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Calculator Ban in Basic Calculus: Mathematical ability of the Grade 12 Senior High …
Abstract
Utilizing calculator is being the most required instrument amid math related
subjects; most understudies turned out to be extremely needy to the said instrument that
they think that its difficult to take care of fundamental issues without its assistance. The
specialists chose to lead an analysis to test the numerical capacity of 12 grader senior
secondary school understudies of Our Lady of Fatima University Pampanga. Adding
machine boycott or the non-utilization of mini-computer while noting a 10-thing Basic
Calculus examination was finished. Review 12 STEM understudies (N=10) took an
interest in the examination with half of the members being in the test bunch who got the
mediation. Pre-test and posttest where led to quantify their numerical capacity and to
know whether despite everything they have confidence in their selves that they can in
any case do mental calculation or manual calculation. As demonstrated the aftereffect
of the investigation where in Calculator gathering or the control amass got higher score
than the non-mini-computer gathering or the trial gathering. The control assemble
completed speedier than the test gathering. It implies that adding machine boycott
influences the understudy numerical capacity. Also, found that number cruncher is an
absolute necessity while completing a scientific condition. Consequently we presume
that understudies these days are presently depending in adding machine than doing
mental calculation and physically understanding. The analysts intend to see the
adequacy of number crunchers through testing the numerical capacity of the
respondents with and without adding machines. A T-test was likewise used to test the
theory and the relationship of the factors.
Keywords: mathematical ability, calculator ban.
1
I. Introduction
Most students find math-related subjects hard to understand. Mathematics, which
involves the study of quantities as expressed in numbers or symbols, comprises a
variety of related branches. In elementary school, for example, mathematics is
conceptualized in strands such as concepts, numeration, measurement, arithmetic,
algorithmic computation, and problem solving. In high school, curriculum offerings
include algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and calculus (Fuchs, Hamlet, Lambert,
Stuebing & Fletcher, 2005).
Mathematics is one of the subjects that require rigorous knowledge of
fundamental materials (Mabra, 2013). Thus, making it one of the hardest subjects. Most
of the time, scientific calculator is the instrument that helps students in solving
mathematical equation and problems. Odhiambo & Duncan (2016) stated that the
calculator has great potential in assisting the teacher to teach mathematical concepts
which are difficult to teach using conventional methods. However, because of this
instrument, we cannot easily know the mathematical ability of a student. Conducting an
experiment on how can a student manage to solve math problems without the help of
calculators will show how calculators is a must have school supply of a student.
The purpose of the study was twofold: to measure the level of mathematical
preparation of current senior high school students, and to test whether calculators to
improve mathematical performance in such students as it does in pre-senior high
students (Hembree and Dessart 2006). If there is an improvement it may not be due to
calculators being easier, but rather due to students today learning with calculators as a
part of their environment.
2
These studies specifically prohibited the use of calculators to solve the problems,
following the pedagogical assumption that students should be able to perform certain
mathematical operations without the aid of calculators.
Hanson, Brown, Levine and Garcia (2001) compared the difference between
standard calculators that were provided by the experimenter vs. those bought by 8 th
grade students, and found that performance was significantly higher for the group of
students who used their own calculators as opposed to those who were given calculators
with which they were not familiar.
The researcher wants to know about the students’ knowledge without using any
calculator if they can get a high or average score in mathematically activities (Jose
Vilson 2008). To test their mathematical abilities, their cognitive thinking in solving
situational problem, analytical thinking, quantitative reasoning ability to manipulate
precise and intricate ideas about mathematical equations. The purpose of this study is to
determine if the use or non-use of calculators in Grade 12 mathematics classes affect a
student’s ability to solve basic mathematical equations.
This study will examine the effects of using calculators on the development of
mathematic skills in grade 12 students. This study will focus on the potential negative
ramifications of using calculators instead of teaching students the fundamentals of 7
mathematics. If a student learns to calculate percentages with continuous access to a
calculator, that student will most likely be unable to calculate percentages without the
assistance of a calculating device.
3
II. Literature Review
Foreign Literature
The investigation of mathematics has changed extraordinarily after. These
progressions were helped by both hypothetical and mechanical advances. The abacus
was the first device used for calculating. It was invented thousands of years ago. It was
concocted a large number of years prior and stayed valuable until 1642 when the main
mechanical adding machine (calculator) was created (Gunstein and Lipsey, 2001). In
1671, a calculator that could finish expansion, subtraction, duplication, division, and
square root issues was created. The innovation of the coordinated circuit started the
present day period of calculator, as it is now had a memory to store numbers and
calculations (Gunstein and Lipsey, 1958).
According to Sarah Banks (2011) Historical Analysis of Attitudes Toward the
Use of Calculators in Junior High and High School Math Classrooms in the United
States Since 1975. (B.A. Integrated Mathematics Education, Cedarville University)
Since 1975 the usage of calculator in school has extraordinarily expanded while
strategies, educational programs, and attitudes have changed towards it. However, the
progressions have not all been with forward momentum. Development forward has
been met with resistance, yet the technology has won. These progressions have been
driven by four major groups: the NCTM, guardians, educational organizations, and
instructors. The attitudes and roles of these groups have been analyzed from 1975 to the
present day in order to understand their influence.
Before jumping into these four groups and watched their progressions overtime,
a summary of the eras of calculator utilization is introduced. Research from the
4
previous 4 decades has been dissected for basic topics and events in order to understand
the period of time. These periods will be a useful reference while analyzing particular
groups of interest and the effect that their mentalities and choices had on mathematics
education through the use of the calculator. The timeframes are: "The Great Divide,"
"An Era of Action," "The Graphing Calculator Epoch," "A Strategic Decision," and "A
Period of Confusion." As already said, a portion of the time have years that overlap,, as
change is not generally easy. Likewise, themes were happening in the same time,
making it difficult to partition the timeframes consistently.
It is very important that mental calculators as well those are the most appropriate
methods for solving problems. Such skills are necessary in the mathematical learning
process. Calculators will never be able to replace the human mind when it comes to
knowing how to read and understand a problem situation, writing an appropriate
equation for the problem, choosing which operations to use to solve problem, correctly
interpreting the solution displayed on the calculator, and determining the
appropriateness of the answer. Calculators are only as effective as the information
students enter into them.
Local Literature
While other people believe that from the time children enter school, being taught
how to use a calculator is a must, others have fear that being introduced to calculators
will weaken the child’s ability it calculate mentally. Even though it is important, the
usage of calculator is only one of the many different ways to calculate. Young students
can learn to compare the calculator’s messages to the reasonable answers they have
learned to expect from their evolving understanding of arithmetic. This statement was
5
supported by Dick (1988,39) also states in his article that ―Students using calculators
possesses a better attitude toward mathematics than no calculator students. There are
students who may have fear when it comes to part of a problem that requires computing
and the permission of the teacher to use a calculator may lessen the fear or anxiety they
have. That way, they will be able to focus more on the problem rather than worrying
about the computations being difficult.
This helps the student to succeed in solving the problem and develop confidence
when solving math problems. Mental math, estimation, paper and pencil, calculators
and computers are some of the tools that can be used by the students during problem
solving. Calculators help students from long calculations for them to have more time in
higher order thinking and reasoning most of the time. According to critics, calculators
are the reason behind those students who cannot solve basic tasks independently. Also,
calculators encourage students to explore varieties of mathematical computation even
without understanding which the right way to solve it. Calculators indeed, prevent
students from understanding fully the underlying concepts and give them false sense of
confidence in their mathematical ability. Lastly, with the help of calculators, the
students fail to connect the points and have the main idea. The majority of experts on
high school learning maintain that for students who lack basic number proficiency,
calculators may provide only the illusion of progress (Golden, 2005).
Ever since the calculator was invented, the debate about its usage in math class has
been going on. One opinion in the debate states that calculators are good because
through the help of them, problems are completed faster and more accurately. An
opposing statement is that using calculators weakens the student’s arithmetic skills
6
resulting from making calculators do all the job of solving. The overuse of calculator
results to underuse of the student’s brain when it comes to solving.
The continuous debates about the matter heightened the interests of many
researcher in finding out whether to let students use their calculators or not when
solving math equations.
A research conducted at Carmen National High School found out that most of
their students are dependent on calculators rather that doing the calculations mentally or
manually. They find it easier to use the calculators when solving than making their
minds and hands work. On the aspect of mastering the device, majority was already
thought of how to use it for complex computations resulting to students being more
comfortable when using it. Thought it was only thought for complex calculations, it
was still used in basic calculations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. Because of this kind of performance, dependency in calculators, the reasoning
ability and their nature of understanding concepts were at some risks. Students might
have a hard time in the future solving more complex problems, this matter bounces
back to the teaching issues, in which they were taught if the basics. Teachers should
know how to balance the use of calculators in the classroom.
7
Conceptual Framework
INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Senior High School Survey -Efficiency of non-
Students: calculator in solving
Quantitative mathematical
ability in terms of approach
Mathematical problems
without using True Experimental -to test their ability
calculator Research Design in solving
mathematical
equations
Input
This study will determine the mathematical efficiency of Grade 12 Senior High
School student in non-calculator in solving situational problem.
Process
The participants were selected from the Grade 12 student of Our Lady of Fatima
University. The study quantitative approach and true experimental research design that
they want to know how effective the non-calculator of Grade 12 Senior High School.
This design where manipulates the result that they can control the one variable. The
subject has been randomly assigned between the groups and can test one effect at a
time.
Output
This study will show if there’s an efficiency of non-calculator in solving
mathematical situational of Grade 12 Senior High School Students. This researcher
8
aims to know and to test their skills in analytical solving problem so that it can be
possible without calculator.
Theoretical Basis
Individuals who restrict the utilization of adding machines in classrooms adopt
substantially more customary strategy in tackling the issues. Some promoter drills and
redundancy in instructing. By doing this, the understudy will more probable recall the
science ideas and have the capacity to play out the figuring’s without the utilization of a
mini-computer. Adversaries trust these abilities will be more useful to the understudy
and have them a superior entertainer in general (McCauliff, 2004). Despite the fact that
the utilization of number cruncher is permitted, circumstances where either an adding
machine isn't accessible to take care of the issue, or the issue can't be tackled even with
an adding machine happen in light of the fact that there are cases where the understudy
does not really get a handle on or comprehend the numerical idea that is required.
The clarification behind why various math workplaces don't enable understudies
to utilize number cruncher or significantly limit on their use is exceptionally
straightforward: Real math doesn't utilize adding machines. In an exam that you will do
math or science at a school level, you ought to be utilized with issues that can't
understand by simply punching into a number cruncher.
I trust it's sensibly exact to express that the possibility that math at the school
level incorporates adding machines is fairly similar to the conviction that history at the
school level is tied in with remembering the names of the rulers of England, or that
English at the school level is about parts of discourse and metrical structures, or that
9
financial aspects at the school level is tied in with figuring out how to adjust your check
book.
The capacity to do numerical tasks is a crucial establishment skill for math or
science; in any case it isn't by any techniques the center of the train. All more
frequently, people in the scientific sciences are working with conditions as unique
dissents; the numbers are optional.
The reason behind restricting the use of number crunchers in early math and
science classes is that adding machines will be no help with higher math classes, and
can be a dynamic deterrent to learning. The sooner you can start breaking understudies
of their obsession with numerical control and push them toward being alright with
variable based math and other more dynamic portrayals, the better.
On the off chance that that is valid, for what reason do secondary schools math
classes permit adding machines? For a similar reason that secondary school English
classes keep on having vocabulary tests– secondary school is tied in with building up
the base level of capability expected to work as a native in present day society. The
capacity to do math with an adding machine is the outright absolute bottom least
aptitude required for present day society– I figure it is great to have understudies left
secondary school being acquainted with variable based math (polynomial math
resembles sunscreen), yet I'll make do with them having the capacity to do math on an
adding machine.
10
III. Methodology
Overview
In this chapter, we discuss the research design, area of study or the research
locale, sample of the population, sampling technique, and instrument for data
collection, validation of the questionnaire, administration of the instrument and method
of data analysis and the research ethics.
Research Locale
The participants of this study will be the Grade 12 students in Our Lady of
Fatima University, Pampanga Academic Year 2017-2018
Population and Sampling
Population of the study was the Grade 12 Senior High School that was divided
into 3 academic tracks Health, Technology and Engineering. In this study we only
focus on the students who are taking Engineering. We decided to get 10 participants in
different sections of Grade 12 Engineering students who are taking the subject Basic
Calculus. In this study we used Purposive aim in choosing our participants. We chose
this students to serve as our participants in this study, we chose this informants taking
STEM (Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics) strand that is basically
related in the subject Basic Calculus.
Research Design
This study used Quantitative Approach and True experimental research design
that aims to determine if the students will be able to solve mathematical problems in
Basic Calculus without using a calculator and how high the mathematical ability of the
Grade 12 senior high students. This decided to choose this design due to its ability to
11
identify the relationship between the two variables. The research variables are
Calculators (Independent Variable) and Mathematical Ability (Dependent Variable). It
comprised 5 samples for experimental group and 5 samples for control group. On that
day of the study one group (experimental group) will answer the following
mathematical problems in Basic Calculus with the given formulas without using
calculators within 10 minutes. Participants in control group will also solve
mathematical problems in Basic Calculus with the given formulas and they used
calculators within 10 minutes.
Data collection procedure
Based on the research findings the researcher will analyze all the data they
gathered to summarize and to give conclusion. After that the researchers can conclude
how high the mathematical ability of the grade 12 students is and how calculators can
affect their mathematical performance.
Data Analysis
Pretest
The 10 questions indicate the negative and positive effects of the mathematical
ability of using calculator and non-calculator. In order to get the percentage for each
question, they encircled number (which serves as the answer of the participant) in each
item should be sum up. Then, the summation of the participant's answer will be divided
into 5 items/questions that consist.
According to the instruction, numbers 1-5 are associated into corresponding
legends: strongly agree (5), agree (4), no opinion (3), disagree (2) or strongly disagree
(1). The higher the average percentage is more negative outlook of the participant to
12
solve equations without calculator. However, some participants confidently answer that
they can solve equations easily with the use of calculator.
Posttest
The test will be scored 5 points each for every correct answer and solution.
There will be corresponding 2-3 points for wrong answer but correct solution and of
course, no point for wrong solution or no answer. In order to assess the data, the
following number range intervals will serve as the Legend for every corresponding
scores/points:
41-50 points: The individual has outstanding background knowledge on basic calculus.
31-40 points: The individual has sufficient background knowledge in basic calculus,
lacks the ability to answer in order or in time.
21-30 points: The individual has insufficient background knowledge in basic calculus,
and repeatedly forgets how to solve the equation and what formula to use in the given
problem.
20 lower: The individual has poor background knowledge on basic calculus, misuse of
answering equations without the formula and without the calculator.
Observation Checklist
Each selection is rated 5 points at most, 1 point at least, tallying to 25 points as
the perfect score. In order to assess the data, the following number range intervals will
serve as the Legend or Criteria:
20-25 points: The individual is the ideal student, studiously does the questionnaire, and
follows the instructions carefully and does not ask too many questions to the
researchers.
13
15-24 points: The individual makes minor mistakes, thus, failing to be the ideal student,
either failing to organize his or her own answers or seems to be distracted during the
given test.
10-14 points: The individual has made a lot of errors, thus really failing to touch the
ideal student mark, unorganized answers, seems to be distracted, always asks questions
and computes wrongly.
9 below: The individual is the inverse of an ideal student; his or her mind might be
dwelling on other things than school. And finally, the individual has a lot of work to do
to improve his or her knowledge.
Research Ethics
The researcher secured a consent from the participants and made sure that they
are fully informed if the mechanics of the study. The researchers will also respect the
participants’ decision if they want to leave the research without penalty and every
information taken from the participants will be discarded from the study.
14
IV. Results and Discussion
Table 1: Demographic data
Choices N %
Gender
Male 7 70%
Female 3 30%
Total 10 100%
Age
17 year-old 6 60%
18 year-old 4 40%
Total 10 100%
Section
STEM ENGG-1R 5 50%
STEM ENGG-2P 5 50%
Total 10 100%
Table 1 presents some of the demographic characteristics of the participants,
70% of the participants are males while the remaining 30% are females. Majority of the
participants are 17 year-olds (60%) and the minority are 18 year-olds (40%). 50% of
the participants are from STEM ENGG-1R and the remaining half are from STEM
ENGG-2P.
Table 2: Pre-test
15
Group Score Legend N %
41-50 Outstanding 2 40%
Control 31-40 Very Good 1 20%
21-30 Good 2 40%
20 and below Fair 0 0%

Total: 5 100%
Experimental 31-40 Very Good 2 60%
21-30 Good 3 40%
20 and below Fair 0 0%

Total: 5 100%
Table 2 presents the results of the pre-test which measured the participant’s
mathematical ability. Majority of the participants from the control group had a very
good score in the measure of their mathematical ability and 40% of them acquired an
outstanding score which shows that based from the pre-test the participants answered,
they are confident with their mathematical ability. Meanwhile, the majority of the
experimental group’s (60%) answer was in between 21-30 which shows that they have
a good mathematical ability and the remaining 40% percent were very good. This
indicates that most of them are not that confident when solving equations given the fact
that the answers they gave during the pre-test were that not high when it comes to
mathematical ability
Table 3: Post test results
16
Group Score Legend N %
Control 31-40 Very Good 0 0%
21-30 Good 0 0%
20 and Fair 0 0%
Total: below 5 100%
Experimental 31-40 Very Good 1 20%
21-30 Good 3 60%
20 and Fair 0 0%
Total: below 5 100%
The data presented in table 3 is the result of the post test administered to both the
control and experimental group. Based on the result, the mean score in the post-test of
the control group is 48.3 while that of the experimental group is 33.2 which shows that
the scores gathered from the control group are higher than those from the experimental
group.
Table 4: Independent t-test
T- test 2 sample assuming
unequal variance
Experimental group Control group
mean 32.2 48.3
17
Variance 52.6222 4.677778
Observation 10 10
Hypothesis mean 0
difference
df 9
T stat -
8.27244
P(T<=t) one-tail 8.46E-06
t Critical one-tail 1.833113
P(T<=t) two-tail 1.69E-05
t Critical two-tail 2.262157
A t-test is an analysis of two population’s means through the use of statistical
examination; a t-test with two samples is commonly used with small sample sizes,
testing the difference between the samples when the variances of two normal
distributions are not known.
In our problem our critical t value is 2.262157 and our t value is -8.27244 so our
critical t value is greater than the t value, therefore the difference between the two sets
is not significant.
18
Since the p-value (two tail) we get is 0.00017 is lesser than level of significance
which is 0.05, reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis. There is
enough evidence that students who use the calculator are significantly different to those
students who don’t use calculator. Calculator ban affects the mathematical ability level
of the Grade 12 students.
V. Conclusion
The finding from the numerical calculation worksheet were examined and
contrasted with the objectives at first settled in this examination and are accounted for.
19
Are fundamental objective is to decide how the utilization or non-utilization of
calculators influences essential math abilities. At the point when the understudies were
utilizing the calculators, they didn't have issues finishing the numerical calculations
worksheet. The students were denied the use of a calculator set aside greater
opportunity to finish the test and the students were baffled about not having the
capacity to utilize calculators.
The students took 25 minutes for all students to finish the test without mini-
computers and 15 minutes with the calculators. The consequence of this investigation
demonstrated that students do depend on a calculator to do the most straightforward of
mathematical calculations. Moreover, similar students don't know whether the
calculator determined answer is right, as delineated in the test rates demonstrating a
critical number of wrong answers notwithstanding utilizing a calculator. These
outcomes and perceptions don't measure precisely how the students` basic calculus
skilss were influenced, yet they showed that somehow, they were by their failure to
continue through the issue without a calculator.
Decide whether the utilization or non-utilization of calculators influences students
who are not permitted to utilize calculators when given a basic calculus problem. By
and large, the gathering of students considered performed inadequately without a
calculator. This is reflected by 332 correct responds out of 500 items or 66.4% without
the utilization of number cruncher contrast with the 483 correct answers out of 500
items or 96.6% with the utilization of calculators.
As appeared in the outcome where the control group gathers a high score than the
experimental group and they completed the test quicker than the experimental group.
20
The calculator ban has a negative impact in the mathematical ability of the Grade 12
students in Our Lady of Fatima University. The analysts presumed that because of
intemperate utilized of calculators the students now a day relies upon calculators than
mental calculation. On this circumstance the mathematical ability of the students isn't
enhancing in light of the fact that they are continually relying upon the calculators. As
the outcomes in the pre-test students appraised their mathematical ability low or in
ordinary range.
Recommendation
A strong recommendation would be to encourage other researchers to use this
study to devise more research to examine the results documented in this study. More
time could be put into conducting follow-up interviews on how students felt about the
21
use of calculators and how their usage affected them personally. In particular, some
means for differentiating students who consider themselves less dependent on
calculators should be determined, and whether such ability is truly beneficial in their
mathematical knowledge. This would be difficult and time consuming but worthwhile
for information needed in teaching mathematics in the future and on the effects of
calculator usage.
Overall, the study has met the established goals, but further and more
comprehensive research needs to be done to see if the results hold true for a larger
population. This population was a class of 20 grade 12 students that taking STEM of
Our Lady Of Fatima University at San Fernando Pampanga. If the same study is carried
out in a different class, or perhaps a different school with a different age level, it will
add to the results from this study. Hopefully this information will benefit future
researchers on whether or not the use or non-use of calculators greatly affects the
mathematical ability of grade 12 senior high school in solving basic calculus equation.
22

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Calculator Ban in Basic Calculus: Mathematical ability of the Grade 12 Senior High …

secondary school understudies of Our Lady of Fatima University Pampanga. Adding

machine boycott or the non-utilization of mini-computer while noting a 10-thing Basic

Calculus examination was finished. Review 12 STEM understudies (N=10) took an

any case do mental calculation or manual calculation. As demonstrated the aftereffect

absolute necessity while completing a scientific condition. Consequently we presume

adequacy of number crunchers through testing the numerical capacity of the

theory and the relationship of the factors.

Keywords: mathematical ability, calculator ban.

Most students find math-related subjects hard to understand. Mathematics, which

involves the study of quantities as expressed in numbers or symbols, comprises a

variety of related branches. In elementary school, for example, mathematics is

conceptualized in strands such as concepts, numeration, measurement, arithmetic,

algorithmic computation, and problem solving. In high school, curriculum offerings

include algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and calculus (Fuchs, Hamlet, Lambert,

Stuebing & Fletcher, 2005).

Mathematics is one of the subjects that require rigorous knowledge of

instrument, we cannot easily know the mathematical ability of a student. Conducting an

improve mathematical performance in such students as it does in pre-senior high

part of their environment.

mathematical operations without the aid of calculators.

with which they were not familiar.

situational problem, analytical thinking, quantitative reasoning ability to manipulate

determine if the use or non-use of calculators in Grade 12 mathematics classes affect a

student’s ability to solve basic mathematical equations.

ramifications of using calculators instead of teaching students the fundamentals of 7

mathematics. If a student learns to calculate percentages with continuous access to a

assistance of a calculating device.

II. Literature Review

The investigation of mathematics has changed extraordinarily after. These

calculations (Gunstein and Lipsey, 1958).

According to Sarah Banks (2011) Historical Analysis of Attitudes Toward the

States Since 1975. (B.A. Integrated Mathematics Education, Cedarville University)

present day in order to understand their influence.

a summary of the eras of calculator utilization is introduced. Research from the

making it difficult to partition the timeframes consistently.

knowing how to read and understand a problem situation, writing an appropriate

interpreting the solution displayed on the calculator, and determining the

appropriateness of the answer. Calculators are only as effective as the information

students enter into them.

about the computations being difficult.

calculators encourage students to explore varieties of mathematical computation even

calculators may provide only the illusion of progress (Golden, 2005).

results to underuse of the student’s brain when it comes to solving.

solving math equations.

division. Because of this kind of performance, dependency in calculators, the reasoning

know how to balance the use of calculators in the classroom.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

School student in non-calculator in solving situational problem.

This study will show if there’s an efficiency of non-calculator in solving

mathematical situational of Grade 12 Senior High School Students. This researcher

possible without calculator.

Individuals who restrict the utilization of adding machines in classrooms adopt

the utilization of number cruncher is permitted, circumstances where either an adding

to utilize number cruncher or significantly limit on their use is exceptionally

understand by simply punching into a number cruncher.

The capacity to do numerical tasks is a crucial establishment skill for math or

dissents; the numbers are optional.

collection, validation of the questionnaire, administration of the instrument and method

of data analysis and the research ethics.

Fatima University, Pampanga Academic Year 2017-2018

Population and Sampling

STEM (Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics) strand that is basically