SHIP STABILITY

PARTS 1 & 2
t Two Training Videos For Seafarers
and those concerned with
the Safe Operation of Ships

x=
4 5û G

= 0
GZ
u5

=g
=GM
 SHIP STABILITY PARTS 1 & 2

Ship Stability
Parts 1 & 2
Two Training Videos For Seafarers
and those concerned with the Safe Operation of Ships

The Producers would like to thank the following for their contribution:

British Defence Film Library

Brookes Bell & Co
Bruce Monaghan
Intercargo
International Cargo Handling Co-ordination Association
International Maritime Organization
Kenneth Long
John Matthews, Maritime Faculty, Southampton Institute
Marine Accident Investigation Branch
Maritime & Coastguard Agency
Mike Fisher, BMT Ship Design Ltd
P&O Stena Line Ltd
RAF Kinloss
Royal National Lifeboat Institution
Strathclyde University
The Salvage Association

Producer & Writer

Jean Nunn

Consultant
Dr Bryan Barrass

AN EBS TRUST PRODUCTION

for
VIDEOTEL MARINE INTERNATIONAL

Warning
Any unauthorised copying, hiring, lending, exhibition, diffusion, sale, public performance or other exploitation
of this video is strictly prohibited and may result in prosecution.

Copyright Videotel 1998

This booklet is intended to reflect the best available techniques and practices at the time of production; it is
intended purely as comment. No responsibility is accepted by Videotel, or by any other firm, corporation or
organisation who or which has been in any way concerned with the production, authorised translation, supply
or sale of this video for accuracy of any information given hereon or for any omission herefrom.
 SHIP STABILITY PARTS 1 & 2

Ship Stability
Parts 1 & 2
Contents
Introduction Ship Stability

Seven Steps to Ship Stability 1-3 Page

1. Where’s G? 2
Heeling because of wind and waves 2
Arrangement of loads on the ship 3
The suspension of a load from a ship’s crane 3
The effect of liquids in a ship’s tanks 3
The inclining experiment 4

2. How’s Trim? 5
Moving weights fore and aft 5
Mean bodily sinkage and trim ratio 6

3. What’s the Density? 6

Seven Steps to Ship Stability 4-7

4. Transverse Stability 7
Using the Statical Stability Curves 7
Effect of beam and freeboard 8
Very small, zero and negative GM 8
Loll and List 9

5. Longitudinal Strength and Stability 10

Hogging and Sagging 10
Shear Forces and Bending Moments 11

6. Rolling of Ships 12
Stiff and tender 12

7. Turning at Speed 13

Useful Definitions, Facts and Formulae 14

Ship terms, symbols and abbreviations 14
Some typical ship types and characteristics 15
Useful formulae 15
 SHIP STABILITY PARTS 1 & 2

Introduction

The stability of a vessel is one of the major factors to be monitored in port and at sea in order to ensure the safety of
the crew, passengers and the ship itself. It is governed by the balance between the internal and external forces acting
on the ship. These forces depend on the ship’s hull, the loads carried, added or discharged, the water in which she
floats, her speed and the weather.

This booklet accompanies the two instructional videos Ship Stability Parts 1 & 2. The videos explain the
principles of ship stability and how it can be monitored, using a mixture of demonstrations with a model ship,
diagrams, graphs and real ships ranging from large Tankers and Container Ships, through Ro-Ro and General Cargo
Ships to smaller fishing vessels.

The videos provide basic knowledge for:

● anyone with a responsibility for the safe loading, operation or management of ships

● maritime students and marine officers who need to be aware of or reminded of ship stability and structural
strength problems and their practical solutions

● students preparing for Certificates of Competency or Naval Architecture examinations

Each video is under thirty minutes long and is broken down into subsections for ease of use.

● Seven Steps to Ship Stability 1-3 covers the topics of transverse and longitudinal stability at
a basic level.

● Seven Steps to Ship Stability 4-7 takes these ideas further and also introduces the basics of
structural stability.

You may be find it helpful to look right through each video before selecting which topics you wish to use and then
give yourself plenty of time to play and review the sections you select.

This booklet supports the videos by providing a resumé of the key diagrams and learning points in each section. It
should serve as a useful summary for teachers working with a group of students or for individual learners working
through the material on their own. However, to gain a complete grasp of each topic will require additional effort with
worked examples, assessment questions and calculations. There are several books that would provide such
additional support for the videos. We recommend and refer to two:

Ship Stability for Masters and Mates by D.R. Derrett (published by Butterworth-Heinemann)
Naval Architecture for Marine Engineers by E.A. Stokoe (published by Thomas Reed)

1
 SHIP STABILITY PARTS 1 & 2

1. Where’s G?
G is the universal abbreviation for the Centre of Gravity of a ship,
the point through which the result of all the downward forces of G
the weights of the ship’s structure and her loads act.

In this section it means the transverse Centre of Gravity and in a B

stable upright ship the sum of the downward forces acting K

t
through G are perfectly balanced by the upward forces of the
water on the hull acting through the Centre of Buoyancy B.

Derrett: Chapter 2 Stokoe: Chapters 4,5 Figure 1: Balance of forces in a stable upright ship

Knowing the position of G is vital in understanding how the

ship should be loaded and in managing the operational
consequences of any specific loading plan. But the position of G
and the balance of forces through G and B will change.

In this video section the four factors discussed to change that

balance are:

Heeling because of wind and waves

Arrangement of loads on the ship
x=
4 5û
The suspension of a load from a ship’s crane
The effect of liquids in a ship’s tanks

Heeling because of wind and waves

Wind and waves cause a ship to heel. She returns to the upright
position because as the Centre of Buoyancy B moves off the
G Z
centre-line the force acting at G produces a Righting Moment
through the point Z.

As the angle of heel changes, the distance GZ, the Righting

= 0 B

Lever, increases up to a particular angle, then decreases again

till the ship eventually capsizes at an angle of heel of 80º - 85º GZ
for many ships. The Statical Stability curve relates GZ to the
angle of heel u . (See 4. Transverse Stability). u5
Figure 2: The righting lever GZ changes with the
angle of heel
Derrett: Chapters 6, 14, 16 Stokoe: Chapter 5

2
 SHIP STABILITY PARTS 1 & 2

Arrangement of loads on a ship

The Centre of Gravity of a ship moves as loads are moved, added

or discharged. The movement of G follows the direction of the
movement of the load.
G
The new position of G can be calculated from the mass and
position of the loads, using the formula:

Shift in G = mass moved x distance moved

final displacement

Such calculations are at the core of a loading or discharging

plan for the vessel.
t
Figure 3: G changes as loads are moved

Derrett: Chapters 2, 13 Stokoe: Chapters 4, 5

The suspension of a load from a ship’s crane

The weight of a load sitting on the dock acts through its centre
of gravity. As soon as it is suspended from a crane it acts through
the point of suspension at the end of the crane jib.
x=
4 5û
The moment of such a weight can therefore cause the ship to
heel as G is moved off the centre-line of the ship. This effect on
G needs calculating and monitoring as the loading plan is
developed.

Derrett: Chapter 2 Stokoe: Chapter 4

The effect of liquids in a ship’s tanks

A tank full of a liquid behaves effectively like a solid mass as the

liquid cannot move. However in partially filled tanks the
= 0
movement of the liquid as the ship heels produces a change in
the position of the centre of gravity of the tank and therefore of GZ
the overall position of G for the ship. This change is equivalent
to a rise in G and a resulting decrease in the stability of the ship. u5
A ship with small initial stability can therefore become
significantly unstable if the issue of partially filled tanks is not
recognised and dealt with. This requires regular monitoring of Figure 4: The movement of liquid in partially
the ship’s fuel, fresh water, water ballast and liquid cargo tanks. filled tanks leads to an apparent rise in G.

3
 SHIP STABILITY PARTS 1 & 2

The effective rise in G is known as the Free Surface Effect. It can

be reduced if tanks are subdivided longitudinally, along the length
of the ship. The greater the number of equal compartments, the
greater the reduction in the apparent rise of G.

Reduction in apparent rise of G is proportional to

1
(number of equal compartments)2

Derrett: Chapter 7, 20 Stokoe: Chapter 5

t
Figure 5 : Subdivisions reduce the apparent
rise in G

The Inclining Experiment to establish GM

Any change in the position of G must be calculated and

monitored to ensure that the ship continues to be stable and safe.

To establish the original position of G the ship in light condition

must be inclined, in quiet waters so that wind and wave effects
can be discounted. After thorough preparation to assess the
condition of all her tanks, the position of any loads, her drafts
and the density of the water, known weights are systematically
l x=
d

x
w Tan

GM
x
l
wxd
disp tan

4 5û
moved across the deck and the inclination of the ship from the
vertical measured with one or more pendulums.

The readings taken are used in the calculation of GM - the Figure 6: Calculation of GM from inclining
distance from the Centre of Gravity to the Metacentre M. For experiment readings.
small angles of heel, M is the point where the verticals through
B intersect the centre-line of the ship.

KM, the height of the metacentre above the keel, is calculated

for each draft and the values tabulated by the naval architect
when the ship is designed. Each ship’s draft reading therefore
provides a value for KM. Subtracting GM, as calculated from
= 0 M
the inclining experiment, then produces a value for KG, the
height of the Centre of Gravity above the keel for the Light ship. GZ G

This is the baseline from which all further changes to the

position of G are calculated.
u5 K
Draft
(metres)
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
KM
(metres)
7.71
7.54
7.44
7.46
5.0 7.70
4.0 8.28
Derrett: Chapter 26 Stokoe: Chapter 5 KG = KM - GM 3.0 9.56

Figure 7: KG is the position of the Centre of

Gravity

4
 SHIP STABILITY PARTS 1 & 2

2. How’s Trim?
A ship with the same draft forward and aft is said to be on an
even keel. G F

In the longitudinal picture of the ship we can define the B

Longitudinal Centre of Gravity as the point through which all the
Aft Amidships Forward
weights of the vessel and her loads act and the Longitudinal

t
perpendicular perpendicular
Centre of Buoyancy as the point through which the upthrust
forces of the water act. Both can be positioned aft or forward
of amidships.
Figure 8: LCG, LCB and F are measured from
amidships.
When a mass is added, removed or moved along the length of the
ship she will rotate about the ‘tipping centre’, more formally
called the Longitudinal Centre of Flotation, LCF or F, also
measured from amidships.

Moving weights fore and aft

The formula to calculate the shift in LCG is the same as for the
transverse picture, namely

Shift in LCG = mass moved x distance moved

final displacement
x=
To maintain a ship on an even keel the loads can be balanced
about the LCF. A large load can be balanced by a smaller load
if the loads are placed on opposite sides of and appropriate
distances from the LCF.
4 5û F

Longitudinally unbalanced loads are not necessarily a problem. d3 d4

They will cause the draft of the ship to change forward and aft
and the ship is then said to be ‘trimmed’ : ‘trimmed by the stern’ d3 d4
if the aft draft is greater and ‘trimmed by the head’ if the bow
draft is greater.

= 0
As a voyage progresses the use of fuel, stores and water may
change the ship’s trim and it may be impractical to measure GZ
Figure 9: A large load near F can balance a

u5
smaller load further from F
drafts at sea. They can therefore be calculated using the
Hydrostatic curves supplied with the vessel. From known
departure drafts, the curves for Tonnes per cm, (TPC), Moment
to Change Trim by 1 cm (MCTC) and LCF and LCB can be
used to calculate the new drafts to ensure safe entry
into port.

Derrett: Chapter 16 Stokoe: Chapter 6

5
 SHIP STABILITY PARTS 1 & 2

Mean Bodily Sinkage and trim ratio

Loading or unloading cargo will not only affect the trim of the
ship, fore and aft. The whole structure will become lower or
higher in the water.

To calculate how the drafts change, first the extra load w needs
to be known.

This figure in conjunction with the TPC can be used to calculate

the mean bodily sinkage for an extra load w tonnes with the
formula:
additional bodily sinkage =
w
TPC
t
To this must be added or subtracted the figure for the change of
trim = w x d x l where
MCTC L
l = LCF (measured from AP or FP) and L = LBP

Derrett: Chapter 15 Stokoe: Chapter 6

x=
4 5û
3. What’s the Density?
As with every floating object, the displacement of a ship is always
equal to the weight of the water it displaces.

As ships move from ports through seas and estuaries to new

ports the density of the water in which they operate changes.
This change of density will affect the way the vessel floats and
therefore her drafts, so water density must be considered in
determining the stability of the ship.

A ship in warm fresh water, for example in a tropical fresh water

= 0
port will float lower than in a salt water port in higher latitudes.
How can the loading plan for a salt water port take account of GZ
the additional draft at the destination port?

The Deadweight Scale provides a way of estimating the additional

u5
draft or for determining the extra load that could be taken on
board on a passage in the opposite direction.
Figure 10: The Deadweight Scale
Derrett: Chapter 5, 37 Stokoe: Chapter 6

6
 SHIP STABILITY PARTS 1 & 2

4. Transverse Stability Cross Curves

of Stability
We now return to the transverse view of ship stability. For angles
of heel up to 10º the formula 30º

GZ = GM Sinu 45º

60º
is approximately correct, where GZ is the righting lever and M GZ
15º
is the metacentre with GM the metacentric height. Between 10º 75º
and 15º a more accurate approximation for wall-sided vessels is

t
80º
GZ = Sinu (GM + 1⁄ 2 BM Tan2u)

For other hull forms and greater angles of heel the value of GZ
can be read from the Cross Curves of Stability supplied by the Figure 11: Cross Curves of Stability GZ values
naval architect. Each curve represents the situation for a range can be read off for a particular displacement
of displacements and a given angle of heel.

Drawing a vertical line for one displacement will produce GZ

values for a range of angles. With appropriate interpolation, this
method can be used to generate the Statical Stability Curve for a
particular ship at one specific displacement.

Using the Statical Stability Curves

Such curves carry a wealth of information about the stabilty

of a ship. Comparing the three curves for three different
x=
displacements of the same ship shows:-

● The angle of vanishing stability, where the vessel capsises

and GZ=0, is the greatest for the lightly ballasted ship as
is the range of stability from 0- 89º for that displacement.
GZ
(Metres)
4 5û Statical Stability Curve
Light Ballast
Part Loaded
1.5 Fully Loaded
● the maximum GZ of 1.25m occurs between 30- 40º for
the lightly ballasted ship. For the fully loaded ship the 1.0
values are 0.6m and 40- 45º. The SOLAS minimum
required is 0.2m. 0.5

= 0
GZ
● GM is approximately the value of the tangent to the curve 20 40 60 80

at u =O, read off at 57.3º (1 radian). In this case GM Angle of heel

u5
is 1.64m for light ballast and 0.5m for the fully loaded Figure 12: Statical Stability Curves for three
ship. The SOLAS minimum permitted value is 0.15m. different displacements of the same ship

Derret: Chapter 16 Stokoe: Chapter 5

7
 SHIP STABILITY PARTS 1 & 2

The effect of beam and freeboard

The point of contraflexion on a statical stability curve is

associated with the angle of heel at which the ship’s deck edge
becomes immersed. This point will not be the same for all ships.
It depends on the ship’s beam and freeboard.

Comparing two ships with the same displacement and GM but

t
GZ GZ
with different beams, the ship with the smaller beam will be able
to heel to a greater angle u before her deck edge goes under, but Angle Angle
her range of stability and maximum GZ will be smaller.
Figure 13: The smaller the beam the higher the
angle of heel before the deck edge is immersed
Equally, two identical ships (or the same ship) loaded differently,
with different freeboards will be able to heel to a different angle
before the deck edge is immersed. The ship with the higher
freeboard will be able to heel to a greater angle and her
f2 f1
maximum GZ and range of stability will be greater.
f2 f1
Derrett: Chapter 23 Stokoe: Chapter 5

GZ
x= GZ

4 5û
Angle Angle

Figure 14: The greater the freeboard the greater

the angle of heel before the deck edge is
immersed

Very small, zero and negative GM

The statical stability curves for various displacements of the

same ship show that as the load increases the maximum GZ
decreases and the metacentric height GM also gets smaller.
= 0 M
G Z

The results of GM becoming very small, zero or even negative GZ B

(where G is above M) are serious for the stability of the ship.

As G becomes closer and closer to M, the righting lever GZ

u5
becomes very small. That means that there is a very small force
to bring the ship upright when she is heeled by wind and waves. Figure 15: Very small GM means very small GZ
leading to less initial stability
When G and M are co-incident, there is no righting lever GZ to
bring the ship upright. The ship is in neutral equilibrium.

8
 SHIP STABILITY PARTS 1 & 2

If G is above M the GZ lever becomes a heeling lever and the

ship is unstable - in negative equilibrium. She will either capsize
or heel to an ‘angle of loll’ depending on whether there is an
angle beyond which the righting lever becomes positive.

Loll and List

t
List is used to describe a ship with a transversely imbalanced
load causing her to take up a permanent angle about which she
rolls. A listing ship has a positive GM, with G off the centre line.

A ship with a zero or negative GM will flop to one side until the
force of wind and waves make her flop to the other side. Her GZ
(metres) Statical Stability Curve
loads are balanced about the centre line but G is above M so
GM is negative. The statical stability curve for such a ship 1.0 Angle of loll = 10º

illustrates that GZ can be negative up to the angle of loll, beyond

0.1
which there is a positive righting lever. So the ship has no initial
stability but may become stable again beyond the angle of loll. 0

A negative GM may occur for example if there is a problem with

icing up of the above deck structures, if deck cargo becomes
saturated, if the free surface effect of partially filled tanks raises
the effective position of G too high or if too much fuel is used
- 0.5

x=
20 40

Angle of heel
60 80

Figure 16: Statical Stabilty Curve for a ship with

4 5û
from double bottom tanks.
GM initially negative
To rectify loll G must be lowered by adding weight as low down
as possible, first on the low side of the vessel, then on the high
side. Once GM is positive the ship will become more stable. As
a general rule if GM, the initial stability of the ship, is increased
then the overall stability of the ship at any angle of heel will
improve.

List is rectified by transversely re-balancing the loads, that is by

moving weight to the high side of the ship to bring her upright.
If the ship has an angle of loll rather than a list however such
= 0
a procedure could capsize the vessel. So it is essential to
distinguish loll and list and safest to work on lowering G as a GZ
first remedy.

Derrett: Chapters 6, 7, 14, 16, 13, 24 Stokoe: Chapter 5

u5

9
 SHIP STABILITY PARTS 1 & 2

5. Longitudinal Strength and

Stability
A ship floating in water is subjected to upward forces from the
water and downward forces from the weight of the structure
itself and the loads it is carrying. In earlier sections calculations
of the stability of the vessel have assumed that all such upward

t
forces act through one point and all the downward forces act
through another point.

In reality weight and upthrust are not the same at every section
of the structure. The position of machinery, the bridge, masts
and so on and the change in the underwater hull shape along the
length of the vessel mean that section by section the structure is
subjected to bending forces which affect the longitudinal
strength of the vessel.

Just as when weights are added to a beam they can make it bend

x=
downwards in the middle or at the ends depending on the
position of the weights, so with a ship.

Bending forces act along the length of the beam. They cause
compressive or tensile stresses longitudinally. At right angles to the
beam shearing forces tend to break the material across its length.

Hogging and Sagging

The first step in monitoring the bending and shearing forces in da

➞
4 5û
Tensile Stresses

dm
➞
df
➞
ships is to examine the shape of the structure by measuring the Compressive Stresses
➞
drafts forward, aft and amidships.

With no structural distortions because of bending and shearing dm d f + d a

forces, the draft amidships will be the average of the forward and 2
aft drafts.
= 0
If this is not the case then the ship’s structure is bending. If the
➞ G Z ➞
u5
Compressive Stresses
amidships draft is less than the average of the forward and aft
drafts the ship is rounding its back or ‘hogging’. Alternatively if
the amidship draft is greater than the average she is bending da dm df
downwards in the middle or sagging. In both cases compressive
➞
➞ Tensile Stresses
or tensile stresses will be applied to the deck plates, side shell
and bottom shell.

At sea these stresses can be amplified by the action of waves

dm df + da
which temporarily and dynamically change the upthrust forces
2
acting on the vessel and therefore potentially increase the
bending moments and shear forces she must withstand . Figure 17: Drafts show hogging and sagging

10
 SHIP STABILITY PARTS 1 & 2

Shear Forces and Bending Moments

A more detailed picture of the stresses on a ship’s structure

requires calculating the bending moments and shearing forces
section by section.

This involves the analysis of all the forces arising from the
weights of the structure, the changing shape of the hull and the

t
added loads in each hold and is usually achieved with the aid of
a computer. Base-line information about hull form and the
structure of the vessel are entered and then data for each load
configuration added to provide the computer with the figures Permitted limit, bending moments

needed to calculate the bending moments and shear forces

incurred. They are displayed in tabular or more usually
graphical form so that variations along the ship can be seen and
Permitted limit, shearing forces
monitored.

Bending moments are always greatest amidships. Shear forces

are normally at a maximum a quarter of the length from the bow Figure 18: Shear force and bending moment
and the stern.

In both cases the maximum permitted values are laid down in

Classification Society rules by Lloyds Register (UK), Bureau
Veritas (BV), Norske Veritas (NV), American Bureau (AB) and
x=
curves, with safe limits

4 5û
so on, with separate limits for still water and for the more
exacting sea going conditions.

Any loading plan must monitor the predicted bending moments

and shear forces on the ship and unacceptably high values must
be removed by revising the plan before loading starts.

Derrett: Chapter 40 Stokoe: Chapter 2

= 0
GZ
u5

11
 SHIP STABILITY PARTS 1 & 2

6. Rolling of Ships
When a ship rolls from side to side, the time T taken for a
complete cycle, say from port to starboard and back to port, can
provide useful information about the stability of the ship.

The time taken is known as the ‘period’ of the roll and it

increases as the ship becomes less stable. The period for a

t
lightly ballasted ship with a large GM will be quite short. As
loads are added, if the GM is reduced, the period will become
much longer.

As long as the angle through which the ship rolls is quite small,
the formula for the period T of the roll, measured in seconds,
is T = 2 K p 2K
=g.GM '=GM
where K is the radius of gyration (usually about 0.35 x B),
g is the gravitational constant of 9.81 m/sec2 and GM is the
metacentric height.

From this formula it is clear that as GM gets smaller, T gets

larger. So a very long roll period is an indication that GM may be
becoming dangerously small and that measures such as
increasing water ballast (bearing in mind any possible Free
x=
Surface Effect) should be taken to lower G and increase the GM.

Stiff and tender

4 5û
There are some occasions where a ship may be carrying a very
dense cargo such as bulk iron ore where the GM is very large
although the holds may be only partially filled and she is down
to her load marks. In such a case the period T may be quite
short. Such a ship is described as being ‘stiff’ - she rolls from
side to side rather quickly and possibly with a violent, ‘snappy’

= 0
GZ
motion. This can be uncomfortable for the crew and may cause
cargo to move. It is best avoided with a suitable alternative

u5
loading plan which raises the height of the Centre of Gravity.

In contrast, the same ship loaded with a different cargo in such

a way that her GM is small would have a long slow roll and be
described as ‘tender’. This condition can be disconcerting and
the loading officer should aim at a happy medium with a loading
plan that renders the ship neither too ‘stiff’ nor too ‘tender’.
A rolling period of around 20 seconds is usually acceptable.

Derrett: Chapters 6, 33

12
 SHIP STABILITY PARTS 1 & 2

7. Turning at speed
Centre of circle

The force acting on a body moving in a circular path towards the

M
centre of the circle is represented by Mv 2
r G

where M is the mass, v the velocity and r the radius of the circle. B

Acting away from the centre of the circle is the force, in this case, v2 x BG

t
Tan
from the resistance of the water. The two forces acting on the g.r.GM
ship will be in equilibrium if the ship heels to an angle such that
v 2 x BG
Tanu = g x r x GM Figure 19: Balance of forces on a ship turning at
speed
For ships operating at high speeds, particularly if they also have
a small GM, this angle of heel outward from the centre of the
circle can be several degrees. It will be reduced a little by the
heel towards the centre of the circle caused by the rudder. The
net effect can be reduced by decreasing the speed of the ship
and/or by lowering G, because GM will be increased and BG
will be decreased.

Derrett: Chapter 32 Stokoe: Chapter 9 x=

4 5û
= 0
GZ
u5

13
 SHIP STABILITY PARTS 1 & 2

Useful Definitions, Facts and Formulae

Ship terms, symbols and abbreviations

Centre-Line of the ship

Amidships - a point midway between AP and FP
FP Forward perpendicular - a vertical line intersecting the summer load draft at the bow
AP Aft perpendicular - a vertical line at the aft side of the rudder post or at the centre of the
rudder stock
LBP Length between perpendiculars
LOA Length overall
d Draft - vertical distance from the waterline to the top of the keel plate
D Depth - vertical distance from the upper deck at the side to the top of the keel plate
B Breadth moulded - maximum breadth usually measured amidships
f Freeboard - vertical distance from the upper deck at the side to the waterline
LWT Lightweight - weight of the ship itself when all holds, tanks and storage spaces are empty
DWT Deadweight - weight that the ship carries including cargo, fuel, people, fresh water,
water ballast, stores.
W Displacement - the sum of the LWT and DWT - equal to the weight of water displaced.
Buoyancy - the upthrust force of the water on the ship = displacement W
LCB Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy, measured from amidships
LCG Longitudinal Centre of Gravity, measured from amidships
LCF or F Longitudinal Centre of Flotation, measured from amidships - defined as the centroid of the 2-D
waterplane for each waterline of the ship
KG or VCG Distance of the Vertical Centre of Gravity above the keel
KB or VCB Distance of the Vertical Centre of Buoyancy above the keel
KMT Distance of the transverse metacentre above the keel
GMT Distance of the transverse metacentre above the Centre of Gravity - also known as the
metacentric height - the most important stability factor
BMT Distance of the transverse metacentre above the Centre of Buoyancy
GZ The righting lever, must be positive to return the ship to the upright position
Free Surface Effect is the virtual reduction in Metacentric Height GMT due to the free surface of a
liquid in a partially filled tank moving as a ship heels
TPC Tonnes per centimetre - the weight needed to increase the mean bodily sinkage by 1cm
Cb The Block Co-efficient with value W divided by (L x B x d), a 3-D indicator for the underwater
hull form
SOLAS Safety of Life at Sea regulations: Minimum GMT = 0.15m Minimum GZ = 0.20m

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 SHIP STABILITY PARTS 1 & 2

Some typical ship types and characteristics

DWT 1000 tonnes LBP m Bm Cb

ULLC, VLCC & Supertankers 100 - 565 250 - 440 40 - 70 .82 - .85
Medium sized oil Tankers 50 - 100 175 - 250 25 - 40 .80 - .82
Ore carriers up to 323 200 - 300 up to 58 .79 - .83
General Cargo ships 3 - 15 100 - 150 15 - 25 .70
Passenger Liners 5 - 20 200 - 300 20 - 40 .60 - .64
Ro-Ro car/passenger Ferries 2-5 100 - 180 21 - 28 .55 - .57

Useful formulae

KMT = KB + BMT KMT = KG + GMT

To calculate GMT from the inclining experiment:

GM T = w d and tanu = x
x
W tanu l

Trim
If draftaft = draftfor’d ship is on an even keel
If draftaft > draftfor’d ship is trimmed by the stern
If draftfor’d > draftaft ship is trimmed by the head

Water densities:
r cold fresh water = 1.000 tonnes/m3 r cold salt water = 1.025 tonnes/m3

Free Surface Effect: 1

Reduction in effective rise in G oc (number of equal compartments in tank)2

Righting levers for different angles of heel:

For u < 10¡, GZ = GMTSinu
BMT tan2u
For 10¡< u < 15¡ and vessel is wall sided, GZ = Sinu GMT + { 2 }
Rolling period:

T = 2p K ' 2K where the radius of gyration K ' 0.35 x moulded breadth,

=g. =
GM GM and the gravitational constant g ' 9.81m/sec2

Turning at speed

v2 x BG where gravitational constant g ' 9.81m/sec 2,

tan u =
g x r x GM r is the radius of the turn and v is the velocity

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