP and SCS remained significant
(B = 0.122, CI = 0.0836 to 0.1608). Consequently, the Sobel test was employed, which recom-
mended partial mediation in the model (z = 6.55, p = 0.001). Hence the hypothesis H7a is accepted.
2. CDSE as a mediator in value-driven protean (VDP)–SCS relationship: As per mediation model
(see Figure 3), the association between variables demonstrates that it will be useful to perform
mediation investigation further. In regression testing, a positive and significant relationship was
found between VDP and mediator variable CDSE {B = 0.475, t (683) = 9.12, CI = 0.3731 to
0.5777, p = 0.001}. Further, mediator, that is, CDSE showed a positive and significant relationship
with SCS {B = 0.258, t (682) = 17.13, CI = 0.2282 to 0.2872, p = 0.001}. Since, both the a-path
and b-path were significant, mediation investigation was employed using a bootstrapping method
with bias-corrected confidence estimates. The outcome of the mediation analysis verified that
there was a significant indirect effect of VDP on SCS through mediating variable CDSE
(B = 0.063, CI = 0.0200 to 0.1052). The outcome also revealed that the previously significant
association between VDP and SCS remained significant (B = 0.185, CI = 0.1371 to 0.2332).
Consequently, the Sobel test was employed, which recommended partial mediation in the model
(z = 8.07, p = 0.001). Hence the hypothesis H8a is accepted.

Protean Career Orientation and Objective Career Success

1. CDSE as a mediator in SDP–salary relationship: As per mediation model (see Figure 4), the
association between variables demonstrates that it will be useful to perform mediation
investigation further. In regression analysis, a positive and significant relationship was found
between SDP and CDSE {B = 0.475, t (683) = 9.12, CI = 0.3731 to 0.5777, p = 0.001}. Further,
mediator variable, that is, CDSE showed a significant and positive relationship with salary of
10 Management and Labour Studies

Figure 4.  Effect of Mediator Variable (CDSE) on the Relationship Between SDP and Salary
Source: The authors.
Note: *** = p < 0.001

participants {B = 0.024, t (682) = 4.99, CI = 0.0145 to 0.0334, p = 0.001}. Since, both the paths
a and b were found significant, bootstrapping technique with bias-corrected confidence estimates
was employed to test mediation impact. The outcome of the mediation analysis verified that there
was a significant indirect effect of SDP on salary through mediating variable CDSE (B = 0.022,
CI = 0.0115 to 0.0330). The outcome also revealed that the previously significant association
between SDP and salary remained significant (B = 0.029, CI = 0.0188 to 0.0400). Consequently,
the Sobel test was employed, which recommended partial mediation in the model (z = 3.97,
p = 0.001).
2. CDSE as a mediator in SDP–hierarchical position (HP) relationship: As per mediation model
(see Figure 5) using regression analysis, SDP showed a significant and positive relationship with
CDSE {B = 0.297, t (683) = 7.04, CI = 0.2145 to 0.3803, p = 0.001}. Further, results showed that
the mediator variable, that is, CDSE was found not related to HP {B = 0.008, t (682) = 2.19, CI
= –0.0021 to 0.0180, p = 0.122}. As b-path was found insignificant, it can be stated that there was
no significant indirect effect of SDP on HP through mediating variable CDSE. Hence, the
hypothesis H9a is partially accepted (for dimension salary only).
3. CDSE as a mediator in VDP–salary relationship: As per mediation model (see Figure 6), the
association between variables demonstrates that it will be useful to perform mediation
investigation further. In regression analysis, VDP showed a significant and positive relationship
with CDSE {B = 0.475, t (683) = 9.12, CI = 0.3731 to 0.5777, p = 0.001}. Further, mediator
variable, that is, CDSE showed a significant and positive relationship with salary {B = 0.024, t
(682) = 4.89, CI = 0.0145 to 0.0339, p = 0.001}. Since, both the paths a and b were found
significant, bootstrapping technique with bias-corrected confidence estimates was employed to
test mediation impact. The outcome of the mediation analysis verified that there was a significant
indirect effect of VDP on salary through mediating variable CDSE (B = 0.021, CI = 0.0073 to
0.0353). The outcome also revealed that the previously significant association between VDP and
salary remained significant (B = 0.033, CI = 0.0193 to 0.0462). Consequently, the Sobel test was
Kaushal and Vashisht 11

Figure 5.  Effect of Mediator Variable (CDSE) on the Relationship Between SDP and Hierarchical Position
Source: The authors.
Note: ns = not significant

Figure 6.  Effect of Mediator Variable (CDSE) on the Relationship Between VDP and Salary
Source: The authors.
Note: ** = p < 0.01; *** = p < 0.001

employed, which recommended partial mediation in the model (z = 4.25, p = 0.001). Hence, the
hypothesis H10a is partially accepted (for dimension salary only).

Discussion
The aim of the present study was to empirically evaluate the utility of PCO in predicting career success
of IT professionals. The study examined the role of self-directed and value-driven protean orientation to
estimate subjective and objective career success and the functioning of CDSE as a mediator between
PCO and career outcomes. From the results of the mediation analysis, a partial mediating impact of
12 Management and Labour Studies

CDSE was found in the relationship between self-directed and value-driven protean, and subjective
career success. Also, a partial mediating impact of CDSE was found on the relationship between self-
directed and value-driven protean, and objective career success (salary). The results of the mediation
model explain the link between PCO and career success. CDSE appears to be significant for career
success. The results of mediation validate the importance of CDSE as an important predictor of
career outcomes. Also, the results indicate that career success is a result of many different factors
(Ng et al., 2005).
The findings of the study showed that self-directed and value-driven protean individuals experienced
higher levels of subjective career success. This replicates similar findings obtained by Cao et al. (2013),
De Vos and Soens (2008), Herrmann et al. (2015), and Volmer and Spurk (2010). The results imply that
individuals who are well aware of their ambitions, career priorities and the learning requirements to
advance in their career are more satisfied with their careers. Such individuals proactively manage their
careers and make advance plans and thus experience higher career satisfaction. These findings expand
the current literature on PCO. These findings are also notable because the present study was conducted
among millennial IT professionals in the Indian context, in contrast to the earlier studies which were
focused on samples from Anglo and German cultures. Indian culture in terms of power distance or
uncertainty avoidance is very different from these cultures and such differences could regulate the effects
of PCO on career outcomes.
Furthermore, self-directed and value-driven protean individuals reported higher levels of objective
career success (dimension salary). The findings are in line with the findings of the study by Volmer and
Spurk (2010). Self-directed protean individuals also reported a moderate level of objective career success
on the hierarchical position dimension. Association between PCO and objective career success implies
that individuals who manage their career proactively tend to be satisfied with the salary and position they
hold in the organization. Also, employing organizations value such employees who demonstrate proactive
behaviours in their career management. These organizations reward such individuals with a rewarding
salary and other monetary benefits. Moreover, it was expected that PCO would relate positively to the
promotions sub-scale of objective career success. However, the results were contrary to the expectations,
but replicating Volmer and Spurk (2010) findings. This could be because promotions are a result of many
factors such as the number of years in the organization, qualification, experience, leadership qualities,
policies of the organization, and so forth. This may have attenuated the results of the study concerning
promotions.
Self-directed and value-driven protean individuals also demonstrated a significant and positive
relationship with career decision self-efficacy. The results are supported by the findings of the study by
Bandura (2001) and Cheung and Jin (2015). Protean career-oriented individuals take responsibility for
self-development of their career. As they constantly engage themselves in pursuits for career exploration,
they develop a sense of competence in them. A strong sense of being able to meet the demands of the job
can enhance motivation and thus PCO, individuals experienced higher levels of CDSE.

Implications
The findings of the present study suggest that PCO is positively related to various parameters of career
success. These findings advocate that it might be useful to improve self-directed and value-driven career
management through career interventions that can reinforce individuals’ PCO. Career development
programmes, career counselling, training and development opportunities, and autonomous jobs with
flexibility could provide opportunities for learning and enhancing career experiences that improve PCO.
Kaushal and Vashisht 13

As PCO was associated with CDSE in the present study, empowering the millennials and motivating
them to learn and stay abreast of the changes and developments will improve their self-efficacy that can
promote self-directed career management and translate their protean career approach into career success.
Providing employees with the opportunities to create and build their future can also benefit the
organization as a whole. As millennials are seen as job-hoppers who look for meaningful work and thus
frequently switch jobs, organizations’ career management approach may increase millennial workforce’s
overall motivation, satisfaction and reduce turnover.

Limitations and Future Directions

The present study has some limitations that need to be addressed. First, subjective career success was
measured using only one outcome. Future studies can examine the relationship of PCO with other
measures of subjective career success (e.g., career optimism and career engagement). Second, the present
study did not examine the factors or motives (like demographics, personality traits, social environment
and family background) that may influence PCO. More research can explore the effect of these factors
on PCO and in turn career success. Third, the study limited itself to only one type of career pathway
which is PCO. Future studies can also consider other styles of orientation such as boundaryless and
disengaged, and their impact on career success. Fourth, the sample of the study is limited to India. Thus,
the cross-generalizability of the findings could be a concern. More research is called to extend the
applicability of the findings of the present study. Future research can replicate the present study with
samples from western countries. Lastly, the research is based on cross-sectional data. Longitudinal study
may perhaps strengthen the validity of the results.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of
this article.

Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs
Poonam Kaushal https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6754-5705
Sakshi Vashisht https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7886-4237

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