SHIP BUOYANCY AND STABILITY

Lecture 10 – Stability Special Topics

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 Following lecturers
• Introduction
• Ship equilibrium and introduction to hydrostatics
• Ship initial Stability
• The stability curve (GZ curve)
• Preparation for the laboratory test

• Dynamic stability
• Second generation of intact stability criteria

• Ship Damage Stability

• Stability special topics

 Maritime institutions
 MAX_KG
 Grounding, launching
 Stability of HSC
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 Ship safety and stability: rules
• The International Maritime Organization (IMO), known as the Inter-
Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) until 1982,was
established in Geneva in 1948. http://www.imo.org
• The IMO's primary purpose is to develop and maintain a comprehensive
regulatory framework for shipping including safety, environmental
concerns, legal matters, technical co-operation, maritime security and
the efficiency of shipping.
• IMO is the source of approximately 60 legal instruments that guide the
regulatory development of its member states to improve safety at sea,
facilitate trade among seafaring states and protect the maritime
environment.
• The most well known is the International Convention for the Safety of
Life at Sea (SOLAS), as well as the International Convention on Oil
Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPRC).
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 Ship safety and stability: rules
• A classification society is an organization that establishes and maintains technical
standards for the construction and operation of ships and offshore structures. The
society will also validate that construction is according to these standards and carry
out regular surveys in service to ensure compliance with the standards.

• The development of these standard is guided by IMO.

• The International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) is a technically based

organization consisting of twelve marine classification societies. IACS provides a
forum within which the member societies can discuss, research and adopt technical
criteria that enhance maritime safety. Lloyd's Register (LR)
Bureau Veritas (BV)
www.iacs.org Registro Italiano Navale (RINA)
American Bureau of Shipping (ABS)
China Classification Society (CCS)
Croatian Register of Shipping (CRS)
It is 12, since DNV and GL merged together Det Norske Veritas (DNV)-Germanischer Lloyd (GL)
Indian Register of Shipping (IRS)
Korean Register of Shipping (KR)
Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (NK/ClassNK)
Polish Register of Shipping (PRS)
Russian Maritime Register of Shipping (RS)
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 Ship safety and stability: rules
International Convention on Load Lines is an International Convention for the ship freeboard.
In accordance with the International Convention on Load Lines (CLL 66/88), all assigned load
lines must be marked amidships on each side of the ships engaged in international voyages.
The determinations of the freeboard of ships are calculated and/or verified by classification
societies.
The International Load Line or Plimsoll line, is a mark that indicates the draft of the ship and
the legal limit to which a ship may be loaded for specific water types and temperatures in
order to safely maintain buoyancy.

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 Ship safety and stability assessment
• Ship severity (stability and safety) at the sea is a very complex issue,
which depends not only on the stability of the ship in calm water,
but also on its behavior in irregular seaway.
• Ship severity practical applications started around mid-1700s, (i.e.
18th century) when the concept of metacentric height and righting
arm were introduced for the first time by Pierre Bouguer and
Leonard Euler. The first true stability criterion, based on
metacentric height and freeboard height, was developed by Fredrik
Henrik auf Chapman during the same period.
• Nowadays the ship stability assessment is approached by setting
the requirements for the GZ curve and the dynamic lever curve,
taking into account only the roll motion.
• Analysis of the characteristics of the righting arm curve and
weather criterion verification are included in the current INTACT
STABILITY CODE (IS code 2008).

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 Stability booklet
Each ship should be provided with a stability booklet, approved by the
Administration, which contains sufficient information to enable the master
to operate the ship in compliance with the applicable requirements
contained in the Stability Code and other pertinent stability regulations.

The Booklet represents a manual for

the ship regarding ship stability.

It is prepared for the ship’s Master for

obtaining information and suitable
instructions as guidance to the stability
of the ship under varying conditions of
service.

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 Stability booklet

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 Max KG or Min GM method
• The maximum allowable VCG, for the given displacement and
trim, represents the limit value of the vertical center of gravity
for which at least one of the rule requirements becomes not
satisfied.
• This method, applies both to the intact and to the damage
stability.
• The ship intact and damage stability analysis is very important
for safety.
• Nowadays the Max VCG approach represents the standard
method to assess the stability of a ship.
• The Max VCG method for intact and damage condition is
currently adopted by ship bridge software that allows evaluating
the stability characteristics of each equilibrium condition.

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 The master can check the stability of the
ship in the actual loading conditions
Lightship
Cargo
Crew
Consumables:
-Fuel,
-Fresh water,
-Lub oil,
-etc

ACTUAL LOADING CONDITION:

Weight i.e. Displacement:
-draft for checking the freeboard
Center of gravity
- Longitudinal coordinate for trim
- Transversal coordinate close to zero
- Vertical Coordinate for stability
assessment
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 The master can check the stability of the ship
in the actual loading condition i.e. in any
loading condition
NEEDED: Displacement, Trim, VCG

Intact stability
criteria NOT verified

Intact stability
criteria verified

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 Intact Stability criteria: IMO RESOLUTION A.167

A. AREA FROM 0 TO 30 > 0.055

B. AREA FROM 0 TO 40 OR FLD > 0.090

C. AREA FROM 30 TO 40 OR FLD > 0.030
D. RA AT 30 > 0.200
E. ANGLE AT MAX > 25
F. GM AT EQU > 0.150

downflooding angle

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 Maximum vertical center of gravity
The KGlim curve is the envelope of the curves regarding all the involved stability criteria; in this
case only the general intact stability criteria, without taking into account freesurface effects

Intact Displ Intact Draft Max.VCG Limit A Limit B Limit C Limit F Limit D Limit E Maximum VCG vs. Displacement
(MT) At MS (m) (m) Trim = zero at zero heel (Trim
16,030.5 5.00 14.087 978.1% 842.2% 750.2% 5262.6% 0.0° 3365.0% righting arm held at zero)
20,412.9 6.00 15.085 513.0% 422.0% 342.3% 2919.1% 0.0° 1673.6% Limit Report
25,082.9 7.00 15.721 188.8% 134.6% 74.4% 1283.6% 0.0° 819.4%
30,099.3 8.00 15.796 31.3% 13.6% 0.0% 647.2% 3.4° 335.7%
35,300.3 9.00 15.451 0.0% 11.4% 50.7% 779.8% 9.2° 74.5%

Max. VCG vs. Displacement

Displacement
15000.0 20000.0 25000.0 30000.0 35000.0
16.0
Trim 0.00° M
A
X
V
C Limit Min/Max
G
15.5 (A) Area from Equilibrium to 30.00 deg >0.0550 m-R
m
(B) Area from Equilibrium to 40.00 deg or Fld >0.0900 m-R
(C) Area from 30.00 deg to 40.00 or Fld >0.0300 m-R
Intact stability 15.0
(D) Righting Arm at 30.00 deg >0.030 m
criteria verified (E) Absolute Angle at MaxRA >25.00 deg
(F) GM at Equilibrium >0.150 m

14.5

14.0

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 Maximum KG with freesurface corrections
Corrections for freesurface effects have to be taken into account.
This can be done by incrasing the actual vertical center of gravity of the
ship by means of a correction factor CMAX

KG  CMAX  KGlim MIN

Max. VCG vs. Displacement
Displacement
15000.0 20000.0 25000.0 30000.0 35000.0
16.0
Trim 0.00° M
A
X
V
C
G
CMAX=it is the maximum correction among KGlimMIN 15.5
m

the different criteria, calculated at a fixed CMAX

displacement (i.e. max[CA, CB, CC, CD, CE, CF]) 15.0

KGlimMIN is the envelope curve obtained 14.5

KG
without correction
14.0

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 MAXVCG is the limit curve of the VCG for which all
the stability criteria are fulfilled

Limit curves are provided for intact stability and for

damage stability as well.

Limit curves are calculated for the range of operative

displacement and operative trim of the ship

The limit curves for the MAXVCG have to be

included in the stability booklet.

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 Grounding

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 Grounding effects
• The grounding occurs when the ship is leaning against an
underwater obstacle.
• The accidental grounding can happen for several reasons: lack of
knowledge of the seabed, action of wind, waves and currents,
changes in the seawater level due to the tide.
• Grounding has a similar effect as unloading of a ship: the virtual
removed weight P is equal to the grounding reaction force.
• This reaction force is applied at the contact point with the ground.
• The ship grounding or docking is associated with the floating vessel
equilibrium and stability.
• Buoyancy reduces. So does draft. Trim changes as well.
• Grounding effect of the ship's equilibrium position:
It looks at how the change will affect the vessel's transverse stability.

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 Typical Grounding exercises
• First grounding exercise: ‘‘the ship is grounded in
a known point at the keel (in order to assume
symmetric grounding), with a known trim. We need
to find the draft variation at equilibrium and the
reaction force due to the grounding’’.
• Second grounding exercise: ‘‘the ship is
grounded and are known trim and draft variation. We
need to evaluate the reaction force and its
application point’’.

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 1. Point force at stern
• Point force applied at ship stern P’.
– Due to this force P' the maximum longitudinal moment on the ship will
be for zero trim.
– Ship draft will decrease of T. T = P'
 g AW
– We need to evaluate first P’
ML z
P' xPxF cos   ' GML sin  = 0
W
a)
G T WL
t
F
B0
0 tan  =  TA  TF
TA B 
L

P K TF x WL
 L

2  ' GML TA  TF
W assuming xP-xF≈ L/2 P' -≈
L2
b) P'
P'
W assuming GML≈ L and
∆’≈∆ 2  TA  TF
c) p'' P' -≈
L
P''
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 2. Grounding: reaction force and
position T T tan  =  A F
• If the grounding force longitudinal L
position xP is not known, it can be
P' = T  g AW
assessed by the vessel's conditions.
• We only need precise information on
the ship drafts before and after the
grounding.
• Changes in the draft T can be
calculated from the magnitude of P' xPxF cos   ' GML sin  = 0
the reaction force
• The coordinate xP will be evaluated xPxF = ' GMLtan/P'
by the trim angle  and by the
calculated P’.

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 The effect of grounding on the
transverse stability tan  =  TA  TF
W= L

• The effect of grounding on a ship is to

change the trim and the draft and so M0
the displaced volume of water and
WL0 G
the center of buoyancy.
• In order to evaluate the effect on 
WL1 WL
stability due to grounding let’s see B0
how the initial stability changes: B1 B 
K
Without grounding effect:
IT
GM0 = KB +  KG P
 1 =   P

• If we just look at the reduction of the immersed volume, it would result that
the initial stability would increase: this is not true.

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 The effect of grounding on the
transverse stability

• The reaction force could be seen as a cargo unloaded at the ship

bottom, that means that virtually the center of gravity is becoming
higher, reducing GM. The stability is reduced.

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 Restoring moment
W=
Mst =    P KM0   KG sin 
M0 -    P KM0   KG 

WL0 G


WL1 WL
B0
B 
• The ship is stable if: 𝛿𝑀𝑠𝑡
<0
B1
𝛿𝜙
K
  P KM0 >  KG
P 1 =   P

Mst
=    P KM0 +  KG =   KM0 + P KM0 +  KG =   KM0  KG + P KM0 =   GM0  P KM0
 

• This value represents the virtual increase of the center of gravity for the ship
during grounding: that leads to decreasing the metacentric height
• If the value of the reaction force is high and the initial center of gravity of the
ship is too high, the ship is more vulnerable to capsize in grounding condition.
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 Launching
The launching consists in bringing a ship constructed on land, in water. This can be
accomplished in two different ways corresponding to the fact that the construction has
taken place:
1. above the free surface of the water (construction of direct);
2. or below the free surface of water in a appropriate drained basin.
The reverse operation (take the ship from water to land) can also be performed in two
ways:
3. Hauling (haulage), typically for small units.
4. the dry-docking, typically for medium-to-large units.
1
3
2&4

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 Longitudinal Launching
1. Regarding the longitudinal launching, in the following some info will be given in order
to perform safe operations.

cradle
Fwd edge of
the rail-yard

Fwd point of
Surfacing the cradle
point

1 1
• Rail-yard slope: generally between 12 ÷ 16
• The launching is mainly longitudinal, performed by stern

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 Launching phases
1. Dried sliding
2. Wet sliding (ship parallel to the rail-yard)
3. Sliding with ship rotation
4. Free floating
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yyVxIT7P3Qg

FIRST PHASE: F =W'⋅sinα − A =W'⋅sinα − f ⋅W'⋅cosα

where α is the rail-yard inclination, f is the dynamic skin friction coefficient and W´ the
weight of ship plus cradle.

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 Launching phases
SECOND PHASE: Ship weight is supported by the rail-yard reaction and by the
incoming buoyancy. If the moment of the weight is higher than the buoyancy
moment (there is still the reaction R*r moment), then the ship will continue to move
parallel to the rail-yard without rotating. When these two moments are equal (means
the reaction is concentrated in the fwd point of the cradle i.e r=0), the ship will start
to rotate (3rd phase).

Surfacing
point

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 Launching phases
THIRD PHASE: Ship weight is still supported by the buoyancy and the reaction force,
concentrated in the fwd cradle point (brione). The problem could be seen like the
ship grounding at a know point, while rotating. In this condition the ship could
experience stability problem linked to metacenter height reduction in grounding.
The final phase, with the ship freely floating, will start when W’= ’ and R=0

Surfacing
point

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 Launching actions
Forces
Moments

3rd Sliding 2nd Wet sliding

with rotation

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 Launching Problems
The problem linked to ship traditional launching, due to the length of the
forward rail-yard are mainly:
• Drop
• Tipping
• Bow blow
₋ The drop could occur at the end of the 3rd phase, when the rail-yard is not
long enough and the ship leaves it before W’= ’. In that case the ship
immerges suddenly the bow with a movement known as drop. A small drop
could be tolerable.
₋ If the rail-yard is too short, in the 2nd phase could happen that the moment
due to the buoyancy weight and reaction force becomes negative and starts
to bring the stern down. This phenomenon is called tipping.
₋ The sudden increase of buoyancy at the stern could then induce a moment
of opposite sign with the risk to crash the bow on the rail-yard (Bow blow)

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 Other kind of Launching
• Transversal launching
• Dry-Dock launching
₋ Transversal launching is preferred in the case of medium-small units and in
the presence of limited space in front of the rail-yard. High positive GM is
required

Fwd edge of
the rail-yard

Surfacing
point
http://youtu.be/lujTcNfUcV4
http://youtu.be/dw8kvPN0oK0

₋ Dock launching is the most safe type of launching, but it requires longer
time to be carried out.

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 END OF TOPICS INVOLVING
DISPLACEMENT HULLS

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NOTES ON THE STABILITY OF FAST VESSELS

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 Effect of speed on stability
• For displacement ship, the speed has no influence on stability;
• For Semi-displacement ship, Fast ship, and non-conventional ship,
speed could have influence on ship stability;
• For semi-displacement vessels there are both static stability
approach and dynamic stability approach, linked to the speed.
• Non-conventional and fast vessels, due to their different
characteristics, have received less attention by the rules, especially
regarding stability.
• Anyway development on this topic has been started.
• Rule prescriptions regarding non-conventional ships are general.
• They mainly require that the vessel is designed according to
hydrostatic and hydrodynamic criteria or tests are required to
assess ship stability

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 Semi-displacement and planning vessels
• For displacement vessels we assumed fluid at rest, meaning that the
wetted surface of the ship is interested only by the static pressure of the
water.
• For semi-displacement and planning vessels this assumption is not valid
anymore.
• Hydrodynamic pressure has to be taken into account.
• In order to evaluate properly this pressure, Euler equation should be
applied and solved, with the proper boundary conditions.
• The main difficulty is to evaluate the sea surface in presence of fast
vessels.
• Actually numerical methods have been developed to solve Euler
equations, but they are typically used to evaluate ship resistance i.e drag.
• Anyway we could aspect to use the same method in the future also to
evaluate stability performances of those vessels.
• Nowadays ship stability for non-displacement ship is based on revised
displacement criteria or on model tests and on acquired experience.
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 Dynamic pressure lift
• Thanks to the dynamic pressure, the static pressure needed to
sustain the ship weight is less.
• The ship is not immersed according to the Archimedes theorem.
• The vertical hydrodynamic force arising with the dynamic
phenomena and increasing with the speed, lifts the ship.
• The ship wetted surface changes and so the waterplane and the
moments of inertia.

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 Dynamic pressure effects
FZ

dynaamisesta paineesta johtuva nostevoima

• We can assume that the lift force Fz acts like a grounding force
• In this way we can evaluate the initial metacentric height reduction
• According to this the following formula for grounding could be used, where
instead of P (grounding force) we can assume Fz (lift force)

Mst
=   GM0  P KM0
 
=

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 Transversal distribution of dynamic lift.
a) b)

• distribution of dynamic lift for round bilge (a) hard chine vessel (b).
• (a) is the typical bottom shape for displacement and semi-displacement hull.
• (b) is the typical shape for planning vessels.
• The ship are symmetric. At the beginning the fast vessel shows a more uniform
distribution of the pressure at the bottom.

• Many planning hulls become more stable at higher speed due to the change in
pressure distribution across the hull bottom.
• Because of the V-bottom and the spray rails outboard, unequal pressure builds up
on the lower side in a turn.
• This pressure restores the vessel to upright when the heeling forces of the turn are
over.
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 Dynamic ship stability vs Froude
GM 0
number

Fn

• A relatively simple method to evaluate ship stability varying with the

speed could be performed through experimental test .
• The model is towed at different speeds while a constant heeling
moment is applied and the heeling angle measured.
• In this way it is possible to draw the curve of the initial stability varying
with the Froude number.
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 Seatech-project: Ro-pax test

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 Multi-hull vessels
(a) (b) (c)

• Multihull vessels can be divided into displacement (a) and semi-submersible (b)
vessels.
• The last picture (c) shows a SWATH, that means Small-Waterplane-Area-Twin-Hull
vessel
• Multihull vessels have the advantage to reduce the ship drag (induced wave drag)
increasing the aspect ratio L/B.
• A ship with higher L/B ratio could experience significant stability problems.
• Using two or more demihulls, to displace the ship weight, the stability of the ship
is increased again.
• This is due to the fact that the the global ship breadth increases and so the GM.
• Dividing the ship in more demihulls, it could result in an increasing of the ship
wetted surface.
• The skin friction resistance and so the total resistance of multihull could be higher
than the conventional vessels for low Froude number.

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 SWATH
• The SWATH minimizes hull cross section area at the sea's surface. The twin-hull
design provides a stable platform and large, broad decks.
• Minimizing the ship's volume near the surface area of the sea, where wave energy
is located, maximizes a vessel's stability, even in high seas and at high speeds. The
displacement volume necessary to keep the ship afloat is located beneath the
waves, where it is less affected by wave action.
toinen rungoista nousee ilmaan
6
katamaraani
h [m]

4
SWATH

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
kallistuskulma  [aste]

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 Multi-hull disadvantages
• SWATH watercraft are more expensive than conventional catamarans or
mono-hulls, require a complex control system, have a deeper draft, and
have higher maintenance requirements.
• SWATH vessels cannot operate in planning or semi-planning modes; this
marginally limits SWATH speed when compared to equivalent catamaran
vessels
• Typically multi-hull vessels have high value of the initial metacentric
height.
• Consequently also the natural rolling period is characterized by high
frequencies.
• Multihull vessels have bad seakeeping performances compared to
monohull vessels.
• When the maximum value of max GZ is reached, then the vessel removes
from water one of the demihull: this situation is not so usual for multihull
ships, but could easily happen for multihull sailing boat.

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 Hydrofoils V-foil

• V-foil type hydrofoil is a vessel capable to sustain the ship weight by using the dynamic lift
generated by an hydrodynamic profile.
• When a vessel becomes too lifted up, the buoyancy force Fz is reduced because the wings wetted
surface reduced and consequently the ship comes down. In this way the vertical balance is
guaranteed.
• The ship is also capable to maintain both transversely and longitudinal stability due to the angle
of inclination of the greater wings of the wet, which compensate for heeling and turning
moment.
• V-foil-type hydrofoil is affected by wings ventilation and then greater drag.
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 Hydrofoil stability
Fzs > Fzp

Fzp
Fzs

• If under an external perturbation the ship put the left side underwater, the
dynamic pressure arising would result in a left force higher than the right force: the
resulting restoring moment would guarantee ship stability.
• Anyway Hydrofoils are generally prohibitively more expensive than conventional
watercraft, that’s why they are not widely used.

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 Hovercraft

• Hovercraft, known also as Air-cushion vessel use blowers to produce a large

volume of air below the hull that is slightly above atmospheric pressure. The
pressure difference between the higher pressure air below the hull and lower
pressure ambient air above it produces lift, which causes the hull to float above
the running surface.
• For stability reasons, the air is typically blown through slots or holes around the
outside of a disk or oval shaped platform, giving most hovercraft a characteristic
rounded-rectangle shape. Typically this cushion is contained within a flexible
"skirt", which allows the vehicle to travel over small obstructions without
damage.

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 Hovercraft stability
M

Fz = W
G

WL

W Fz
B

• Air cushion internal pressure is linked to the structural-elastic strength of the

cushion.
• In addition, the air cushion is divided into compartments by flexible fingers and
bags.
• The compression force Fz could vary with ship heel or trim causing
compression of the air bag compartments. As a result, the air cushion pressure
force Fz moves and so generates a restoring moment.
• The stability of the aircraft is assessed mainly looking at the ratio GM0/B
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