Professional Documents
Culture Documents
RUTH KINNA
response was - sadly - more downbeat. Flipping through a book I've not yet
had time to read properly, I found this from Voltairine de Cleyre:
... I have lost the habit of thinking that I can acquire the power to know
what is the trouble. I tell you I feel spir itually, morally, and mentally bank
rupt! When I think of anything as a subject to write upon I am immed iately
smitten with a recognition of my own incompetence. I am as satisfied as
ever that society is in bad shape, but I do not know how it should be reme
died. The prolif ic con fidence of old years, has died; I am possessed by
barren doubts only ... It's not that I have the slightest idea that our oppo
nents are r ight; their statements look just as foolish to me as they ever did;
but I have no surety of our oppos ition.2
Similar doubts creep in on meeting people who ask 'Are you involved in
activism?'. Or, worse, ' What kind of activism are you involved inTo Such
questions fill me with horror and make me want to defend and apologise for
my inactivity at one and the same time. (The pejorative ' You're a feminist,
aren't you' used to raise similarly conflicting emotions.) Of course there is a
lot to oppose. The government is responsible for a catalogue of stupid, short
sighted and disastrous decisions. Everyone has a list of failures, omissions and
mistakes. Tony Benn's metamorphosis into Britain's favourite statesman seems
a fair indication of how bad politics under New Labour has become. Added to
that, I harbour a set of petty resentments about the behaviour and accounta
bility of my local government, stemming from an action of which I was a part,
last year. Should I write to my MP, contact my councillor ... maybe my coun
sellor?
In the midst of all this: three conversat ions. The first with a prospective
PhD student, who, it emerged, is convinced that academia is not only a form
of activism, but an important one. The idea is comforting, but not convincing
4
GUEST ED ITORIAL
- not to me, at least. Naturally, I take seriously both the content and process of
what I do - teach - and I 'm aware of the central role that education has played
in anarchist theory and practice. But universities are not new schools, and the
kind of education that they offer hardly matches the integrated schemes
proposed by nineteenth and early twentieth-century thinkers. If I can make the
best of it and generate some enthusiasm for my fields of interest in the process,
that's great - but it doesn't really let me off the hook.
The second conversation was with an ex-student - now doing a PhD.
Recalling a class on the alter-globalistion movement in which we discussed
the justifiability of property-damage, he tells me: 'it was shocking: you don't
look like an anarchist'. How to respond? The sensible route would have been
to talk about stereotypes and the ridiculous attempts to define scientifically an
anarchist-type. Cesare Lombroso 's psychological researches threw up two
militant characters. The first had 'a very large forehead, a very bushy beard,
and very large and soft eyes'. This 'noble', 'true' revolutionary type was asso
ciated with genius, saintliness and - notwithstanding the bushy beard -
self-sacrificing nihilists like Vera Zasulich and Sofia Petrovskaya. The second
was distinguished by 'facial asymmetry, enormous jaws, developed frontal
sinus', and protruding ears without lobes. Mil itants of this stripe 'possess the
degenerative characters common to criminals and to the insane'. The
Haymarket anarchists fell into this category.3 Mine was a less sensible path,
though on a par with Lombroso's. I imagine being taken before the television
fashion-police. 'What do you like least about your appearance?' they ask me.
' I don't look like an anarchist', I confess, weeping. I'm taken to a plastic
surgeon to have my forehead reduced, my jaw enlarged and my ears stuck out,
and then to a chi-chi boutique for an expensive make-over. After all the magic
a random selection of high street shoppers is asked to guess my politics from
my now repellent form: 7 5% say 'anarchist'. Of course, the student is right. I
don't have to go far to know the limits of my links with the counterculture (you
can almost see people at book fairs and other anarchist events play spot-the
academic). And in any case, I know that the politics of my everyday life is
very, very conventional. Bourgeois, perhaps? George Melly once suggested
that no-one with a mortgage could call themselves an anarchist, and so
described himself as a sympathizer. But that test - right or wrong - seems to
be the least of it: many of my aspirations are conventional. Forget the
Marvellous, cherish the mundane.
The third conversation, which has been going on some time, had another
airing at a recent seminar. The long and short of my critic's position is that
most nineteenth-century thought is historically interesting but politically
dubious. It suggests a commitment to rigid social schemes (panopticism, more
or less), to vanguardism and class-based ideology. Indeed, defending the work
of the ' ideologues' on the proscribed list (which includes the big three,
Proudhon, Kropotkin and Bakunin, but not Stirner) seems to amount to
5
ANARCHIST STUD IES
NOTES
I. Morris in Nonnan Kelvin (ed), Collected Letters, Vol. II, Princeton University
Press: New Jersey, p. 1 57.
2. Letter to Saul Yanovsky, 1 9 1 1 , in Eugenia C. Delamotte, Gates of Freedom:
Voltairine de C/eyre and the Revolution of the Mind, University of Michigan Press:
Ann'Arbor, p. 1 8 1 .
3. Lombroso, The Monist, Vol. I , 1 890, 336-8.
6
Israeli anarchism
Statist dilemmas and the dynamics of joint struggle
URI GORDON
Arava Institute for Environmental Studies
Kibb utz Ketura, D.N. Hevel Eilot 88840
Israel
uri@riseup.net
ABSTRACT
This article examines anarchist activities and positions in the context of the
Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and addresses some under-theorised dilemmas that
they raise around joint struggle and active solidarity with national liberation
struggles. The first part of the article begins with a critique of the scant anar
chist polemical writing on Palestine/Israel, which reveals a pervasive reliance
on 'old-school ' anarchist formulations and a lack of attention to actual strug
gles on the ground. At the root of these diff iculties, I argue, lies the inadequacy
of traditional anarchist critiques of nationalism for addressing what seems to
be the overriding dilemma in the present context - the question of statehood
for a stateless people. As a response, I examine four reasons why anarchists
can, in fact, support the statist independence claims of Palestinians and, by
extension, of other peoples under occupation. The second part of the article
analyses three threads of intervention present in the activities of anarchists and
their allies in Israel/Palestine - linking issues, direct action and grassroots
peacemaking. The goal here is to examine how the global agendas of contem
porary anarchist politics receive a unique local articulation within the context
of a joint struggle, and to expose the insights afforded by the experience of
Israeli anarchists to social struggles elsewhere.
Issue 1 3:2 of this journal featured Aaron Lakoff 's piece ' Israeli Anarchism -
Being Young, Queer, and Radical in the Promised Land', an interview
conducted in February 2005 with Yossi Bar-Tal of the Alternative Information
Centre, who is also active in various Israeli anti-authoritarian initiatives such
as Anarchists Against the Wall and Black Laundry (Lakoff 2005). While
informative in its portrayal of the activities and approaches taken by anarchists
in Israel/Palestine,. the interview's brevity and inevitably first-person, conver
sational frame still leaves a good deal of room for a more analysis-driven
approach to anarchist activism in the region, and for engagement with some
theoretical issues that arise from the special situation that activists face in this
context.
7
ANARCHIST STUDIES
8
ISRAELI ANARCHISM
contributions on the topic remain, at their best, irrelevant to the concrete expe
riences and dilemmas of movements in the region, and, at their worst, depart
from anarchism all together. Thus the American Platformist Wayne Price
(2002) descends into very crude terms when proclaiming:
In the smoke and blood of Israel/Palestine these days, one point should be
clear, that Israel is the oppressor and the Palestinian Arabs are the
oppressed. Therefore anarchists, and all decent people, should be on the
side of the Palestinians. Criticisms oftheir leaderships or their methods of
f ighting are all secondary; so is recognition that the Israeli Jews are also
people and also have certain collective rights. The first step, always, is to
stand with the oppressed as they fight for their freedom.
Asking all decent people to see someone else's humanity and collective rights
as secondary to anything - whatever this is, this is not anarchism. Where does
Price's side-taking leave the distinction between the Israeli government and
Israeli citizens, or the expectation of solidarity with Israelis who struggle
against the occupation and social injustice? These Israelis are certainly not
taking action because they are 'siding with the Palestinians', but more likely
out of a sense of injustice, responsibility and solidarity. For the anarchists
among them, it is also clearly a struggle taken from the perspective of self
liberation from a militaristic, racist, sexist and otherwise unequal society.
Price's complete indifference to those who consciously intervene against the
occupation and in multiple social contlicts within Israeli society rests on vast
generalisations about how 'blind nationalism leads each nation see itself and
the other as a bloc'. However, people who live inside a contlict can hardly be
expected to display such nai"ve attitudes - the author is only projecting his own,
outsider's, black-and-white vision onto the alleged mindsets of the subjects, and
the side tagged as black is subject to crass and dehumanising language (see also
Hobson, Price & Quest 200 I ). This has become a widespread phenomenon in
the discourse of the European and American Palestine-solidarity movement and
the broader Left, representing what anarchist critics have recently pointed to as
a typically Leftist form of Judeophobia or anti-Semitism (Austrian and
Goldman 2003, Michaels 2004, Shot by both sides 2005).
Meanwhile, Price is so confident about having insight into the just and
appropriate resolution that he permits himself to issue elaborate programs and
demands, down to the finer details: unilateral Israeli withdrawal to 1967 lines,
a Palestinian state and the right of return, ending up in 'some sort of 'secular
democratic' or '''binational'' communal federation' with 'some sort of
self-managed non-capitalist economy'. Meanwhile 'we must support the
resistance of the Palestinian people. They have the right to self-determination,
that is, to choose their leaders, their programs, and their methods of struggle,
whatever we think'.
9
ANARCHIST STUDIES
10
ISRAELI ANARCHISM
I am happy about every imponderable and ineffable thing that brings about
exclusive bonds, unities, and also differentiations within humanity. If I
want to transform patriotism then I do not proceed in the slightest against
the fine fact of the nation ... but against the mixing up of the nation and
the state, against the confusion of differentiation and opposition.
II
ANARCHIST STUDIES
12
ISRAELI ANARCHISM
oppressed by those who have the power to do so' (ibid.); or that 'it is not about
forcing the Israeli state to respect the rights of Palestinians, nor supporting the
formation of a new Palestinian state. Rather it is a question of starting to prac
tice desertion, refusal, sabotage, attack, destruction against every constituted
authority, all power, every state' (Friends of AI-Halladj 2002). Again, while
such sentiments are certainly in tune with longer-term anarchist aspirations,
they also consign anarchists to a position of irrelevance in the present tense.
On the one hand, anarchists could certainly agree that the establishment of a
capitalist Palestinian state through negotiations among existing and would-be
governments would only mean the 'submission of the Intifada to a comprador
Palestinian leadership that will serve Israel', and that neoliberal globalisation,
and initiatives for regional trade cooperation such as the Mediterranean free
trade zone, are demarcating a capitalist trajectory for the region which will
only increase economic hardship and social gaps, giving no solution to the
refugee problem (Anarchist Communist Initiative 2005). On the other hand, by
disengaging from concrete Palestinian demands for a state, such anarchists are
left with nothing to propose except 'an entirely different way of life and
equality for all the inhabitants of the region ... a classless anarchist-commu
nist society' (ibid.). This is all well and good, but what happens in the
meantime?
SUPPORTING S TATEHOOD?
While anarchists surely can do something more specific in solidarity with
Palestinians than just saying that 'we need a revolution', any such action
would appear hopelessly contaminated with a statist agenda. The fact that
anarchists nevertheless engage in on-the-ground actions of solidarity with
Palestinian communities and groups requires us to grip this particular bull by
its horns. Here, I believe there are at least four coherent ways in which anar
chists can deal with the dilemma of support for a Palestinian state.
The first and most straightforward response is to acknowledge that there is
indeed a contradiction here, but to insist that in a liminal, imperfect situation,
solidarity is still worthwhile even if it comes at the price of inconsistency.
Endorsement of Palestinian statehood by anarchists can be seen as a pragmatic
position based on anti-imperialist commitments or even basic humanitarian
concern. It does nobody any good to effectively say to the Palestinians, 'sorry,
we'll let you remain non-citizens of a brutal occupation until after we're done
abolishing capitalism'. For this reason, one can see some kind of representa
tive statehood for the Palestinians as the only short term solution, however
imperfect, to their current oppression. This is attached to a view in which soli
darity is 'not about supporting those who share your precise politics. It's about
supporting those who struggle against injustice - even if their assumptions,
methods, politics, and goals differ from our own' (ISM Canada 2004). With
13
ANARCHIST STUDIES
14
ISRAELI ANARCHISM
15
ANARCHIST STUDIES
LINKIN G ISSUES
16
ISRAELI ANARCHISM
17
ANARCHIST STUDIES
nation of agendas is there with the explicit goal of 'highlighting the connection
between all different forms of oppression, and hence also of the various strug
gles against them' (One Struggle 2002). Ma'avak Ehad's explicit anti-capitalist
and ecological agenda also adds a rare radical critique of the relationship
between capitalism and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. While the latter is well
researched on the economic level (see e.g. Nitzan and Bichler 2002), awareness
of these connections is far from widespread in public discourse, going only as
far as political rhetoric like 'money for social services, not for the settlements!'.
The group's emphasis on animal liberation again creates a critical bridge:
calling attention to animal rights within peace and social justice movements,
but also encouraging resistance to the occupation in the vegetarian and vegan
community. By operating Food Not Bombs stalls, the group creates meaningful
connections between poverty, militarism and animal exploitation, which are
highly poignant in an Israeli context. In addition, members of this group were
some of the founders of Anarchists Against the Wall.
A third example in this thread is New Profile, a feminist organization that
challenges Israel's militarised social order. Its activities fall into two cate
gories. First, it does educational work around the connections between
militarism in Israeli society and patriarchy, inequalities and social violence,
and acts to 'disseminate and realize feminist-democratic principles iri Israeli
education by changing a system that promotes unquestioning obedience and
glorification of military service' (Aviram 2003). Activities in this area include
debates in schools that promote critical, non-hierarchical thinking, and work
shops on consensus, conflict resolution and democratic process for groups. In
its second role, New Profile is the most radical among the four Israeli
refusenik groups, and the one through which anarchists refusing military
service predominantly organise. The group campaigns for the right to consci
entious objection, and its website has full guides to refusal for both men and
women. It operates a network of support 'buddies' for refuseniks before,
during and after jail, arranges seminars for youth who are still dwelling on
whether or not to refuse or evade service, and campaigns to support and recog
nise the struggle of women refuseniks. The group's radical
feminist/anti-militarist stance, besides being an important message to society,
also creates a meaningful bridge between feminists and the refusenik move
ment, critical in challenging the core narratives to which most refuseniks -
predominantly mainstream left-Zionist males - continue to adhere.
DIRECT ACTION
A second thread of intervention in Palestine/Israel in which global trends are
refracted is civil disobedience and direct action, in particular within the
context of the anti-occupation struggles since the beginning of the second
Intifada. Such tactics are clearly central to the anarchist political repertoire,
18
ISRAELI ANARCHISM
19
ANARCHIST STUDIES
Solidarity means more than 'charity' work to ease our conscience. It must
also do more than simply witness or document atrocities - though these
tasks are also critical to our work. The ISM views solidarity as an impera
tive to actively engage in resistance to the Occupation, to take sides, to put
our bodies on the line, and to use the relative privilege of our passports
and, in some cases, colour - first and foremost, in ways that Palestinians
actually request, but also in ways which help build trust and expand
networks of mutual aid.
It should be emphasised, however, that these anarchist affinities are not the result
of any direct influence on part of the Western anarchist movement. Rather, they
are a point of convergence between anarchism and the endemic Palestinian tradi
tion of popular resistance. Palestinians have a long-standing orientation towards
civil disobedience and non-violent action, which has continued since the first
Intifada - an uprising organised through popular committees and largely in
detachment from the PLO leadership, and involving mass demonstrations,
general strikes, tax refusal, boycotts of Israeli products, political graffiti and the
establishment of underground schools and grassroots mutual aid projects.
Hence, the first point to be made about the particulars of anarchist
involvement in direct action in Palestine relates to its strong display of anti
vanguardism. In all of these actions, anarchists and their allies have
deliberately participated as followers and supporters rather than as equals. The
ethos of the ISM and other solidarity groups stresses taking the lead from
Palestinian community members or representatives, based on the principle that
decision-making and control of actions should be in proportion to the degree
to which one is affected by the potential outcome. As a result, ISMers have
been careful to emphasise that 'internationals cannot behave as if they are
coming to teach Palestinians anything about "peace" or "non-violence" or
"morality" or "democracy", or anything else that many in the West typically
(and arrogantly and mistakenly) view as the exclusive realm of Western
activism and values' (ibid.). Similarly, Yossi Bar-Tal has argued that 'we're not
working in Palestine to educate ... We would never hand out leaflets in Arabic
explaining what anarchism is and why you should join us, because this is not
our way ... we're not there to educate, because while they're being occupied
20
ISRAELI ANARCHISM
by our state we have no reason to come there and preach' (Lakoff 2005). The
same logic has been applied to the ideas of disobedience and direct action. In
such a setting, any attempt at a defining contribution in terms of direct action
- say, by way of implanting tactics garnered from Western models - would
strike anarchists as an arrogant intervention. So in this case the anarchist
connection happens more in terms of support for existing forms of popular
resistance towards which anarchists experience affinity, rather than in terms of
anarchists importing their own politics into a new arena.
The spring of 2003 marked a clear period of transition for direct action in
Israel/Palestine, with the centre of gravity for solidarity activities shifting from
the ISM to Israeli initiatives. The reason for this shift was a profound crisis in
the ISM, following a rapid succession of tragic events, which led to a lowering
of its profile and created a vacuum that was filled by Anarchists Against the
Wall, who began their organising in the same period.
Two factors contributed to the ebb of ISM activities. The first was the
killing of two of its volunteers in Gaza. On 16 March, Rachel Corrie was
crushed to death under an Israeli armoured bulldozer which she was trying to
obstruct during a house demolition in Rafah. On I I April another interna
tional, Tom Hurndall, was shot in the head by an Israeli sniper in the same area
and went into coma, dying nine months later. While the killings raised inter
national outcry, increased the ISM's profile and further highlighted the
brutality of the occupation, they also underlined the immense risk accompa
nying solidarity activities and caused many activists to think twice about going
to Palestine. The second factor was a concerted Israeli campaign to associate
the ISM with terrorism, and subsequent clampdowns on the organisation. On
the night of 27 March, during a period of curfew and military arrests in Jenin,
a 23-year-old Palestinian named Shadi Sukiya arrived at the ISM office in
Jenin, soaking wet and shivering, and was given a change of clothes, a hot
drink and a blanket. Soon afterwards Israeli soldiers came in and arrested
Sukiya, who they accused of being a senior member of the Islamic Jihad. The
army also claimed that a pistol had been discovered in the office, but later
retracted the allegation. On 25 April, a public memorial service for Rachel
Corrie organised by the ISM was attended by two young British Muslims, Asif
Hanif and Omar Khan Sharif. Five days later, the two carried out a suicide
bombing at a restaurant in Tel-Aviv. Despite the fact that in both cases contact
had been minimal and ISM volunteers had no idea about the identity of their
guests, the Israeli government used these events as an excuse to publicly
accuse the organisation of harbouring terrorists and proceeded to repress the
organisation. On 9 May the army raided the ISM media office in Beit Sahour,
seizing computer equipment, video tapes, CDs and files. Though uncon
firmed, it is thought that among the materials seized was a comprehensive list
of past and present ISM volunteers, including their addresses and passport
numbers. This enabled the Israeli security apparatus to expand its 'blacklist' of
21
ANARCHIST STUDIES
22
ISRAELI ANARCHISM
youth at best and as traitors at worst, it is impossible to deny that their direct
actions have had some impact on the discourse of wider Israeli society, espe
cially around the barrier. Israeli-Palestinian cooperation in militant action is
inherently powerful because it enacts a dramatic, 90-degree flip of perspective :
the 'horizontal' imagery of conflict between Israelis and Palestinians is
displaced by the 'vertical' one of struggle between people and government.
There are two further points to be made regarding the direct-action activi
ties in Palestine/Israel surveyed above. The first regards the special
intersection, in the current context, between direct action and questions of
political violence. While recognising the legitimacy of organized, armed insur
rection (though not of targeting civilians), the ISM and the Anarchists Against
the Wall participate only in non-violent acts resistance by Palestinians. This
has the goal of giving visibility to the non-violent aspects of Palestinian
struggle , which in fact constitute the bulk of their activity against the occupa
tion, and with which Western audiences can more easily identify. Now this
position provides an interesting counterpoint to the debates around violence in
European and North American anarchist circles. The endorsement of a 'diver
sity of tactics' places anarchists in a more comfortable position than strictly
non-violent activists regarding the landscape of struggle in Palestine/Israel.
Here , the non-violent aspect of direct action plays an entirely different role ,
since it takes place against the backdrop of a highly violent conflict, in which
armed struggle is the norm rather than the exception. By engaging only in
non-violent forms of action while not denouncing armed resistance , the ISM
and the anarchists have , after their own fashion , also adopted a diversity of
tactics position. Where supporters of a more strict, ideological version of non
violence (e.g. in the Gandhian tradition) might experience a deep conflict with
such a position, Western anarchists who have distanced themselves from strict
non-violence can more comfortably accept it - although in this case it is they
who take on the non-violent option. In Palestine, then, anarchists have found
themselves inhabiting the other side of the 'diversity of tactics' equation ,
counteracting the charge that this formula is merely a euphemism for violence
(Lakey 2002) by showing that they too are committed to engage in purely non
violent actions under some conditions.
The second point to be made in this context regards the uncommon degree
of state violence faced by the Israeli anarchists, and the resultant pervasiveness
of post-traumatic stress and burn-out among their ranks. While obviously
amounting to very little compared to the lethal brutality directed towards the
Palestinian population, the frequency of Israeli anarchists' experiences of state
repression is certainly considerable in comparison to those of their European
and North American counterparts. Exposure to tear-gas and baton blows has
become a matter of weekly regularity, compounded by the use of sound
grenades , rubber-coated metal bullets and even live ammunition. In one case
an Israeli protester was shot in the thigh with a live bullet and almost died of
23
ANA RCHIST STUDIE S
blood lo ss, while another was shot in the head by a rubber-coated metal bullet
and was also in critical condition. In addition, there have been uncounted
minor injuries su stained at the hands of soldier s and border police during anti
wall demonstration s. The army has also been using demonstrations in the We st
Bank as an opportunity to test novel 'less lethal' weapons such as pepperballs
(a small tran sparent red plastic ball containing an extremely irritant powder)
and the Tze'aka (Hebrew for 'scream") - a minute-long blast of deafening
sound emanating from a vehicle-mounted device that causes nausea and
imbalance ( Rose 2006).
These experiences have led to wide spread post-traumatic stress ( PT S), a
phenomenon which is only now beginning to be acknowledged and dealt with
in anarchist circles internationally. In the wake of repression, numerous
activists have experienced emotional symptoms of P T S, including anxiety,
guilt, depression, irritability and feelings of alienation and isolation; cognitive
symptoms such as disturbing thoughts, flashback s and intrusive images,
nightmares, panic attack s and hyper-vigilance; and physical effects including
fatigue, elevated blood pre ssure, breathing and visual difficulties, menstrual
changes and muscular tension. Unfortunately, until very recently the anar
chi sts did not give any significant attention to these problems and failed to
create a space for dealing with them. As a result of the accumulation of
untreated stress, the initiative has seen high degree s of bum-out and with
drawal from activity, creating a lack of continuity in the group. Only a handful
of the founding participants remain active today, while new and younger
activists join in and soon experience the same difficulties.
The failure to address PT S and bum-out can be traced to the internal
dynamics of the group: a short-term focu s on organising the next demonstra
tion, mirrored by a lack of more stragetical discussion about the group's
long-term goals and su stainability as a group; and (perhaps mo st disturbingly)
an uncritical reproduction, among at least some of the activists, of a cultural
ethos which emphasised personal sacrifice, resilience and toughness, creating
widespread reluctance to surface the psychological effects of regular exposure
to repression for fear of being considered 'weak'. The same short-termism has
also been re sponsible for the unchecked development of informal hierarchie s
in the group, due to differences in experience, personal time and energy, and
access to resources and networks. In the past months, however, some prom
ising changes have been taking place. Two member s of the British activist
trauma group -a network of activists trained to treat post-traumatic stre ss who
are raising awareness to the issue within the movement - arrived in the country
with their I sraeli partners and proceeded to set up a local group with the same
goals (for details on the Briti sh group's work see www.activist-trauma.net/).
While initially intended as a support network for the upcoming Queeruption
events, the initiative was soon received with enthusiasm by a much broader
range of activists including participants in Anarchists Against the Wall, who
24
ISRAELI ANARCHISM
could for the first time name what they had been going through and feel safe
to ask for support. Also recently, a discussion of the issues of leadership and
power in the group has been initiated in earnest, with increased awareness of
the need for re-distributing responsibilities, decentralising communication and
sharing resources and skills. These developments may mark a new phase in the
activities of the Israeli anarchists, creating a more sustainable movement and
a space for the elaboration of longer-term agendas.
25
ANARCHIST STUDIES
when Palestin ians who live in Israel actively resisted and raised their voices in
sol idar ity w ith those in the occupied terr itories. Ta'ayush has a large member
ship of Jews and Palestinian Arabs of Israeli c itizenship, including many
students, and undertakes many actions in the territories - br inging food to the
towns and helping farmers to work their land. A more communal example is
Neve Shalom/ Wahat ai-Salaam, a cooperat ive v illage of Jew ish and Palestin ian
Israelis, situated equ idistant between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv-Jaffa. Founded in
1972, the v illage now houses about 50 families and operates Israel's f irst fully
bilingual regional school, with 290 Jew ish and Arab children. The residents
also have been organiz ing projects to help Palestinians in the West Bank w ith
distr ibution of food and medical attention. Overall, the network of organisa
tions for Jew ish-Arab coex istence in Israel already lists over one hundred
groups, from lobbying and advocacy groups through educational and artistic
projects and on to local cit izens' fora in mixed cities and regions.
However, unlike Ta'ayush, many of these initiatives explicitly designate
themselves as 'a-political', sidestepping the obligation to confront social
inequalities in Palestine/Israel, and see themselves as 'civil society' initiatives
which supplement rather than challenge basic pol itical and social structures.
Thus a specif ic anarch ist contribution to th is thread of intervention is to infuse
it w ith a more clearly antagonistic d imension. What anarchists especially
contr ibute to grassroots peacemaking is to undertake projects within its fold,
on their own or in cooperation w ith others, wh ile maintaining a stance of
refusal towards state power. Thus community peacemaking, as a form of
politic ian-bypassing d irect action, at least has the potential for generating
further joint struggles and a deeper awareness of how collective oppression
and trauma are at work on both s ides.
In a h ighly-evocative article, Amer ican-Israel i anarchist Bill Templer
(2003) po ints to one version of what this could look l ike , using many
keywords that w ill be familiar by now :
Re inventing politics in Israel and Palestine means lay ing the groundwork
now for a kind of Jewish-Palestinian Zapatismo, a grassroots effort to
'reclaim the commons'. This would mean mov ing towards direct democ
racy, a participatory economy and a genuine autonomy for the people ;
towards Martin Buber's vision of 'an organic commonwealth ... that is a
community of communities'. We might call it the 'no-state solution' .
26
ISRAELI ANARCHISM
traces elements which are already turning Palestine/Israel into 'an incubator
for creating "dual power" over the middle term, "hollowing out" capitalist
structures and top-down bureau cracies'.
Amid the daily horrors of death and humiliation, and set against the back
drop of the defensive and bellicose attitudes of the Israeli public, Templer's
speculations may involve more than a bit of wishful thinking. But the relevant
point is that the activities of antagonistic groups and communities can
'contaminate' any future peace process with a more thoroughgoing agenda of
social transformation. What grounds such an agenda, from an anarchist
perspective, is the argument that the creation of genuine peace requires the
creation and fostering of political spaces which facilitate voluntary coopera
tion and mutual aid between Israelis and Palestinians. Indeed, even if the
Israeli government turned around and accepted a route towards peace and
normalisation between the two peoples, su ch peace and normalisation would
still only exist to the extent that people practised them; they would not spring
.
into being by executive fiat.
The Mas 'ha camp has already registered a powerful example of the poten
tials of such endeavours. The encounter between Israelis and Palestinians
engaged in a joint struggle against the construction of the segregation barrier in
the village became a protracted face-to-face encounter, where members of both
communities could work together on a daily basis, overcoming the invisible
walls of isolation and stereotypes created by the occupation. For both sides, the
camp was an intense experience of equality and togetherness, which by exten
sion could create a model for future efforts - as these quotes from a Palestinian
and an Israeli participant demonstrate (Shalabi and Medicks 2003):
Nazeeh : We wanted to show that the Israeli people are not our enemies; to
provide an opportunity for Israelis to cooperate with us as good neighbors
and support our struggle... Our camp showed that peace will not be built
by walls and separation, but by cooperation and communication between
the two peoples living in this land. At Mas'ha Camp we lived together, ate
together, and talked together 24 hours a day for four months. Our fear was
never from each other, but only from the Israeli soldiers and settlers.
Oren : The young Israeli generation realizes that the world has changed.
They saw the Berlin wall come down. They know that security behind
walls is illusionary. Spending some time together in the camp, has proven
to us all that real security lies in the acceptance of one another as equals,
in respecting each other's right to live a full, free life ... [we struggle] to
topple walls and barriers between peoples and nations, creating a world
which speaks one language - the language of equal rights and freedom.
The imagery of resistance to fences, walls and borders already has a very
strong currency in anarchist and broader anti-capitalist circles. The fences
27
ANARCHIST STUDIES
CONC LUSION
This article has attempted to make sense of anarchist positions and actions in the
context of Palestine/Israel. I have pointed to the obstacles that the traditional
anarchist position against nationalism creates for solidarity with occupied
peoples, arguing that support for national liberation in the form of a new state
does not in fact contradict central anarchist concerns. While this is an interesting
theoretical point, it turns out to be far less than cr itical in practical terms, since
the relevant actions that anarchists undertake on the ground are either indifferent
to the question of statehood (in the case of everyday practical solidarity and direct
action), or else attempt to transcend it (in the case of grassroots peacemaking that
seeks reconciliation and mutual aid alongside and as-against any statist resolu
tion). In examining these concrete activities on the ground, I have pointed both to
local expressions of the action repertoires and perspectives of contemporary anar
chism as a global movement, and to unique configurations and dilemmas that
accompany anti-authoritarian activism in this particular context.
I would have liked to end this article on an optimistic note, but as it goes to
print the situation in Israel/Palestine is worse than it has ever been. The Israeli
government continues to make life hell for the residents of Gaza and the West
Bank, and has adopted a policy of knee-jerk rejection towards any and every
initiative for renewed negotiations. Among the Israeli public, wide support for
the recent war in Lebanon and the lack of outcry at the ministerial appoint
ment of Avigdor Lieberman - a barefaced racist advocating ethnic cleansing
and centralisation of power - represent a mood of dazed passivity, fed by
economic hardship and the constant revival of dark collective traumas. In such
an environment, the efforts of anarchists and the wider left easily seem like a
drop in the sea. Even when hundreds mobilise to protest the continued
pounding of Gaza or the accelerated building of the segregation barrier, their
voices largely fall on deaf ears as the seemingly-unstoppable engines of death
churn on. As the nightmare unfolds, all that anarchists and their allies can do
28
ISRAELI ANARCHI SM
is hold on to their visions and continue the thankless work of building the
infrastructures of joint struggle, never losing their hope for a breakthrough
that will f inally bring some solace to this orphaned land.
NOT E S
I . Throughout this article, the terms ' Israel/Palestine' and ' Palestine/lsrael' are used
interchangeably to refer to the land west of the Jordan River.
2. The information presented in this part of the article is based on the author's
ongoing participant observation of anarchist activities, supplemented by examples
from relevant literature.
RE F ERENCE S
Anarchist Communist I nitiative, Israel (2004) 'Two States for Two Peoples - Two States
Too Many' (leaflet), in FdCA, We are all Anarchists against the Wall
Anonymous ( 1 999) Beasts of Burden: Capitalism. Animals. Communism (London:
Antagonism Press); http://www.geocities.com/CapitoIHill/Lobby/3909/beasts/
Austrian, Guy Izhak and Ella Goldman (2003) 'How to strengthen the Palestine
Solidarity Movement by making friends with Jews'; Clamor magazine
Communique #20; http://www.clamormagazine.org/communique/commu
nique20.pdf
Ayalon, Uri (2004) 'Resisting the Apartheid Wall', in FdCA, We are all Anarchists
against the Wall
Bakunin, Mikhail ( 1 9531 1 8 7 1 ) 'A circular letter to my friends in Italy', in G. P.
Maximotf, ed., The Political Philosophy ofBakunin (London: Free Press)
Dominick, Brian ( 1 995) Animal Liberation and Social Revolution (pamphlet);
http://www.onestruggle.org/AlibSorev.htm
FdCA - Federazione dei Comunisti Anarchici (eds., 2004) We are all Anarchists against the
Wall (Fano: I Quaderni di Altemativa Libertaria); http://www.fdca.itlwall/media.htm
Friends of AI-Halladj (2002) Fawda; http://digilander.libero.it/guerrasociale.org/
fawda_ing.htm
Grauer, Mina ( 1 994) 'Anarcho-Nationalism: Anarchist attitudes towards Jewish nation
alism and Zionism', Modern Judaism 14. 1
Hobson, Christopher Z., Wayne Price and Matthew Quest (200 1 ) 'New Intifada'
(debate) The Utopian 2
homefries (ed., 2004) A Liberation Reader: Writings and other media connecting
animal liberation and social justice; http://www.liberationreader.blogspot.com/
ISM - International Solidarity Movement - Canada (2004) ' History, Structure &
Philosophy'; http://www.ismcanada.org/enlhistory.shtml
Lakey, George (2002) ' Diversity of Tactics and Democracy', Clamor Magazine 1 3
(MarchiApril)
Lakotf, Aaron (2005) ' Israeli Anarchism: Being Young, Queer and Radical in the
Promised Land', Anarchist Studies 1 3.2; http://aaron.resist.ca/node/33
Landauer, Gustav ( 1 907) ' Yolk und Land: DreiBig sozialistische Thesen' , Die ZukunJt
(Jan. 12)
-. ( 1 973/ 1 9 1 0) 'Schwache Stattsmiinner, Schwacheres Yolk!', Der Sozialist (June 10).
Trans. in Eugene Lunn, Prophet of Community: the Romantic Socialism of Gustav
Landauer (Berkeley: University of California Press)
29
ANARCHIST STUDIE S
McCarthy, Ryan Chiang (2002) 'Anarchists and Palestine: Class Struggle or Popular
Front?', NEFAC website; http://makhno.nefac.net/html/drupall?q=node/view/ l 58
M ichaels, Lucy (2004) ' Fear and Loathing', New Internationalist 372 (October);
http://www.jfjfp.org/BackgroundJ/michaels.htm
PENGON - Palestinian Environmental NGOs Network (2003) The Apartheid Wall
Campaign (website); http://www.pengon.org/wall/info.html
PLO-NAD - Palestine Liberation Organisation, Negotiations Affairs Department
(2006), Barrier to Peace: Assessment of Israel s Revised Wall Route;
http://www.nad-plo.org/news-updates/wall.pdf
Price, Wayne (2002) 'Anarchism and the Israeli-Palestinian War', Barricada 1 7
Rocker, Rudolf ( 1 937) Nationalism and Cultllre (New York: Covici, Friede)
Rose, Steven (2006), ' Israel's Other Weaponry', Palestine News (summer)
Sandercock, Josie et al. (eds., 2004) Peace Under Fire: Israel/Palestine and the
International Solidarity Movement (London: Verso)
Sha'alabi, Nazeeh and Oren Medicks (2003) 'The camp in the eyes ofa Palestinian activist'
and 'The camp in the eyes of an Israeli activist'; http://stopthewall.org.il/mashacamp/
Shot by both sides (2005) 'Anti semitism and the Left', Melbourne Indymedia;
http://www.melbourne.indymedia.org/news/2005/02/87951 .php
Solidarity Federation (2002) ' Human Rights: Yes - State of Palestine: No', Direct
Action 23; http://www.directa.force9.co.uklback issues/DA 23/regulars2.htm
Templer, Bill (2003) ' From Mutual Struggle to Mutual Aid: Moving beyond the statist
impasse in IsraeI/Palestine', Borderlands 2.3; http://www.borderlandsejournal.
adelaide.edu.aulvoI2n03_20031 templer_impasse.htm
30
No past, no respect, and no power
An anarchist evaluation of Native Americans as sports
nicknames, logos, and mascots
DANA M. WILLIAMS
Department of Sociology
University ofAkron
Akron, OH 44325- 1905
dana@riseup.net
A BSTRACT
Native American imagery is commonly used in American society, particularly
as sport team nicknames, logos, and mascots. An anarchist critique sheds light
on the multifaceted dimensions of oppression that this practice draws upon.
Racism and sexism, capitalism and violent state power not only constitute the
targets of many anarchisms; they are also the matrix propping up these Native
American sports nicknames. These various oppressions are explored in detail,
with an attempt to diagram the major dimensions in which these nicknames
are maintained by the dominant US culture. Understanding the ways in which
the practice draws power from various oppressive and hierarchical institutions
can be useful for overcoming not only Native American repression, but also
aiding anarchist struggles against American Empire.
INTRODUCTION
The expropriation of Native American I culture by mainstream A merica is
pervasive (Green 1988; Merskin 2001; Miller 1999), as ' Warriors' and
'Indians' ranked in the top ten most prevalent college sports team names in
the mid-1990s (Nuessel 1994). Yet, only in recent years has this practice been
increasingly criticized. In 2005, the National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA) decreed that the use of Native American nicknames, logos, and
mascots2 by eighteen US college sports teams was detrimental to learning
and promoted har mful stereotypes of Native people (NCAA 2005). W hile
this critique is an appropriate vantage point from which to construct an argu
ment against this practice, an anarchist and anti-authoritarian perspective
could offer a deeper and more radical understanding. A closer examination of
the dense web of domination be hind using Native American imagery in
sports exposes the more general domination of Native peoples themselves.3
31
ANARCHIST STUDIES
32
NO PAST, NO RES PECT, AND NO POWER
(Sf) magazine survey (Price 2002) that purpor ted to demonstrate that most
Native A mericans support their likenesses being used by spor ts tea ms.
First, King et a t. argue, the Sf poll is proble matic because it serves to
distract readers from the histor y a nd implications of nickna me a nd
mascots. Second, the survey featurt:s proble matic sampling and identifica
tion issues that prod uce non-representative a nd non-ge neralizable findings
( for example, S nipp ( 1992) writes of the difficulty i nvolved in any quan
titative research on Native A mericans i n national p olling). T hird Sf
decontextualizes nicknames and the controversy about the m. Fourth, the
article discussing the poll concludes that nicknames are unproble matic
merely because a majority of p olled Native people say they are, thus
discounting the validity ofa critical minority. Finally the consequences for
p ublic debate a nd social j ustice are ignored by the poll, which treats the
issue as critically as Sf treats spor ts injuries or debate over which teams
will make the playoffs.
All of this research signifies a gr owing body ofevidence de monstrating
that the practice of using Native A mericans as sports log os constitutes a
serious problem, not a 'PC' issue to be groaned over and dismissed. Yet,
research to date has neglected to c ompile the broad and varied arguments
relevant and link them together at once as representing and c onstituting
multiple oppressions. T here have bee n no atte mpts to s how that the
multiple aspects to this practice are n ot merely interlinked, but represent a
deeper, a nd hence not merely sy mbolic, oppression of Native A mericans.
T he easiest way to view a ny political philosophy is in ter ms of what it
opposes a nd what i t s uppor ts. Anarchism tends to oppose hierarc hy,
a uthority, ce ntralizati on, a nd instead s uppor ts decentralized, horizontal,
and c ooperative social relationships. T hus, if anarchist the ory ca n be said
to have one central and persistent utility, it is that of interrogating the
multi-layered syste ms, insti tutions, a nd practices of domination, power,
a nd a uthority in human societies. A s such, we would be well advised to
focus a n a narchist le ns upon the vari ous forms of d omination inherent to
the US p he nomenon of using Native A merican nickna mes, logos, and
mascots. T he shades and per mutations of these dominations are ma ny, a nd,
arg uably, the damage d one by s uch practices carries a heav y sy mbolic if
n ot actual price for the conscience of A merican society. The oppressions
of racism a nd sexism, capitalism a nd violent state p ower are all fre quent
targets of nearly all shades of anarchism - and each is foc used on here in
tum. T here fore the 'targets' of anarchist opposition are explored in this
article, ending with a brief exploration of what strategies anarchism could
a nd should supp ort. I n the process of studying this par ticular, single prac
tice, the e ntire ( false) edifice upon which Native history, socio-economic
conditions, and colonized realities is c onstr ucted will hope fully bec ome
disr upted.
33
ANARCHIST STUDIES
34
NO PAST, NO R ES P ECT, AND NO POW ER
altho ug h rece ntly Native A mericans have achieved some eco no mic parity
w ith Afr ican A mer icans (Snipp 1992). T hey also have mortality rate s d ue
to acc ide nts, suicide, alcoholism, v iolence a nd d iabetes that are higher
than other A mer icans generally (Snipp 1997). Research ha s also continu
o usly found that Native peo ple s have far worse health problems than
W hite s in the US, includ ing low b irth we ight, infant mor tal ity, obesity,
hepatitis A a nd B, tuberculosis a nd sexually tra nsmitted disea se s (Cheadle
et al. 1994, De nny et al. 2005, Grossman et al. 1994, Holman et al. 200 I ,
W ill et al. 1999). They e nd ure greater levels o f unemployme nt tha n a ny
other peoples. O nly 18 per cent of Native A mer icans aged 18 to 24 are
e nrolled in college, the lowest percentage of all racial gro ups, a nd only 13
per cent of all Native A mericans aged 25 and older have a college degree,
a lower perce ntage tha n a ny other ethnic group except H ispa nics (National
Center for Education Statistics 2005).
T he se are so me of the problems Native A mericans face today, at lea st
the ea sily mea surable proble ms. Not only do the se problems exist, b ut
Native A mericans also face issue s that are perhaps le ss immediately
threate ning, b ut no less cr uc ial - the proble ms of w hich spor t tea m appro
pr iation of Native c ul ture is indicative. By interrogating the se issue s, all
o ther problems co me into shar per focus.
35
ANARCHIST STUDIES
phi lo sophy, and its insights have foc used o n problems i n all moder n soci
eties, be they political, economic, cultural, or social. Th us, a s Chomsky
(2005) sugge sts, concerned people should be seeking o ut for ms o f domi
nation and oppression, challe nging them, a nd hopefully replacing them
with better for ms of social organization. What follows is an attempt to
interrogate these hierarchical for ms of social organization, speci fica l ly i n
terms o f their support for Native A merican i magery in sports.
36
NO PAST, NO RESPECT, AND NO POWER
non-Whites do not exist for Native Americans except in the form of reser
vations, which are overwhelmingly on rural, marginal land far removcd
from urban centres and thc public spotl ight. Thus, Nativc pcoples havc
nearly no existence in the discourse of American race relations.
The source and time period that ushered in many Native sports names
is important to note. Most racial nicknames currently used came into exis
tence during the first half of the twentieth century when the so-called
American frontier was being closed (Staurowsky 1 998; Landreth 200 I ).
Thus, with the real 'Indian wars' ending, Americans were beginning to
construct play ' Indian wars' with Native imagery in sports and pop
culture. The decisions to create these nicknames, logos and mascots were
made without considering or caring about the input of non-White persons.
The movements for Civil Rights and BlackiBrowniRedlYell ow Power were
almost non-existent at this time. The few social movement organizations
that did exist - such as the National Association for the Advancement of
Coloured People (NAACP) - focused heavily on overt political rights via
legal challenges (Ransby 2003), to the neglect of cultural artefacts such as
sports nicknames.
Those who made the decisions to create the nicknames and logos were
themselves White, and the names were ascribed during a heightened
period of White racism. The people (often wealthy men) who sit on the
Boards of Trustees at universities and local school boards, or who own
professional sports teams, are nearly all White. Even the individuals who
'represent' Native culture are sometimes White: at the University of
Illinois, half-time entertainment at sporting events is provided by a White
student dressed as 'Chief IIIini ' in full 'Indian' regalia. Whites continue to
control the destinies of team nicknames, and yet many continue to rein
force racist assumptions of what is 'best' for tradition and to pretend that
the names are 'honourable' tributes. Still, as superficial as such justifica
tions may be, it has only been in recent decades, when pressure has been
applied by the Red Power movement that began in the 1 97 0s, that expla
nations involving words like 'honour' were even necessary to create (see
Banks 1 993, Means 1 995).
Often, the power of a people is best expressed in their ability to define
and name themselves (Coll ins 1 99 1 ). Native American tribes have consis
tently demanded autonomy from the dominant White culture of the US
since the meeting of the two cultures. Even though some Native American
reservation schools use Native American imagery to represent their sports
teams, this practice is sensible, since they are in control of their own
culture and imagery (for a similar example, see hooks' ( 1 989) articulation
of African-American women ' coming to voice', and thus moving from
'silence to speech'). The rejection of Native American imagery for sports
teams is a qualified one, which suggests that Native people be given the
37
ANARCHIST STUDIES
38
NO PAST, NO RESPECT, AND NO POWER
radica l women at UND are d iscred ited as be ing 'overly PC' (po litically
correct) and for not focusing on 'more important issues' instead.
CAPITA LISM
T he do minant economic system of our time is capitalism. A lthough 'pure'
capitalism is not fo und in any country - the state commonly meddles in
the 'free market' on behalf of private corporat ions - it is o ften c la imed as
the ideal system under which to conduct econo mic prod uct ion, exchange,
and cons umption. T hus, the ut ilization of Native c ulture within a capita list
economy for the purposes of profit requires deeper explorat ion.
Proudhon ( 1840) once fa mo us ly dec lared that proper ty was 'the ft' - an
idea easily adaptable to the appropriation of Native c ulture. In Proudhon's
ca lculation, the very nature of 'proper ty' insists that so me possess it and,
consequently, others cannot. T he 'acquis it ion' of proper ty at one point in
history re inforces the f ut ure ability to restr ict others' access to it. In the
case of Native mascots, the ab ility of Corporate A merica (or un iversit ies
and other schools) to possess these sy mbo ls and c ultura l markers - and to
legally trade mark the m - constitutes a theft from Nat ive A merica. In
stea ling them, the dominant c ulture robs Native people of the abi lity to use
their c ulture for the mselves, whether for se lf-deter mination, prof it, or
mere s ur v ival. Native people have had the whole of their heritage,
c usto ms, and imagery stolen, do minated, d igested and regurg itated back to
them by the dominant c ulture (Pewewardy 1991); and thus they have no
say in how their likeness, trad itions, or history is used. W hites continue to
'p lay Indian' without Native per mission (Green 1988). Nat ive c ulture is
interpreted se lective ly and deployed only for the pursuit of profit.
Rare ly are the many nations, tribes, and ethnic ities consulted abo ut the
use of their names, imagery, c ulture, trad itions, etc. Usua l ly any cons ider
ation pa id to Native peop les is post hoc. T hey are merely taken,
reprocessed and exploited. W hen per mission is willingly granted, as with
the F lorida-based Se minole Tr ibe and its s upport of the F lor ida State
University 'Seminoles', many Semino les acquiesce s ince they rece ive
indirect benef its from FS U 'Semino le' pop ular ity, such as state f unding
for various tribal projects ( K ing 2000). This theft does a n umber of t hings
to Nat ive A mer icans. F irst, it robs the m of their ability to deter mine how
they, Native people, are portrayed to others in soc iety. As Z inn (1990,
\995) argues, history that flatters the cap ita lists, generals and polit ic ians
is neither 'object ive' nor accurate, and restrains se lf-determinat ion.
Second ly, the theft casts o ut stereotypes, misconceptions and histor ical
inaccuracies to the p ublic mind, which conse quently warps the treatment
of Nat ive A mer icans. T hird ly, it tarnis hes the se lf-image of many Nat ive
A mer ican youth, who grow into ad ulthood v ie wing their bodies, lives and
39
ANARCHIST STUDIES
40
NO PAST, NO RES P ECT, AND NO POW ER
41
ANARCHI ST STUDIE S
Sports, by their very nature, are competitive pasti mes tha t avoid a ny
a nd all prete nce of cooperation a mo ngst opposing sides. Thus, the i magery
o ffered by A merican sports tea ms is explicitly aggressive a nd competitive
(Messner 1990; Dworkin and Messner 1999). Fans vigilantly - a nd
violently, as see n whe n inebriated fans confront a nti-nickna me protesters
- defend Native A merican nickna mes, especially in the case of violent
spor ts like hockey and football.9 U ns urprisingly, a nalogies betwee n sports
a nd war are co mmonly made i n the media a nd by sports co mmentators. As
s uch, i t is predictable tha t Native A mericans will become the target of
' wars' (i.e. sports matches). News o utlets often coyly play with the 'wild
west' imagery Native people provide to generate headlines such as ' Braves
on Warpath Against Yankees', 'I ndia ns Scalp the Cubs', or 'Cowboys
Battle the Chiefs' . Since modern sports are prese nted as akin to warfare ,
why not make the experience more a uthe ntic by bringing in the aggressors
a nd victi ms of war as the linguistic imagery?
A n ironic a nd eerie connection between the victims of U S military
aggression and sports tea m namesakes is noteworthy. The US military has
named its military weaponry after the very Native A mericans that past
generations of war-makers have murdered, s uch as Tomahawk Cr uise
Missiles, and half a dozen helicopters, i ncluding the CH-2 1 Shawnee, OH-
58 Kiowa, OV- I Mohawk, UH-I Iro quois, H-34 Choctaw, AH-64 Apache.
I n this respect, s uch violent weapons of war are easily more shocking
namesakes tha n civilia n a utomobiles s uch as Winnebago campers,
Po ntiacs, or Jeep Cherokees. Someti mes the imagery of war is even more
e xplicit, a nd eve n more conte ntious. The U niversity of North Dakota
boasts on its website a photograph of approximately two-dozen all-white
North Dakota National Guardsmen posing with U S a nd ' Fighting Sioux'
flags (and one person wearing a ' Sioux' jersey), machine guns a t the ready.
These soldiers are using the imagery and mythology of a warlike Lakotan
nation - o ne of the last peoples to be nearly wiped o ut by U S military
aggression - as they occupy the land of Iraq, also a repeated target of U S
military aggression.
The case could easily be made tha t the U S military (and its soldiers) has
so willingly adopted Native i magery in order to hono ur their for merly
wor thy adversar ies, or perhaps to 'absorb' the strength a nd fighting-spirit
tha t nobly drove Native A mericans to defend their lands. B ut this e xplana
tio n would be a selective o ne : no military wo uld tr uly e mbrace other
aspects often fo und in many Native c ultures: co mmunalism, egalitari
a nism, rejectio n of proper ty rights a nd respect for the earth (see Graeber
2004 for a br ief a narchist exploration of some of these traits in i ndigenous
groups). Thus, the military e mphasizes characteristics tha t are perceived to
be represe ntative of Native A mericans as a whole - their f igh ti ng ability
to the neglect of all others. How could a U S military unit, or a co mpetitive
42
NO PAST, NO RESPECT, AND NO POWER
sports team for that matter, seriously project the notion of 'cooperation' in
its nick name? Or the sense of ' we are a l l e quals', whe n they wou ld surely
want to be victors over a nother party?
Some sports team advocates seem i ntent upon rubbing salt in the
wou nds of Native A mericans to the extreme of making ma licious justifi
cations for using nicknames. Promi ne nt stakeholders of the F lorida State
University 'Se mi no les' lobbed mocking tributes at the Oklaho ma-based
Semino le tribe when it expressed concer ned with F SU's use of their
heritage. \ 0 A FSU trustee dismissed the legitimacy of the ' losers' by
remarking : 'They got run out of here, by who was it, A ndrew Jackson? T he
Trail of Tears ... [I could] care less what the Seminoles in Oklaho ma
think'. A F lorida state senator tried to sha me the m by saying : 'They're the
ones that gave up a nd we nt to the reservation'. T hen, as if to suggest that
'Se minole' critics should meet the same fate as the thousands who died
due to a forced re location campaign, FSU's president mused: 'Maybe the
Trai l of Tears should have gone farther' (Miami Herald 2005).
Native A mericans have bee n the repeated victims of US aggression,
yet, as Jawahar la l Ne hru, Winston Churchill a nd others have observed, the
victors decide how to depict the losers of mi litary contlict. T hus, the posi
tion of disrespect that Native A mericans presently find themselves in via
nicknames and mascots derives from a series of transgressions that various
scho lars ide ntify as genocida l (De loria 19 69, Legters 1988, C hurchi ll
1995). T he US gover nme nt's history of aggression against Native
A merican tribes has bee n a long a nd b loody one. For decades, the US
govern me nt had a quasi-official po licy of e liminating Native peop le,
offering 'scalp bounties' in each of the original thirteen states for killing
Native peop le (Axte l l 198 I ). T he so-called I ndian Wars, which expanded
settleme nts further West and deeper into Native territory, could not have
bee n won without the committed ideo logica l support of the federal US
gove rnment. T he US gove rnme nt repeatedly broke treaties with nations,
seizing land that never belonged to it (Churchill 1995, Cozzens 200 1). It
was the federal gove rnment's Bureau of Indian Affairs that se nt Native
chi ldren to 'boarding schools' to destroy the co nnection to their culture
( Barker 1997, Churchill 2004); a nd it was the government that authorized
the invo luntary sterilization of thousands of Native wo me n by the I ndian
Health Services in the 19 60s and 1970s ( Lawrence 2000).
Anarchists have a lmost universa lly decried wars fought by states as
being imperialist endeavours ( Berk man 2003, Key 2003), I I and the fact
that the targets of 'Indian Wars' were withi n the borders of so-ca lled US
territory should not stop this critique being app lied in this case. T here are
many methods of waging war, inc luding the importance of propaganda,
and modern wars imp licit ly re quire pervasive propaganda, to win support
for the state's cause, a nd adequate co ntro l over any enemy's propaganda.
43
ANARCHIST STUDIES
Even long after a war is over, victors like to avoid responsibility for their
atrocities. In the case of the Indian Wars, the US would like to rid itself of
the Native Americans themselves. Today it is much less possible for such
wars to be waged inside the US, and political elites understand this, and
thus wish to avoid the legacy of the past. Making Native peoples relics of
the past is thus essential , and logos and nicknames help to accomplish this.
The use of such imagery tries to make Native peoples themselves history
- not a still existing people - and to brush away the issue of where this land
came from and who lived on it; to absolve the American conscience and
government of its ultimate responsibility (Shanley 1997). All the efforts
described above by the US government constitute an attempt to erase
Native culture from the continent, if not Native Americans themselves.
Whether by passive or aggressive means, the government has worked to
achieve its objective of removing some of its most pesky critics, and most
problematic reminders of its colonialist past.
Some political pressure has been applied for the much-needed institu
tional reparations for the descendents of African slaves (see Martin and
Yaquinto 2004, M ichelson 2002), but reparations for the original inhabi
tants of the Western Hemisphere have yet to be seriously considered. I f
Native peoples are thought to be historical relics without any actual
communities in the US, what would be the point of even discussing such
reparations? The myth suggested by nicknames would render such debate
pointless, since there is no one to benefit from a hypothetical redress of
grievances. Thus, although some public bodies have responded favourably
and acted to protect the cultural rights of ethnic minorities in the past, this
usually does not extend to the culture of Native Americans. 12 In fact, most
governments - local and state - actively protect nicknames for North
A mericans. For example, politicians throughout North Dakota spoke up to
defend the will of the University of North Dakota against the voices of the
Native American critics and the NCAA. And, as noted above, Florida State
University received no lack of support from its political leadership when
under criticism.
Governments are huge boosters for local sports teams. City and state
governments give teams large tax breaks and even build large (and often
unnecessary) stadiums with public funds that further externalize costs for
private corporations (Zimmerman 1997). Stadium building creates huge
financial burdens that require cities to offset construction costs by reduc
tions in spending on social programs, education usually being the most
prominent cut. Then, local governments promote teams as tourist attrac
tions and help private businesses cater to attending middle- and upper-class
fans (working-class fans have difficulties affording expensive tickets to
games). The states of Florida and Ohio even advertise for private teams by
selling license plates that feature Native team nicknames and 10goS.13
44
NO PAST, NO RESPECT, AND NO POWER
T he state also provides legal pro tection for the usurpation of Native
c ulture. In 1973, the US Patent and Trademark O ffice (USPTO) supplied
the Cleveland Indians (as a corporation) with a trade mark per mitting it to
be the sole registrar for the 'Indians' na me. Since that time, the Clevela nd
tea m has been issued a n additional 17 trademark protections - oste nsibly
to protect it from anti-nickna me critics who claim a the ft of Native ide n
tity. In fact, the Cleveland baseball tea m was even registered with the
USPTO as a 'TRI BE' , although i t has no recognized Native A merican
membership to constitute a Native A merican tribe (Sta urowsky 2000).
Politicia ns and b ureaucrats alike wield government b urea ucracy as a
protective weapon against popular disse nt. T he state's many compone nts
the cour ts, legislatures, cabinets, regulatory agencies, executive depart
ments, a nd the like - are sometimes able to avoid criticism a nd attac k
because they can shift respo nsibility from o ne organ to a nother. T he state
can thus tie-up a move ment in procedures and b ureaucratic details. Or it
can feign progressive activity, all the while not i ntending action of a ny
kind. In the case of Native A merican nickna mes, co untless letters to
elected o fficials have been mailed a nd legislators have been approached,
and req uests for inq uiry a nd investigation have bee n made to the US
Co mmission o n Civil Rig hts. T he result is always the same : the state and
its apparatuses continue to act in the interests of the elites that direct i t, a nd
thus contlict must be moderated via the long-halls of b ureaucracy. 14
Native A mericans co nstitute an incredibly s mall percentage of the
A merican population, and few politicians make great e fforts to reach their
constituency (before Election Day, let alo ne a fter). Even better-mobilized
non- W hite organizations (such as the NAACP) that have cried foul on
behalf of Native peoples are typically d warfed in comparison to the over
whelming support given by sports fans nation- wide. I nterr upti ng the
f unctional role sports play in satisfying large numbers of A mericans is not
an attractive risk that many government officials wish to take, eve n if they
do s hare the multicul turalist attitudes of critics.
Oppone nts of the professio nal football tea m the 'Redskins', in the US
capital Washington DC , lack a ny substantial solidarity fro m politicians.
T he tea m name is widely viewed as one of the most o ffe nsive monikers in
A merican sports, often viewed as on a par with the racist slur against
African-A mericans ' nigger' . T he name refers not to perceived s kin colour,
b ut to the bloody-red pulp of a Native forehead collected as a scalp bo unty
(HaJjo 2001). Althoug h one local DC city council member proposed a
resolution opposing the 'Redskins' in 199 1 (Harjo 200 1 ), a nd o ne
Colorado Se nator - the only Native A merican i n Congress - tried to block
Congressional approval for a new Washington stadium in 1993 unless it
cha nged its name (Sa nchez 1993), few o ther politicians have bothered to
lament the US capitol city's moniker (and neither resolution succeeded,
45
ANARCHIST STUDIES
46
NO PAST, NO RESPECT, AND NO POWER
47
ANARCHIST STUDIES
ACKNOW LE DGEMENTS
Many thanks to Building Roads Into Diverse Groups Empowering
Students (BRIDG ES) and Campus Community for H uman Rights
(CCH R) at the University of North Dakota who have helped to inform and
inspire. Additional assistance and critique from Suzanne Slusser, Tadzio
Mueller, and an anonymous reader.
NOTES
I . This essay uses the terms 'Native American' and 'Native peoples' to refer to
people who are descendents of the first inhabitants of the American continents.
Others, for equally legitimate, yet different reasons, regularly use ' Indigenous',
'First Nations', 'Amerindians', ' First Peoples', or 'American Indian' . Yet, these
terms lump all ethnic groups together, while there are numerous differences
amongst the cultures of their many nations. When speaking of a particular tribe,
nation, or reservation-based group of people, it is advisable to identify them
directly by the name that they use for themselves. See Yellow Bird ( 1 999) for a
discussion of Native self-naming.
2. Nicknames, logos, and mascots are all different symbolic representations used by
various sports teams. Nicknames are the most basic type, referring to the linguistic
moniker used to describe the team. A logo is a two-dimensional graphical repre
sentation that is widely replicated and allows for quick visual recognition. A
mascot is a physical embodiment of the team's nickname, most commonly when
48
NO PAST, NO RESPECT, AND NO POWER
someone dresses-up as whatever the team's name is. For this article, most practices
are referred to as the common-denominator of 'nicknames' or the more general
category of 'imagery'.
3. The practice of using Native culture is, in fact, wide spread throughout American
society, and is not limited to sports teams. Other examples can be found in every
thing from automobiles to military weapons, from food products to alcohol (see
Merskin 200 1 for a study on some of these non-sport 'brands').
4. These tribes partially include: The United Indian Nations (Oklahoma), The Great
Lakes Inter-Tribal Council, Bad River Band of Superior Chippewa, Forest County
Potawatomi Tribe, Lac Courte Orielles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa, Lac Du
Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewas, Menominee Tribe of Wisconsin
Chippewa, Oneida Tribe of Wisconsin, The Affiliated Tribes of Northwest Indians,
The United Tribes of Oklahoma on behalf of: Shawneee Tribe, Caddo Tribe,
Cheyenne Arapho Tribe, Choctaw Nation, Comanche Tribe, Delaware Eastern
Tribe, Iowa Tribe, Kaw Tribe, Muskogee Creek Nation, Otoe Missouri Tribe, Ponca
Tribe, Sac and Fox Tribes, Seminole Nation, Tonkawa Tribe, Western Delaware
Tribe, Wyandotte Tribe, Fort Sill Apache Tribe, Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma,
Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, Sisseton-Wahpeton Sioux Tribe, Ogallala Sioux Tribe
Executive Committee, Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe, and the Three Affiliated
Tribes.
5. Native residents were not, as long assumed, living primitively in a pristine wilder
ness, but often in highly societies with advanced technologies, especially in
Meso-America (Denevan 1992b).
6. For example, various anarchist collectives in US cities where Native American
nicknames are employed reflect this general opposition to all forms of domination:
the Burning River Collective (Cleveland), Capital Terminus Collective (Atlanta),
and Anarchist Resistance (Washington, DC).
7. For other analogous examples, see Churchill ( 1 994), pp. 65-72.
8. Notable collegiate sports teams include the Florida State 'Seminoles', the
University of Illinois ' Fighting IIIini ' , and the University of North Dakota
' Fighting Sioux' .
9 . Athletes themselves have, a s during the Persian Gulf War in the early- 1 990s,
adorned themselves with American flags to proclaim their patriotism and alle
giance to war-waging (Malec 1 993).
1 0. Most Seminoles now live in Oklahoma, not Florida, because Andrew Jackson
ordered their forced removal from that state in 1 830, as per the Indian Removal Act
(Missall and Missall 2004).
I I . Kropotkin is a rare and notable exception by his support ofthe Allies in World War
I (Avrich 1 967).
1 2. One exception may be Cleveland Public Libraries banning employees wearing
Wahoo imagery while on the job - incidentally, against the wishes of two progres
sive organizations, the Service Employees International Union and the American
Civil Liberties Union (McCormick 1 999).
1 3. Although many states do this for other non-racial sports teams, the irony ofthis being
the only racial group 'honoured' in such a way should not be lost upon the reader.
14. This bureaucracy extends to the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the main governmental
organ for dealing with Native peoples. Until the mid-I 970s, non-democratic
extended to this organization, too, with Native Americans residing in the lowest
49
ANARCHIST STUDIES
rungs ofthe BIA, even when considering education and experience (Sigelman and
Carter 1 976).
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54
Belief, anarchism and modernity
DANI E L COLSON
Translated by Sharif Gemie. edited by Ruth Kinna with assistance from
Paul Chambers and Patricia Clark
ABSTRACT
This essay was originally published in the French-language journal
Refractions 1 4 (Spring 2005 pp43-52), which was a special issue on reli
gions, values and identities. It considers the contemporary responses of the
French left to the rise of I slam in the west, and notes the danger of
opposing I slam by re-activating a French-Republican patriotism. Colson
proposes a more subtle approach, arguing that anarchists should adopt a
'neo-monadism' .
For most of its brief existence and with one or two exceptions (notably
Tolstoy) anarchism has rejected all religions. This rejection has been
expressed in both theory and practice, and at times, for example in the
Spanish Civil War, with great violence. Today, the libertarian movement's
traditional anti-religious stance faces a new challenge. In Europe, where
anarchism was born and where it drew its (feeble) strengths, Christianity
is exhausted. Anarchists are challenged by the rise of Islam and, more
specifically, by the rise of a fundamentalist Islam. To our horror or stupe
faction, this new religious movement appears to embrace elements of our
own past practice: violence, spontaneity and autonomous action; and it
garners the support of a mass, even working-class audience. While waiting
for a significant l ibertarian movement to develop in Muslim lands and
mil ieus, it is hard to see how the anarchists, who are largely European and
Christian in origin, can re-invigorate their anti-religious tradition against
Islam. There is a real danger that in joining the opposition to Islam anar
chists will once more go along with ethnocentric and colonialist causes, as
happened in France during the Algerian war, and thus find themselves in
the company of Gollnisch, Regis Debray, Chevenement and other 'repub
l icans· . 1 These activists, of both left and right, re-affirm the cultural
superiority of European civilization. More than a century of colonial rule
should provide sufficient evidence for l ibertarians to realize, perhaps
belatedly, the singularly repugnant nature of such values.
The problem for anarchists, when considering their anti-religious
struggle, is how to transcend the constraints of colonialism and imperi-
55
ANARCHIST STUDIES
alism and avoid dubious alliances with what remains of the rump of aged
secularists and republicans. This is not simply a tactical problem, but an
issue that necessitates a re-consideration of the basis of anarchist thinking.
At its root, the problem arises from the context in which the l ibertarian
movement arose. In reality, like all movements, anarchism was born in a
particular moment: in Europe, in the middle of the nineteenth century.
There are two important consequences:
56
BELIEF, ANARCHISM AND MODERNITY
57
ANARCHIST STUDIES
It is here that we return to the issue of religion and to the manner in which
modernity was considered to have transcended rel igious beliefs, while it in
fact only re-organized them in its own terms. Anarchism adopted many of
modernity's illusions. As both Bakunin and Nietzsche remarked, it is not
easy to clear one's mind of God and the very real domination that his
shadow imposes on our lives. Once evicted he returns by the back door,
and not just in the guise of an illegal, illiterate immigrant who clings on to
outmoded beliefs, but in modem garb, talking in terms that are central to
arrogant modernity. I ndeed, as Proudhon, Bakunin and Nietzsche all
perceptively noted, it is at the very moment that western societies believe
that they have definitively transcended the religious issue that they adopt
rel igion'S most despotic characteristics: a belief in human destiny, the
acceptance of divine providence and faith in the realisation of an earthly
paradise. Naturally, these beliefs are expressed in non-religious ways: in
the idea of historical determinism, the inevitable march of science, ration
ality and the progressive evolution of civilization - each justifying the
global domination of order and western interests - and, finally, in the hope
of a bright future in which human society will be reconciled with itself in
the name of reason - dialectical or otherwise - by means of a new
despotism, organised by the State, political parties and the elite.
REPETITIONS
After more than a century of catastrophes, and in view of the way in which
western ideals have been reshaped to fit the destructive imperatives of an
economic system motivated only by the nihilistic drive to reproduce itself
on an ever-expanding scale, the l ibertarian movement has a real opportu
nity. If it cannot offer an immediate and effective alternative to western
ideals, it can at least re-discover the power and originality of the move
ment's initial inspiration and the significance of its past projects.
While anarchism was born at a precise time and place, it is not defined
by this historical context. On the contrary, it has always attempted to chal
lenge the restrictive pretensions of hi story. In each of its struggles, large or
small , in each of the extremely diverse contexts in which anarchists have
mobilized, and for each of the collective identities or collective structures
58
BELIEF, ANARCHISM AND MODERNITY
that have been articulated in particular times and places, the libertarian
movement has never justified thoughts or actions with reference to an
external dynamic of change. Anarchism has never claimed to be anything
other than the unique situation and circumstances have allowed. In fact, for
anarchism, there are only singular situations. And these are sufficient in
themselves. Each situation has its own raison d 'etre, a point repeated
ceaselessly in anarchist books and writings. As Bakunin tells us, following
what one might call an anarchist neo-monadology, each being, each situa
tion, each event, each moment, carries in itself - in a sense - the totality
of that which is: the totality of good and bad possibilities, here and else
where, the past, present and future (see Appendix). Libertarian thinking
thus allows an absolute freedom and absolute affirmation that at different
moments libertarian movements have succeeded in putting into practice
notably in Spain and the Ukraine. Every entity, every event equally carries
this potential within itself.
In contrast to the despotisms it challenges, anarchism does not consti
tute a superior, eternal truth and has no claim to an absolute beginning or
end, whether constructed by Christ, the Qur 'an or Modernity. It does not
deify or generalize the forms or the moment of the movement's beginning,
nor does it transform them into calendars, transcendent events or models
closed to subsequent revision. Despotism, in the form of the State,
Science, Capital and Religion, generalizes the particular. Anarchism, on
the contrary, proposes what Deleuze calls the universalization of the
singular.3 The appearance of anarchist writings and the rise of anarchist
actions in mid-nineteenth century Europe are not so much models or
founding acts as they are rehearsals for all the books and rebellions that
are to come. As Deleuze puts the point:
Following a similar l ine of reasoning, Leo Ferre suggests that he sings for
those who will be l iving in ten thousand years time: not because he
believes that today's audience are incapable of understanding him but
because his songs rehearse what will be re-said and re-made tomorrow and
ever-after, and because each statement, unique in itself, is and will be
today and tomorrow, at once the same and different.
Just as anarchism can conceptual ize a future that is already present, so
it can also view a past that will never end. This is the lesson of Proudhon's
neo-monadology. Opposing the despotic illusions and pretensions of
modernity, anarchism never creates a tabula rasa of the past. Like all other
59
ANARCHIST STUDIES
entities, anarchism has a heritage, but its inheritance is not transmitted like
a title or property, a dogma or a state. Unlike the 'triumphal funeral
cortege' loaded with the booty tom from those who work the soil, of which
Benjamin speaks,5 anarchism is linked to the living. The argument here is
not merely that the qualities 'oppression' and 'emancipation', 'sadness'
and 'joy', 'sutTering' and 'happiness', 'submission' and 'revolt' had
meaning before the appearance of anarchism. Human beings were
involved in struggles long before anarchism emerged and these struggles
should be remembered and celebrated. What I am suggesting is that the
anarchist analysis with which I am concerned is drawn from the neo
monadological argument that all past situations and experiences, whether
good or bad, happy or unhappy, finished or not, always present options.
Thus, while repeating them in tum, each person - according to their abil
ities and particular views, whether emancipatory or oppressive - can
choose to re-atTirm them. In this manner we create those discontinuous
series that Landauer calls 'traditions' - where 'every glance into the past
or the present of human communities is also an act which draws towards
the future and which constructs that future.'6
60
BELIEF, ANARCH ISM AND MODERNITY
Here, we return to the religious question. We will not brook any compro
mise. In fact, as soon as anarchism affirms its rejection of the modem
distinction between the present (modernity) and the past (all previous
periods), between here (the west) and elsewhere (the rest of the world),
then anarchism must explain how it can accept themes and influences from
that past, that elsewhere, how it can make them its own when they are so
clearly marked by the oppressive religious representations that anarchism
radically opposes. How can one accept that which one refuses? H ere, I
wish to show that anarchism has the means by which to confront such a
dilemma. In practice, no one can escape the inheritance of the past, even
those who claim to make a tabula rasa of history. Anarchist neo
monadology shows that the past does not pass, and that elsewhere is also
here. Through a rehearsal in which every present situation, every present
being, is at once the same and different; through an unceasing process of
evaluation, selection, re-composition and re-arrangement of the present;
through philosophical and practical experimentation, one can construct an
emancipatory movement which is capable of defeating all forms of
oppression. How can this libertarian reconstruction of the past be effected?
If we wish to hang on to every emancipatory moment, even the smallest
and the most fleeting, how can this be done with those that exist within
oppressive structures or, more particularly, those marked by religious
themes in which godly symbols form precisely the most sophisticated
form of domination and dispossession of the self? Among the many ways
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ANARCHIST STUDIES
1 . The first is clearly the least subtle and the most debatable. One
could cite the old biblical image of separating the wheat from the
chaff. How can we separate the good wheat of past revolts and
struggles from the chaff of their religious symbolism? Among the
j umble of old beliefs and practices, how can we reveal and identify
those revolts and struggles that were inevitably without any public,
conscious expression, as anarchism did not yet exist?8 If we pull
these revolts to the surface, if we cut them from the ideological
veils which have covered them, if we identify these struggles
without names, without sounds, without projects and without any
terms to describe what they are to our eyes, we find that they were
covered in the fogs and l ies of a primitive conception of the world.
This first form of the exhumation of the past thus seems quite
similar to the modernist approach which was denounced in the
arguments above: it is a simple inventory of a twice-dead past: dead
because it is past, dead because it has been carefully separated from
its subjective expressions. However, you don't touch the past with
impunity. This first form of scholarly re-appropriation of the past,
considered as a simple prehistory, is certainly rudimentary and
simplistic. But it can contribute to a neo-monadologic approach.
Even the heart (or the soul?) of the most ossified scholar can be
moved by the echoes of historic revolts, struggles and sufferings:
those endured in the building of the Great Wall of China, by
Spartacus and the Roman slaves, the movements of Roman
plebeians, and so on. This feeling might take a vague, merely nega
tive form in regret, loss or guilt. Yet by coming into contact with
these events we cannot help but be tempted, like Walter Benjamin's
angelus novus, to revive the dead - subjectively affirm the revolts
of the past and nourish our present forces of life and autonomy.9
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BELIEF, ANARCH ISM AND MODERNITY
63
ANARCHIST STUDIES
APPENDIX: ON MONADS
(by Patricia Clark)
NOTES
64
BELIEF, ANARCHISM AND MODERNITY
65
The cultural practice of Argentinean anarchism
ABSTRACT
This paper establishes a link between the cultural practice of Spanish and
Argentinean anarchism during the Spanish Civil War, in particular around
the construction of libraries and archives in the past and in the present as
projects dedicated to the ongoing acculturation of members of anarchist
organizations. It presents a brief overview of the development of anar
chism in Argentina, of the concerns which led a number of anarchists from
this country to go to Spain during the social revolution, and the efforts by
these mil itants and the CNT-FAI to construct a documented testimony to
the cultural, political, economic and social undertakings of anarchists
during the period 1 936-9. Finally, it traces the connections between the
efforts of Argentinean anarchists to record the cultural practices of the
Spanish anarchists and the establishment of a working anarchist archive in
Buenos Aires as another manifestation of the importance anarchism places
on the preservation of memory, documentation and living cultural prac
tices. It is followed by a glossary of specialist terms at the end.
66
THE CULTURAL PRACTICE OF ARGENTIN EAN ANARCHISM
(with two editions per day and a circulation close to commercial papers),
libertarian schools inspired by Francisco Ferrer, and an extensive network
of social centres (ateneos) and popular libraries.
H istorical study to date has restricted its enquiries to these first two
decades of the workers' movement in Argentina and considers that its
heyday peaked around 1 9 1 0, to be followed by a period of decline. The
causes of this decline are adduced to be manifold: changes in the elec
toral laws in 1 9 1 6, allowing for universal suffrage; new negotiating
frameworks involving the state in labour disputes; changing social rela
tions in accordance with on-going urbanization; the development of a
leisure industry, including football and the cinema, and increased state
repression unleashed in 1 9 1 0 under the Social Defence Law, which
entailed the closing down of newspapers, and increased incarceration of
militants and exile. 1
All these factors combined to undermine the impact and freedom of
movement of anarchism, which, in spite of these limitations, continued to
hold fast to its uncompromised approach. However, such a tactic meant
that anarchism steadily lost ground in comparison to other political and
union tendencies, which hurried to embrace the new labour arbitration
mechanisms and the electoral possibilities offered by the change of law.
However, despite the fact that anarchism disappears from studies of the
third decade of the twentieth century, the movement had not in reality
disappeared. It is true that the revolutionary union FORA2 in 1 930 found
itself clearly a minority force in comparison with the socialist trade
unionism of the CGT3 and the burgeoning communist unions. We cannot
talk of total disappearance, however, as the FORA was present in some
significant struggles in the 1 930s.
More relevant to the subject of this article, nevertheless, is the emer
gence in 1 935 of the first 'specific' anarchist group in Argentina, the
Argentine Anarcho-Communist Federation (FACA). The creation of the
Federation, in a decade during which historians no longer pay much atten
tion to the anarchist movement, demonstrates that considerable strength
was still rooted in the organized anarchist movement. The FACA included
a large number of groups across the whole country, even though its anar
chism was of a different nature from that present in the FORA. The social
base of the movement had changed, or at least it was no longer rooted in
union struggles alone, an arena increasingly co-opted by the state.
A pivotal question for the anarchists was how to maintain their princi
ples and at the same time be effective in an environment whose conditions
had undergone considerable transformation. Naturally, such a situation
engendered a certain degree of consternation, bearing in mind the enor
mous influence that anarchists had had in the mass trade union movement,
a movement that had now largely turned its back on anarchism in favour
67
ANARCH IST STUDIES
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THE CULTURAL PRACTICE OF ARGENTINEAN ANARCHISM
after the military coup d 'etat executed by General Uriburu in 1 930, and
it agreed to work towards the holding of a large meeting in September
1 93 2 in Rosario, which can be described as the Second Regional
Anarchist Congress, the first having taken place in Buenos Aires in
1 922.7 This 1 922 Congress had dissolved without establ ishing any viable
permanent organization.
This Second Congress created the Regional Committee for Anarchist
Relations (Comite Regional de Relaciones Anarquistas), which had the
task of revitalizing the anarchist movement across the national territory.
This it certainly managed to do, expanding the six existent local commit
tees established in the 1 932 Rosario Congress (Rosario, Resistencia,
Bahia Blanca, Santa Fe, Tucuman and Buenos Aires) to 1 6 in September
1 933 and 30 at a later date. At the same time, the Congress established the
paper Accion Libertaria as its mouthpiece, a printed form that covered
forty years of history up to its dissolution in 1 97 1 . A further development
resulted in October 1 93 5 when the FACA itself was constituted.s
The FACA was, as we have said, the first specific anarchist organiza
tion in Argentina; it established its offices in the federal capital, Buenos
Aires, and developed its sphere of action throughout the country,
following in the footsteps of its immediate parent, the CRRA. The FACA
from 1 935 up to its transformation into the FLA in 1 955 held six major
meetings: the N ational Plenum of Provincial Groups, December 1 936; the
First Ordinary Congress, February 1 938; the Second Ordinary Congress,
July 1 940; a National Plenum of Groups and Individuals in October 1 942;
the Third Ordinary Congress, December 1 95 1 ; and the Fourth Ordinary
Congress of February 1 955, during which the FLA was born.
The activities of the FACA were manifold, both in its earlier manifes
tation and later as the FLA. We concentrate here on the activities of the
three delegates the FACA sent to Spain, from 1 937 to 1 939, during the
Spanish Civil War ( 1 936- 1 939). As we will see, cultural and organiza
tional activities within a political framework were at the top of the list for
the FACA delegates.
The Spanish Revolution of 1 936 is undeniably at the centre stage of
anarchist history. The military uprising against the Second Republic in
which General Franco participated unleashed the Spanish Civil War but it
also permitted a wave of revolutionary activity protagonized by the anar
chist movement and, in particular, by the CNT-FA I (Confederaci6n
Nacional del Trabajo-Federaci6n Anarquista Iberica, N ational
Confederation of Labour-Iberian Anarchist Federation).
In Argentina,9 the FACA undertook an important campaign on behalf of
the Spanish revolutionaries. It took part in the creation of numerous
popular committees to aid Spain. It created, in agreement with the CNT
and the FAI, the Propaganda Service for Spain (Servicio de Propaganda de
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THE CULTURAL PRACTICE OF ARGENTINEAN ANARCH ISM
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ANARCH IST STUDIES
many of its papers are now found in the Civil War archive in Salamanca,
Spain, with the stamp of the Instituto de Documentaci6n Social CNT-FA I .
It is likely that the short length o f time that the archive had t o establish
itself, together with the rigours of the war, effectively curtailed the proj ect,
but the archive stands as yet another legacy of the creative dimension of
Spanish anarchism. If we have argued that the idea of an archive to be
created by the CNT, the work of Jacobo Maguid and the contributions of
nameless militants can all be linked to the BAEL, it is not because we
imagine that there were no discontinuities or breaks between the different
projects. The BAEL archive holds important materials from the time of the
Spanish conflict, but Spain is one of forty-four countries documented in
the Buenos Aires anarchist l ibrary. Such a wealth of materials confirms
once more the importance granted to culture and knowledge as part of an
emancipatory project within the international anarchist movement.
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THE CULTURAL PRACTICE OF ARGENTINEAN ANARCH ISM
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ANARCHIST STUDIES
74
THE CULTURAL PRACTICE OF ARGENTINEAN ANARCH ISM
tation. They would transform the material into a mere 'cultural product',
an archaeological find fit to be converted only into academic papers and
conferences. Anarchism does not subscribe to a mechanical notion of
history that j ustifies the suspension of its ethical-political principles as a
'tactic' on the route to socialism. Anarchism attempts to create the prac
tices and conditions here and now in order to imagine a future society.
Placing the emphasis solely on the horizontal aspect of our daily tasks in
the archive, however, would conflict with the idea of the material as a
'practical ' way of intervening in political struggle.
The balance that we propose is an attempt to spread our way of working
to other spheres with which we come in contact. Such a position is trans
lated into an active strategy of exchange with other archives. the
participation of archive activities with other political struggles and the
dissemination of the archive's materials by various means, such as the
publication of catalogues, bulletins, digitalization and publishing. Our
stance towards those who come to consult the archive tries to get over this
idea - we are not the providers of esoteric knowledge nor are we service
providers of information for the academic community. We hope that we
are facilitating knowledge, which is assimilated and transformed by as
large a number of people possible.
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ANARCHIST STUDIES
Fraternity Although the BAEL group came together with a specific set of
tasks in mind (i.e. classifying, ordering and cataloguing material in the
possession of the Argentinean FLA), what best describes it are its method
ology and the relations established between its individual members. The
creation of projects, the free collaboration of everyone in all tasks, the
predominance of willingness over sacrifice as a means to getting things
done, reflection and the questioning of accepted ways of doing things,
openness to doubting supposed truths and the valuing of friendship, place
the BAEL group within the anarchist category of the affinity group.
Not only has anarchism provided ethical values, it has also developed
practical ways of organizing. The affinity group makes plain the existence
and viability of the values of horizontality and fraternity. In this sense, the
value of friendship, as a way of escaping relationships based on personal
interest and power in the capitalist world and as a way of developing values
that are not measured in quantifiable and productive terms, is fundamental
to this mode of organization. 20 The idea of friendship as an integral part of
a political project is what prevents the delegation of power, and it becomes
a means of guaranteeing that s/he that represents the group on a temporal
basis does not speak on their own behalf, but for a kaleidoscope of indi
viduals, who need to be heard.
I n addition, the concept of fraternalism is connected to that of collec
tive happiness. If indignation, suffering and anger are produced in the face
of injustice they can also be a motivation for action; our practices do not
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THE CULTURAL PRACTICE OF ARGENTINEAN ANARCHISM
Finally, we would say that our account here of BAEL does not aim to
present its way of working as a hegemonic model of organization.
Although we value its methodology and we subscribe to the model
presented, we also recognize the shortcomings and possible contradictions
inherent in this kind of work. These are different from those experienced
by those who are working in trade union questions or in neighbourhoods
with whom we are in contact in order to exchange experiences. The hetero
geneity of the group has allowed us to energize various other projects
outside of the ambit of the archive such as theatre plays, conferences, a
self-managed construction workers' group, philosophy seminars, a
recording studio and links with neighbourhood and squatters' groups.
The Library and Archive for Libertarian Studies (BAEL) managed in
these ten years to organize the classification of a vast range of material
from forty-four countries dating from 1 890, archive training, the digitali
zation of a part of the documentation, the publishing of two catalogues of
our holdings and has been able to welcome a large number of researchers
and activists.
Above all , however, we have managed to create a group that is seeking
a route towards self management and horizontal ity, which has made
contact with other groups that operate with these same principles and
which has recovered and reflected upon anarchist practice over the last one
hundred years in order to bring those values and practices to front stage in
the present day.
G LOSSARY OF TERMS
BAEL (Biblioteca Archivo de Estudios Libertarios): Library and Archive for
Libertarian Studies
CGT (Confederacion General del Trabajo): General Confederation of Labour
CNT-FAI (Confederacion Nacional del Trabajo-Federacion Anarquista Iberica):
National Confederation of Labour-Iberian Anarchist Federation
COA (Confederacion Obrera Argentina): Argentine Labour Confederation
CUC (Comite de la Union Clasista): Class Union Committee
77
ANARCH IST STUDIES
NOTES
I . Over the first decades of the twentieth century anarchism in Argentina was
violently repressed. In 1 902 a Residency Law was proclaimed, which allowed
for the expulsion of 'undesirable' foreigners. In 1 9 1 0 the government organ
ized large celebrations for the centenary of the independence of Argentina to
which dignitaries were invited from around the world. The campaign of oppo
sition launched by the anarchists, together with the wave of strikes unleashed a
few years previously, cast a shadow over the festivities. It is in this context that
the Social Defence Law of 28 J une 1 9 \ 0 was approved. On the history of anar
chism, see Diego Abad de Santillan, EI movimiento anarquista en la argentina.
Desde sus comienzos hasta eI ano 1910, Buenos Aires, Editorial Argonauta,
1 930, and, Dora Barrancos, Anarquismo, Educacion y Costumbres en la
Argentina de principios de siglo, Buenos Aires, Editorial Contrapunto, 1 990.
2. On the FORA in English, see P. Yerrill & L. Rosser, Revolutionary unionism in
Latin America: The FORA in Argentina, London/Doncaster, ASP, 1 987.
3. The General Confederation of Labour (Confederacion General del Trabajo)
was created in 1 930 by the fusion of the Argentine Labour Confederation
(Confederaci6n Obrera Argentina, mainly socialist) and the Argentine Syndical
Union (Union Sindical Argentina, of non-alligned syndicalists). In 1 929 the
communists formed the Class Union Committee (Comite de la Union
Clasista), but this was disolved in 1 935 as a result of the popular front tactics
set out by the Com intern, and the CUC joined the CGT.
4. Some authors have used the concept of 'sociability' to understand the social
dimension of political movements. See, for example, with respect to the
Valencian anarchist movement, Francisco Javier Navarro Navarro, A teneos y
Grupos Acratas. Vida y Actividad Cultural de las Asociaciones Anarquistas
Valencianas durante la Segunda Republica y la Guerra Civil, Valencia,
Biblioteca Valenciana, 2002.
5. Jose Grunfeld in Memorias de un anarquista (Buenos Aires, Editorial N uevo
Hacer, 2000, p. 1 2 1 ) and Jacobo Maguid in Recuerdo de un Libertario (Buenos
Aires, Editorial Reconstruir, 1 995, p. 26) discuss these details as participants.
6. Ushuaia prison is situated about 3,000 kilometres to the south of Buenos Aires,
and was considered at the time to be the Argentine Siberia.
7. Maguid, op. cit., p. 29
8. A more detailed survey of the creration of the FACA and the different anarchist
currents present can be found in Pablo M . Perez, HEI movimiento anarquista y
los origenes de la Federacion Libertaria Argentina", in Catalogo de publica-
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ANARCH IST STUDIES
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REVIEW ARTICLE
Noam Chomsky Failed States: The Abuse of Power and the Assault on
Democracy
Hamish Hamilton, London 2006
ISBN: 024 1 1 43233 320 pages, hardback, £ 1 6.99
In a series of essays written after the Second World War called the
' Responsibilities of Peoples', Dwight Macdonald, then editor of the Partisan
Review, quoted an interview with an official from a Nazi death camp:
What have r done indeed - Macdonald argued that the man had 'simply
obeyed orders and kept his mouth shut . . . [i]t is what he had not done that
shocks our moral sensibilities' (Dwight MacDonald, 'The Responsibility of
Peoples', Memoirs of a Revolutionist, p60). In exploring the issue of war
guilt, Macdonald discussed the extent of the responsibility of the Gennan
and Japanese people for atrocities committed by their governments by
asking how far the British and American peoples were responsible for their
governments' terror bombing of civilians (culminating in the horrors of
H iroshima and Nagasaki). For Macdonald, the question was all the starker
for Britons and Americans because, unlike people living under totalitarian
governments, they had enjoyed a relative freedom to speak out against and
resist the more extreme actions of their governments. Doesn't such access
to fonnal democracy mean that American and British people bear all the
more responsibil ity for what their governments did, insofar as they could
have affected their government's actions? But, you wil l protest, what can I
do to stop what my government is doing in my name? Macdonald teases
this problem out to conclude that: ' [o]nly those who are willing to resist
authority themselves when it conflicts too intolerably with their personal
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ANARCHIST STUDIES
moral code, only they have the right to condemn the death-camp
paymaster' (MacDonald, p6 1 ) .
Noam Chomsky evoked this moral i n his first public oration in 1 966,
later published in the New York Review of Books as 'The Responsibility of
Intellectuals'. Chomsky charged that intellectuals were in a position to
'expose the l ies of governments, to analyze actions according to their
causes and motives and often hidden intentions'. Intellectuals in the West
enjoyed 'the power that comes from political liberty', access to informa
tion, freedom of expression, leisure, and facilities and training to seek the
truth veiled in distortion, ideology, and class interest (Noam Chomsky,
'The Responsibility of Intellectuals', Chomsky Reader p60). Chomsky had
chosen to jeopardize his own academic career as a linguist at M IT (where
he was already revolutionizing the study of language) to become a highly
vocal critic and activist against the American invasion of South Vietnam.
For forty years Noam Chomsky has been analyzing and criticizing
American foreign policy, as well as private economic exploitation in
America and the rest of the world. With literally hundreds of publications,
many of them collections of interviews, a remarkable personal epistolary
regime (he purportedly spends some 20 hours a week on correspondence),
and an enormous public speaking schedule that covers the globe, Chomsky
deserves his reputation as one of the most important, active and widely read
dissident political commentators in the world. While maintaining a wide
variety of interests, from intellectual history, democratic theory, domestic
and international affairs, philosophy of mind, and of course linguistics, he
has remained a remarkably consistent critic of power, specifically of the use
of military and economic force as a means of subjecting people to the
dictates and wills of others.
Unlike his work in the philosophy of mind and language, which
Chomsky has continued to expand and change, Chomsky is not at all an
original political thinker. Philosophically, Chomsky constantly evokes and
demonstrates principles and concepts indebted to eighteenth century
Enlightenment thinkers, including Descartes, Rousseau, Smith, Kant,
H umboldt, and to a subsequent l ibertarian-socialism and anarchism -
Bakunin, Rocker and Luxemburg, amongst others. His 1 9 7 1 debate on
Dutch television with Michel Foucault helped articulate not only
Chomsky'S distance from the world of post-modern post-structuralism, but
also the principles that animate his critique. Chomsky argued that, while we
are a long way from determining what it might be, there is a human nature,
one that has an instinct to freedom and creativity. This was quite the oppo
site to Foucault's insistence that power proved a more salient and helpful
concept to understand human affairs rather than human nature - a concept
that Foucault insisted was simply a discourse that emerged from a histori
cally specific society, culture, and time, and was not some transcendent and
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ROGU E STATES
Chomsky discusses the work of US historian John Lewis Gaddis, who
wrote the first book that historicized the Bush administration's 'pre
emptive war' doctrine (Surprise. Security. and the A merican Experience
(2004» . His argument was that the concept of pre-emptive action as a
means of defending US security from the threat of 'failed states' had an
important precedent in John Quincy Adams, who as Secretary of State
under Monroe had recognized that expansion was going to be the path to
security. This was what provided the j ustification for America's conquest of
Spanish-held Florida by General Andrew Jackson in the First Seminole War
in 1 8 1 8. Chomsky argues, however, that, though he draws attention to the
tradition that Bush participates in, Gaddis doesn't draw from his analysis
the necessary conclusions - for example he doesn't discuss how Jackson's
invasion continued the project of clearing the land of native Americans.
Thus, though there is a discussion of the threat to American security from
failed states, the way that American security threatens others is not
discussed.
Chomsky illustrates that America has had a long tradition of making
itself exceptional to international rules - and a tradition of intellectuals
such as Gaddis, who formulate the legal and historical contortions that
justify such exceptionality. Take the topic that seems to be at the top of our
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control of the island, in which they have managed to create a magical sanc
tuary from International Law, where detainees can be held without charges
or legal council - as well , of course, as being subject to torture. In a time
after Nuremberg, in a time after 'Never again', we can only marvel at our
collective silence at the crimes of Guantanamo Bay. We can only imagine
with what admiration Stalin and H itler would hold the culture of doctrinal
control in Britain and America, where, free to dissent, the intellectual
community piously ignores what is openly going on beneath their noses.
There are people who, seemingly out of genuine concern for human
rights abuses in such places as Cuba, believe that US motives for interven
tion are benevolent. These people, who imagine that there is a substantive
difference between Democrats and Republicans, often point to the legacy
of two figures, Woodrow Wilson and Bill Clinton. A good way to scrutinize
this viewpoint is to examine these leaders' attitude towards Haiti. While
remaining aloof from the Great War, Wilson's government invaded Haiti in
1 9 1 5 (later, at the end of the war, it proclaimed the need for a League of
Nations and the rights of small nations to self-determination). Chomsky
points out that thousands of Haitians were killed resisting Wilson's
invaders, and that the invasion virtually re-instituted slavery, in the shape of
forced labour. After nineteen years of occupation the US left the country in
the hands of a vicious National Guard (FS, p 1 53; for more on the American
invasion of Haiti see Hans Schmidt, The United States Occupation ofHaiti,
1 91 5-34; Emily Greene Balch, Occupied Haiti; Frederick S. Calhoun, Uses
of Force and Wilsonian Foreign Policy). Clinton, for his part, ordered mili
tary intervention in Haiti in 1 994, 'to restore democracy' after the populist
Jean-Bertand Aristide, and not the US-approved former World Bank candi
date Marc Bazin, won the Haitian election. (Clinton would go on to flout
international law during his tenure, most blatantly in his unilateral invasion
of Kosovo in 1 999 under the auspices of NATO, which is a kind of private
military gang that frequently acts without the international consensus of the
UN - an organization the US undermines diplomatically through circum
vention and economically by not paying its membership dues.)
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land, separated from one another, with limited access to water, transporta
tion and work, refusing them the right to return home, isolating them by a
illegal large walled barrier and meeting their stones with US-made
missiles? Might this help us to be better able to see how unjust the situation
is, based on the haunting echo of the history of European subjugation that
the Jews went under for hundreds of years?
In 2005, when the US wanted Israel to stop selling advanced military
technology to China and Israel tried to evade the restrictions, the US
imposed sanctions against I srael . The sales of weaponry were crucial to the
Israelis' military high-tech export economy, but they were very quickly
dropped to comply with US demands, because the US is their diplomatic,
military, and economic keeper. Those analysts that argue that US support
for Israel has more to do with something known as the 'Jewish lobby' than
with pragmatic political, military and economic issues are dangerously
deluding themselves. They are distorting the plain facts of why the US has
a real investment in a strong Israel - albeit an Israel that does what it is told
to do. If we could find a way to achieve an honest discussion of these
issues, at least in theory, we should be able to put enough pressure on our
governments to say that Rogue Nations that promote terror, have unde
clared nuclear weapons, repress and torture people under occupation, and
flout international law, should not be politically and economically
supported by us. In this way, change can occur without relying on military
intervention.
HOPE
While things may seem grim, with Chomsky there is always the possibility
of hope, of making things better, as well as the recognition that people are
remarkable in their tenacity to live under adverse conditions and refuse to
give up. In the Afterword to the book, he takes strength from the growing
democratic regionalism in Latin America, led by Hugo Chavez in
Venezuela - where governments are beginning to use their natural
resources for their citizens rather than private profit.
For Chomsky (as for his late friend Edward Said), there are no magic
solutions when it comes to International Relations. Always preferring
analysis to giving answers, Chomsky notes that the work for all of us will
require 'day-by-day' engagement to create 'the basis for a functioning
democratic culture in which the public plays some role in determining poli
cies, not only in the political arena, from which it is largely excluded, but
also in the crucial economic arena, from which it is excluded in principle'.
But, in a rare moment, Chomsky offers a more macroscopic set of seven
suggestions for the US to follow: ( 1 ) accept the jurisdiction of the
International Criminal Court; (2) sign and carry forward the Kyoto proto-
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cols; (3) let the UN take the lead in international crises; (4) rely on diplo
matic and economic measures rather than military ones in confronting
terror; (5) keep to the traditional interpretation of the UN charter; (6) give
up the Security Council veto; and (7) cut back sharply on military spending
and sharply increase social spending. While it will take real work, we don't
have to accept these ideas as dreams. These are seven simple things that we
could print in bullet points on the cover of tabloids tomorrow so that
everyone could see some pragmatic means to save the US from being a
failed state. These are but a few of the simple goals that can animate our
own needs for peace in a world that is increasingly inching towards self
destruction. They are but some of the simple ways that America could cease
being an aggressive outlaw and fall into a real world order.
Many years ago I saw Noam Chomsky speak in Toronto. During the
question period someone asked Noam, as they always do, for something
like that list above, but something more directed, something that all of us in
the crowd could go out and do that would make the world better, tomorrow.
Chomsky paused for a moment, and then said ' Yes, alright, yes there is
something you could all do'. You could feel the room sit forward: ' You are
looking for one thing? Ok, here is one thing you can do - don't believe a
word I said this evening.' Laughter echoed nervously through Massey Hall.
He went on, 'No I am serious. Don't believe a word I have said, don't take
my word for it. Disagree. Go and find out these answers for yourself. Check
on my sources.' He went on to explain the importance of finding inde
pendent sources of information, meeting with people, talking and getting
together so that you can make up your own mind of what you think and how
you want to behave. The realities of military and economic aggression
today aren't a matter of belief - of following a leader or a prophet - nor are
they complicated. To think about them we just need honesty, reason, and an
employment of the freedoms that you and I share in droves.
If we are to discover the means of condemning the Nazi camp
paymaster, we owe it to ourselves, to those that suffer as a result of our
government's actions, to the memory of those who suffered under the
brutality of slavery, or died as a result of industrialized killing in gas cham
bers, in the shadow of nuclear clouds or beneath showers of napalm, to take
the responsibility to figure out what is going on for ourselves and decide
how we shall lift our voices in song against the terrorism and inhumanity
of Blair, Bush and Co. The words of the paymaster should address us with
a haunting ring, like a bell knelling in the distance: What have I done?
Anurag Jain
Queen Mary. University of London
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This book is framed by a desire to take utopia out of the literary sphere and
into the real world, by providing an exploration of intentional communities in
New Zealand. Its central aim is to challenge Rosabeth Moss Kanter's argu
ment that longevity is the most important criterion in assessing the success of
community. In contrast to this position, the authors suggest that utopian
experiments should be considered on their own terms: for however long they
last, intentional communities are important because of the efforts individuals
make to find alternative ways of living. In other words, the search for the
ideal outweighs the importance of its achievement and/or protection.
The best part of the book is given over to an account of the communi
ties currently in existence in New Zealand. These are considered in a
number of categories: religiously based communities, co-operatives and
environmental-communities. Together, they embrace a wide range of alter
native visions: from Buddhist to feminist to pacifist and explicitly
anarchist ideals. The fieldwork supporting this account captures very well
the variations between the groups, the differences in organisation and the
experiences of community life. And it is sandwiched between an intro
ductory section, which examines theoretical approaches to community and
the history of community in New Zealand in the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries, and a closing section which develops themes about utopianism,
longevity and the lessons of community for utopian theorising.
What's really heartening about this book is the sense it gives of the health
of community experiments. One might be forgiven for thinking that the
majority of New Zealanders had at one time or another in their lives been
involved in some kind of alternative movement. Indeed, this impression is
heightened by the discussion ofthe early colonisation ofNew Zealand and its
more recent marketing as a utopia of self-discovery and adventure. Even
victims of media manipulation might be said to be looking for an exit from
the mainstream, and therefore a utopia. And it is further reinforced by the
tendency of the authors to use 'community' as a synonym for utopia. In the
introductory section ' intentional community' is defined as 'a group of five or
more adults and their children . . . who come from more than one nuclear
family and who have chosen to live together to enhance their shared values
or for some other mutually agreed upon purpose' (5). By the end of chapter
2 they argue that New Zealand is a 'small remote country in which people
have been devising utopias for centuries. Sometimes these stem from a desire
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for a better way of life. Sometimes they are attempts to respond creatively to
real world events' ( 1 8). Admittedly, the historical survey suggests that some
early settlers did think explicitly in terms of utopia (even if they adopted an
impoverished view of utopia as the replication of England). But do members
of intentional communities typically think in these terms? The implication is
that they do and that community equals utopia. Yet this did not seem to be a
question asked of the individuals involved in the communities studied and,
intuitively, it seems too loose.
The difficulty of understanding the relationship between utopia and
community re-emerges at the end of the book. Here, the authors try to draw
lessons for the conceptualisation of utopianism from the fieldwork. But while
they stress their desire to opt 'for an approach that was based on the commu
nities' understandings of their own aims' ( 1 6 1 ), they also analyse the
operation of those communities with reference to other abstract ideas.
Looking at the issue of conflict, this dual approach produces contradictory
results. The experience of community suggests conflict is problematic, some
times deeply traumatic and usually disintegrative; the theory suggests that it
attests to the health, open-endedness and well-being of community. Equally
puzzling is the discussion of the classification of communities. The authors
suggest that any scheme of classification is necessarily flawed and that none
can 'fully represent reality' ( 1 6 1 ). Why then adopt a system of classification
that distinguishes between communities on the basis of their motivation?
There seems to be a tension between the desire to classify utopias and the
equally strong desire to understand the peculiar dynamics of community.
There is no question that the authors openly confront these tensions and
make no attempt to gloss over them. And if they don't resolve them, the rela
tionship they posit between utopia and community is both stimulating and
provocative. Their overall conclusion is that community represents a 'never
ending search for utopia' ( 1 83). I wasn't convinced that this aptly captured the
experiences of the various communities they studied. Nevertheless, the
account this book gives of intentional community certainly concentrates the
mind on what one might be prepared to call 'a good life'.
Ruth Kinna
Loughborough University
There have been some fine academic collections of anarchist papers in the
last two decades: Dimitrios I . Roussopoulos's The Anarchist Papers (Black
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Benjamin Franks
Crichton Campus ofthe University of Glasgow
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ANARCHIST STUDIES
Reclus allows for peasants to keep small parcels of land but favours
communes and opposition to technological domination (pp. 1 30- 1 33).
If, as the editors argue, Reclus was an early exponent of the benefits of a
certain type of globalization, he was also a theoretician of the power of the
state. Reclus wrote in his The Modern State ( 1 905) that the state would grad
ually lose its ability to instil fear in the population as its power became
'banal '; its popularity would decline, it would lose its capacity to 'inspire
mysterious and sacred fear' and would eventually provoke laughter and
contempt (p. 94). His Hegelian notion that the 'organism' of the state would
eventually destroy itself when reaching its limit of self-development allows
for a counter-force, of resistance, to surge forward triumphant. As the unlim
ited expansion of power of the state proceeds, this 'minute allocation of
positions, honors, and meagre rewards' has two consequences, with opposing
implications (p. 2 1 3). On the one hand, the ambition to govern becomes
widespread, 'so that the natural tendency of the ordinary citizen is to partici
pate in the management of public affairs' (p. 2 1 3). At the same time, this
state, 'divided into innumerable fragments, showering privileges on one or
another individual [ . . . ] this banal government, being all too well understood,
no longer dominates the multitudes through the impression of terrifying
majesty that once belonged to masters who were all but invisible, and who
only appeared before the public surrounded by judges, attendants, and execu
tioners' (pp. 2 1 3-2 1 4). Resistance reasserts itself, direct action is employed as
a tool for emancipation, leaders are no longer trusted and subjects become
partners in independence, succeeding in liberating themselves.
Such an understanding of the progress of state power from being held by
figures of majesty such as the monarch and the executioner to being dissem
inated throughout the whole of society, but against which resistance is
always present everywhere, can only remind us of Foucault's analytics of
power and the state. Further, Reclus' account of The History ofCities ( 1 905)
connects with the work of Murray Bookchin and Lewis Mumford. His advo
cacy of vegetarianism (On Vegetarianism, 1 90 1 ) and a new type of family
( The Extended Family, 1 896) attest to the sensibility and complexity of anar
chist thought and its impact on later movements. In this sense, Reclus, a
profound modernist, like many modem thinkers, contains the seeds of a
non-essentialist, even 'post-modem' sensibility more attuned to the times we
are living. The anthology edited by Clark and Martin allows us to look back
at Reclus' thought, placing it in its time and reminding us of the foundations
of much radical thought in our own present.
Richard Cleminson
University of Leeds
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