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Address correspondence to
KEY POINTS
h HIV-associated NEUROLOGIC COMPLICATIONS two or more domains on neuropsycho-
neurocognitive disorder OF HIV-1 VIRAL INFECTION logical or mental status testing in pa-
comprises three HIV-Associated tients who do not report or otherwise
entities: asymptomatic Neurocognitive Disorder demonstrate cognitive decline. These
neurocognitive HANDs encompass a range of cognitive patients may go on to develop symp-
impairment, mild impairment from asymptomatic cogni- tomatic impairment (MND or HAD), but
neurocognitive disorder, tive decline to dementia in patients with the time course of cognitive change in
and HIV-associated HIV infection. HAND is the most prev- HIV is not predictable or linear in many
dementia. cases. Even with consistent treatment
alent neurologic complication in this pop-
h The cognitive ulation, and as patients continue to live with ART, cognitive performance may
impairment traditionally longer on ART, this disabling cognitive fluctuate over time, making diagnosis
associated with HIV disorder is likely to demand greater at- more difficult; in some cases complete
infection is that of a recovery occurs after initiation of ART.3
tention from the neurologic community.
subcortical dementia,
Patients with MND report or demon-
with difficulties in the
Terminology strate mild functional decline not ex-
speed of information
processing and verbal Terminology for cognitive change in HIV plained by a confounding condition, and
fluency, although this has previously included HIV encepha- on neuropsychological or mental status
may be changing in lopathy, minor cognitive motor disorder, testing perform at least one SD below
the era of antiretroviral or AIDS dementia complex. Current no- an appropriate normative mean in at
therapy. sology rates the impairment using neu- least two cognitive domains. These pa-
ropsychological testing (if available) or tients are likely to be able to continue
mental status testing and assigns it to one working, although at a reduced level of
of three categories: asymptomatic neuro- productivity or efficiency. Movement dis-
cognitive impairment, mild neurocogni- orders, such as gait disturbance, tremor,
tive disorder (MND), and HIV-associated and impairment of fine manual dexter-
dementia (HAD).1 This categorization ity, may be present.4 HAD describes a
recognizes the importance of using dem- pattern of cognitive loss greater than
ographically appropriate means for com- two SDs below the mean in at least two
parison, as well as the possible contribution cognitive domains (Case 4-1). With great
from confounding conditions such as de- impairment in daily function, these pa-
pression, opportunistic CNS disease, or tients are unlikely to be able to live
coinfection with hepatitis C virus. As the independently.
clinical picture of HAND has changed The cognitive impairment classically
over time, a standardized approach to described in HIV infection is a sub-
diagnosis is necessary in order to un- cortical dementia, more similar to the
derstand the burden of these disorders. cognitive deficits seen in Parkinson or
The recognition of asymptomatic neuro- Huntington disease than the cortical
cognitive impairment requires detailed dementia of Alzheimer disease. Pref-
neuropsychological testing, which is not erentially affecting the fronto-striato-
readily available in some clinical settings. thalamo-cortical circuits, patients with
A screening test such as the Memorial- HIV infection have traditionally been
Sloan Kettering scale or 2007 consensus found to have greater difficulty in ab-
Frascati rating can be used to determine straction, rapid information processing,
whether patients need further neuropsy- verbal fluency, decision making, and
chological testing.2 maintaining working memory.5 Prospec-
tive memory has been demonstrated to
Clinical Features be impaired in HIV; this type of memory,
Asymptomatic neurocognitive impairment called ‘‘remembering to remember,’’
is characterized by poor performance in is critical to intentional and planning
KEY POINTS
h The use of antiretroviral on Mental Health cohort CNS HIV Anti- the pre-ART era, 45% of patients had
therapy has decreased Retroviral Therapy Effects Research neuropsychological impairment diag-
the prevalence of the (CHARTER) study used standardized nosed either as asymptomatic neurocog-
most severe dementia neuropsychological tests to evaluate 857 nitive impairment (33%) or MND (12%).10
associated with HIV, patients from 1988 to 1995, and 937 Low CD4+ T-cell count nadir has con-
but the milder forms patients from 2000 to 2007. Between the tinued to be a risk factor for the devel-
of HIV-associated pre-ART and ART eras, fewer patients opment of HAND in the era of ART,
neurocognitive disorder performed poorly in verbal fluency (eg, suggesting that severe immunosuppres-
have remained number of animals named in timed set- sion may lead to irreversible brain pa-
highly prevalent. ting), speed of information processing thology.7 Alternatively, the brain may act
h Low CD4+ T-cell nadir (digit vigilance time), and motor do- as a reservoir for HIV replication due to
continues to be a mains (grooved pegboard test), while variable blood-brain barrier penetration
significant risk factor more patients showed deficits in learn- by ART as well as viral sequestration in
for the development ing and memory (story memory test) CNS macrophages.11
of HIV-associated
and executive functioning (Wisconsin Despite the decline of the most
neurocognitive disorder
card-sorting test). The domains of recall, severe HAND, HAD, cognitive disor-
in the era of
antiretroviral therapy.
working memory, and attention were ders in HIV remain a significant source
stable across the two time periods.7 This of morbidity for patients in the United
h The primary goal in shift in cognitive domains most affected States and elsewhere. While the de-
management of
in patients with HIV infection has impor- gree of cognitive impairment may be
HIV-associated
neurocognitive disorder
tant implications for trials of adjunctive milder in patients with HAND in the
is to prevent HIV therapy, such as antioxidants or neuro- ART era, these ‘‘mild’’ or ‘‘minor’’ cog-
replication in the CNS. protective agents, in determining which nitive syndromes have nonetheless
cognitive tests to study. Whether these been associated with low antiretro-
data reveal a greater degree of cortical viral adherence and thus represent a
impairment, rather than subcortical pa- significant risk factor for decreased
thology, in HAND in the era of ART will survival.12
require neuroimaging and neuropatho-
logic correlation. Management
As HAND has been shown to directly
Epidemiology correlate with CD4 nadir, the primary
Prior to the introduction of combina- goal in management of HAND is to pre-
tion ART in 1996, dementia in patients vent HIV viral replication in the CNS. In
with HIV infection was described as a evaluating the efficacy of new ART agents,
consequence of profound immunosup- however, demonstrating the penetration
pression as reflected by the CD4 nadir.8 of any drug into brain parenchyma is
The number of HIV-infected patients with challenging. CSF drug levels are used
moderate to severe dementia has been as a proxy of CNS penetration, but the
dramatically reduced by the use of ART, relationship of CSF to brain levels is
with one study describing a decrease unknown. The difficulty of achieving sat-
in incidence from 7% in 1989 to 1% in isfactory CSF levels is a well-recognized
2000.9 In patients with sustained viro- problem, as plasma drug levels are usu-
logic control, however, the continued ally much higher than those in the CSF,
prevalence of the milder subtypes of and protein pumps such as P-glycoprotein
HAND has led to the question of whether may eliminate protease inhibitors from
neurocognitive decline could be treat- the brain. Macrophages, the primary target
ment resistant in some patients. In the of HIV in the brain, require much higher
CHARTER study, despite a significant de- concentrations of antiretrovirals for effec-
crease in HAD from rates reported in tive control of viral replication than that
1322 www.aan.com/continuum December 2012
Case 4-2
A 51-year-old woman with HIV infection of at least 3 years’ duration presented to the emergency
department with dizziness. In the weeks prior to admission she was frequently using cocaine and
heroin, and both drugs were found in her urine. She had been noncompliant with ART, and her
CD4+ T-cell count was 5 cells/2L with HIV viral load of 209,374 copies/mL. She had an encephalopathy
and a shuffling gait with postural instability. CSF showed 0 WBCs but elevated protein concentration
(76 mg/dL). She was found to be in acute renal failure with a serum creatinine level of 1.1 mg/dL.
Bacterial, fungal, and mycobacterial cultures from the CSF were negative, as were toxoplasma
antibodies, Venereal Disease Research Laboratory testing, cryptococcal antigen, and PCRs for
Epstein-Barr virus, JC virus, herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2, cytomegalovirus, varicella-zoster virus
(VZV), and arboviruses. MRI of the brain showed diffuse hyperintense T2/fluid-attenuated inversion
recovery (FLAIR) signal abnormalities in the bilateral basal ganglia and periventricular white
matter (Figure 4-2). Despite supportive care, her mental status deteriorated over the following
6 months and she died.
Comment. A syndrome of acute encephalopathy and renal dysfunction, frequently accompanied by
seizures and often progressing rapidly to death, has been described in HIV-infected drug abusers with
poor virologic control.24 CSF is typically acellular with elevated protein concentration. Even though
the basal ganglia
are frequently
affected in HIV
infection and show
atrophy in HAND
and calcification in
perinatally acquired
HIV infection, this
syndrome of fulminant
encephalopathy in
HIV-infected drug
abusers shows very
characteristic diffuse,
bilateral basal
ganglia abnormalities
on T2/FLAIR imaging.
Two patients who
survived had received
antiretroviral therapy
during admission,
suggesting a possible
FIGURE 4-2 Fluid-attenuated inversion recovery sequence of MRI shows diffuse bilateral
neuroprotective effect hyperintense signal in the basal ganglia (A) and periventricular white
matter (B).
of ART in these cases.
KEY POINTS
h Peripheral neuropathy high concentration topical capsaicin. (‘‘d drugs’’) such as didanosine (ddI),
is most commonly Injections of recombinant human nerve stavudine (d4T), and zalcitabine (ddC)
associated with the growth factor have shown potential for are therefore considered among the
‘‘d drugs’’ among benefit in studies, although this agent most peripheral neurotoxic agents and
nucleoside analogs, is not yet approved by the US Food and rarely used as first-line agents when
such as didanosine, Drug Administration. Smoked cannabis other options exist. Combination ther-
stavudine, and has been shown to effectively control apy with didanosine and stavudine is
zalcitabine. These pain in HIV-DSP but cannot be recom- especially avoided.32 HIV-ATN usually
medications are now mended for routine therapy as the men- appears 2 to 3 months after initiation
rarely used as first-line tal side effects are disturbing for some, of treatment and may be more likely to
agents when other
preparations are not standardized, and affect the hands earlier than would be
options exist.
long-term risks of lung cancer are asso- expected in HIV-DSP. The time course
h More than 50% of ciated with inhalation of cannabinoids.31 may be most helpful in distinguishing
patients on efavirenz HIV-ATN from HIV-DSP, as these two
experience neurologic NEUROLOGIC COMPLICATIONS entities cannot be differentiated elec-
side effects, usually OF TREATMENT FOR HIV trophysiologically.33 Stavudine has also
limited to the first
month or weeks of
While HIV has morphed from a rapidly been associated with a neuromuscular
treatment. fatal infection into a chronic, treatable syndrome of acute, progressive ascending
disease because of the efficacy of ART, weakness, similar to Guillain-Barré syn-
the range of possible complications re- drome. This HIV-associated neuromus-
lated to immune recovery, rather than cular weakness syndrome (HANWS)
immune deficiency, continues to grow. usually includes lactic acidosis and hepa-
Additionally, side effects of chronic tomegaly, invoking mitochondrial toxicity
treatment with ART, such as peripheral in its pathogenesis, although it has been
neuropathy, are gaining in importance reported at a delay (up to 90 days) after
as patients live longer and the cumu- discontinuation of ART.34
lative toxicity over time is greater.
Non-nucleoside Reverse
NEUROLOGIC SIDE EFFECTS OF Transcriptase Inhibitors
ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY Of the non-nucleoside reverse tran-
Neurologists are unlikely to be pre- scriptase inhibitors, efavirenz is most
scribers of ART, yet the neurologic commonly associated with neurotoxicity,
side effect profiles of these medica- characterized by specific neuropsychiatric
tions are likely relevant to the consult- symptoms that occur in more than 50%
ing neurologist. Side effects of ART of patients on the medication. Typically
therapy are frequently in the differ- occurring at the onset of efavirenz use, the
ential diagnosis of neurologic presen- patient may experience vivid dreams or
tations of patients with HIV infection, nightmares, headaches, or psychiatric phe-
such as the patient with acute mental nomena such as dissociative symptoms,
status change after initiating therapy, depression, anxiety, or more rarely para-
or patients on chronic ART with periph- noia or psychosis. However, these symp-
eral neuropathy. toms abate within 1 month of treatment.35
KEY POINT
h Risk factors for the at the time of ART initiation as re- While PD-1 expression has been linked
development of CNS flected by CD4+ T-cell nadir, the pres- to failure of immune restoration in ART
immune reconstitution ence of any underlying OI, and the and T-cell exhaustion,47 its presence in
inflammatory syndrome rate of immune recovery as demon- patients with IRIS may imply a disor-
are a low CD4+ T-cell strated by precipitous decline in viral dered process of immune restoration.
nadir, the presence load after starting ART.42 In one study, The abnormal presence of activated
of an underlying the incidence of CNS-IRIS rose from lymphocytes in the brain may also occur
opportunistic infection, 0.9% of all HIV-infected patients start- on a chronic basis in HAND that devel-
and the rapid rate of ing ART to 1.5% in those with CD4+ ops despite adequate virologic control.10
decline in the HIV nadir less than 200 cells/2L.41 Since pa- After initiating ART in the patient
viral load.
tients in resource-limited settings may with HIV infection, immune reconstitu-
only receive ART once they present tion occurs in a biphasic manner. First,
with an AIDS-defining illness, it may memory T cells increase in concert with
be that CNS-IRIS rates are actually higher thymic production of naı̈ve T cells. Sec-
worldwide. Genetic factors are likely also ondary lymphoid organs that may have
relevant as some patients with severe been damaged because of HIV-mediated
immunosuppression and rapid immune inflammation begin to recover and con-
recovery do not develop IRIS. Expres- tribute to the rising numbers of CD4+
sion of proinflammatory cytokines such T cells by releasing these, usually within
as interleukin (IL)-6, as well as certain 3 to 6 months of ART initiation.48 CD8+
cytokine polymorphisms such as tumor T cells may increase more rapidly and
necrosis factor !-308*2, may be greater thus may be a better indicator of early
in the subpopulation of HIV-infected risk for IRIS than CD4+ T-cell counts
patients who develop IRIS.43,44 Addi- alone; CD8+ T-cell levels tend to return
tionally, an anti-inflammatory cytokine to baseline after 4 months of ART, while
polymorphism in the IL-12B gene has CD4+ T cells undergo a more gradual
been negatively associated with non- and longer-lasting increase.49,50 Patients
CNS herpes-associated IRIS.44 with IRIS have higher numbers of ac-
tivated effector memory CD4+ T cells
Pathophysiology and lower numbers of naı̈ve CD4+ T
Given the range of IRIS cases reported cells and central memory CD8+ T cells.45
in the literature, the picture that has The long-term outcome of patients
emerged is not of a unifying IRIS phys- who recover from IRIS is unknown, but
iology but rather a myriad of diverse autopsy studies show that the inflam-
clinical, radiologic, and immunologic syn- matory infiltrates associated with op-
dromes that likely encompass multiple portunistic infections consist of large
disease mechanisms. What unifies these numbers of HIV-infected cells. Hence
cases is the trafficking of activated lym- the possibility exists that they may es-
phocytes into the brain. It is unclear why tablish a reservoir in the brain with long-
some patients are more likely than others term sequelae.
to develop IRIS during immune recon-
stitution. Several studies of immunologic Opportunistic Infection
profiling have shown that IRIS patients The spectrum of viral, bacterial, fun-
had greater numbers of activated CD4+ gal, and parasitic OIs, well described
T cells of the effector memory subtype45 for their catastrophic consequences
with increased expression of interferon-+46 for patients with HIV infection prior
and programmed-death molecule 1 (PD-1) to the advent of ART, have now been
prior to ART initiation, suggesting that associated with IRIS. When an under-
they are primed for immune activation.47 lying infection is present, initiating
1328 www.aan.com/continuum December 2012
KEY POINTS
h Cryptococcus is the virus CNS-IRIS is reported with the pared to non-IRIS cryptococcal men-
most common fungal manifestation of vision loss 6 weeks ingitis most often have higher opening
infection in immune after ART, with corresponding T2/FLAIR pressures, CSF white cell counts, and
reconstitution hyperintensities in the optic chiasm and glucose concentrations.40
inflammatory syndrome. Epstein-Barr virus detected in the CSF by One case has been reported of Can-
A longer range of PCR, without recovery of vision. Herpes dida sp meningitis with acute deterio-
latency, the clinical simplex virus is suspected to have caused ration after initiating treatment with
manifestation of temporal lobe encephalitis in one report ART. This patient, who presented with
meningitis only, and a of CNS-IRIS that responded to acyclovir, subacute meningitis during a period of
delay in the normalization although the pathogen could not be noncompliance with ART, rapidly suc-
of the cryptococcal
found in the CSF by PCR.59 cumbed despite ART initiation and
antigen after treatment
evidence of improved immune func-
may contribute to
Fungal Pathogens tion. Postmortem examination revealed
difficulty in diagnosis
and treatment. Cryptococcus neoformans is the most basilar Candida sp meningitis as well as
common fungal infection associated with CD8+ T-cell perivascular infiltrates,
h Clinical deterioration
CNS-IRIS.60 Cryptococcal infections may particularly in the brainstem.63
is common with the
initiation of treatment
be associated with 10% to 30% of all
CNS-IRIS,53 most often clinically manifest Bacterial Pathogens
for tuberculosis but
can occur much later as aseptic recurrence of prior meningitis Antituberculous therapy has been rec-
in the CNS than in and rarely as intracranial cryptococcoma. ognized for its potential to cause clinical
other organ systems. Several factors may make the diag- deterioration, long before the era of ART.
nosis of cryptococcal CNS-IRIS chal- Mycobacterial CNS-IRIS typically presents
lenging. Cryptococcal CNS-IRIS has a 5 to 10 months after ART initiation, most
longer range of possible latency of commonly with Mycobacterium tuber-
onset than that associated with PML or culosis manifesting tuberculosis men-
tuberculosis. While typically present- ingitis and rarely as tuberculoma.64,65
ing 3 to 20 months after the initiation Because mycobacterial CNS-IRIS occurs
of ART, it has been reported as soon much later than mycobacterial IRIS in
as 14 days and as long as 2 years after other organ systems, and also because
starting ART.61 The clinical manifesta- of the difficulty of establishing a diagnosis
tions of cryptococcal CNS-IRIS can be in tuberculous meningitis, the prevalence
difficult to detect as the acute devel- of mycobacterial CNS-IRIS is unknown.
opment of aseptic meningitis may be While cases of clinical deterioration after
mistaken for postinfectious hydrocepha- ART initiation due to expansion of in-
lus; both are characterized by headache, tracranial tuberculomas have been de-
nausea, and vomiting. Additionally, be- scribed,64 fewer reports are available
cause tests for the cryptococcal antigen regarding CNS-IRIS with recrudescence
remain positive for several months after or development of tuberculous menin-
adequate treatment at slowly decreas- gitis. According to one study, as many
ing dilutions, the possibility of crypto- as 21% of patients in South Africa have
coccal CNS-IRIS should be considered developed Mycobacterium-related
if sterile inflammation of the CSF is CNS-IRIS.60 Given that one-third of the
present and no viable yeast is found in world’s population has been infected
culture. Neuroimaging shows new men- with tuberculosis, a greater evidence of
ingeal or choroid plexus enhancement mycobacterial CNS-IRIS may emerge as
or perivascular enhancement in the sulci, ART increases in availability worldwide.
indicating a cellular immune response to If a patient presents with clinical deteri-
the underlying infection.62 HIV-infected oration and meningeal enhancement on
patients with cryptococcal CNS-IRIS com- MRI or communicating hydrocephalus
1330 www.aan.com/continuum December 2012
KEY POINTS
h High-dose corticosteroids reduced mortality by 34%.72 Thus de- dromes such as the leprosy reaction
are required in patients laying ART is recommended over dis- have been treated with adjunctive cor-
with immune continuing ART once it has been ticosteroid therapy; the efficacy of this
reconstitution initiated, as stopping therapy increases treatment has been demonstrated in
inflammatory syndrome the risk for drug resistance and disease clinical trials. Without careful prospec-
in whom brain herniation progression. tive trials in CNS-IRIS, physicians must
is impending but may Immunomodulatory therapy. In HIV- use their own clinical judgment in the
also be helpful in less dire infected patients with CNS-IRIS due to context of each symptom and OI. In
situations when patients OI in whom massive inflammation has Cryptococcus-related CNS-IRIS, ste-
are symptomatic from resulted in impending herniation, high- roids may be helpful in concert with
CNS immune
dose corticosteroids are required.73 We CSF drainage when inflammation leads
reconstitution
prefer 1 g/d of methylprednisolone IV, to obstruction of CSF pathways and
inflammatory syndrome.
or an equivalent dose of any other cor- intracranial hypertension.74 In HIV-
h CNS immune ticosteroid, for 5 days with a gradual infected patients with CNS-IRIS as
reconstitution
taper over 4 to 6 weeks. While reason- demonstrated by enhancement on
inflammatory syndrome
able concern exists about the complica- MRI without clinical symptoms, the
may exist without an
identifiable underlying
tions of further immunosuppression in risk to benefit ratio is unlikely to favor
opportunistic infection, these patients, it is our experience that steroid treatment.
in which case the stopping steroids after 3 to 5 days will
CD8+ T cells may be often lead to recurrence of IRIS symp- HIV CNS–Immune
attacking viral reservoirs toms. This may be explained by re- Reconstitution Inflammatory
within the brain, or the bound of cytotoxic T cells in response Syndrome Without
brain itself. These to the underlying OI once steroids have Opportunistic Infection
syndromes are usually been removed. When effective antimi- During immune reconstitution, patients
manifest as fulminant crobial therapy exists for the underlying with HIV infection are at risk for other
encephalitis with white OI, steroids may not be necessary for disease manifestations of IRIS unrelated
matter changes on MRI.
such a prolonged duration since the in- to underlying infection. These noninfec-
fection may respond to treatment. In tious IRIS syndromes range from fulmi-
cases such as CNS-IRIS due to PML, nant encephalitis to chronic syndromes
steroids may be required for a prolonged such as autoimmune disease in HIV.
time until memory T cells recover and Fulminant HIV encephalitis with
can mount a response to JC virus, usually immune reconstitution inflammatory
within 4 to 6 weeks.55 Such prolonged syndrome. Initiation of ART has re-
use of steroids requires prophylaxis for sulted in severe, progressive encepha-
pneumocystis pneumonia and fungal litis in some patients with HIV infection.
infections, and for tuberculosis in ende- Series of patients have been described
mic regions. with either worsening of preexisting en-
In HIV-infected patients with CNS- cephalitis or dementia, or the new devel-
IRIS due to OI who are symptomatic opment of such after initiation of ART.74
but without impending brain hernia- The clinical deterioration in mental sta-
tion, the use of corticosteroids is far tus in these patients may be accom-
more controversial. While modulating panied by leukoencephalopathy on MRI,
the immune response to an underlying with involvement of the uncinate fibers.
infection may seem at odds with the The histopathologic correlate shows a
goal of clearing the infection, evidence mass inflammatory infiltrate made up
suggests that the immune response in of predominantly CD8+ T cells in peri-
these patients is dysfunctional or in ex- vascular regions as well as the paren-
cess of what is required to control the chyma, in the absence of any detectable
infection. Historically, IRIS-related syn- pathogen. CD8+ T cells have been
1332 www.aan.com/continuum December 2012
Case 4-3
A 59-year-old man with newly diagnosed HIV infection had a CD4+ T-cell count of 37 cells/2L and an HIV
viral load of 95,710 copies/mL. Six days after initiation of ART, he developed an acute onset of profound
encephalopathy. He had a transcortical sensory aphasia, prolonged speech latency, apraxia, and diffuse,
small amplitude myoclonus. MRI of the brain showed the new development of symmetric areas of
abnormal T2/FLAIR signal in the medial temporal lobes, extending into the subinsular white matter
on the left, with subtle enhancement present in the left subinsula, increased vascular markings in the
right basal ganglia, and diffuse dural enhancement from a lumbar puncture (Figure 4-3). CSF showed
3 WBCs/2L, normal glucose concentration, and protein concentration elevated at 80 mg/dL. The CSF
test results were negative on flow cytometry and cytology, as well as for cultures for bacteria, fungi, and
mycobacteria; PCRs for cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, herpes simplex virus, human herpesvirus 6
and 7, JC virus, and VZV were also negative. His serum showed slightly elevated ammonia at 53, normal
thyroid function test, and B12 level of 993. His HIV viral load had fallen to 2858 copies/mL on the day of his
mental status change. Over several days his mental status worsened and he was barely responsive to
stimuli. High-dose corticosteroids (dexamethasone 10 mg twice daily) were started, with improvement
in his speech and apraxia in the first 24 to 36 hours. Within 6 days he was close to his prior baseline and
several weeks later was able to be discharged to home on a gradual taper of corticosteroids.
FIGURE 4-3 Fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (A, B) and T1 postgadolinium (C) sequences of MRI show hyperintense
signal in the bilateral mesial temporal cortex (A) and the periventricular white matter of the left subinsular
cortex (arrow, B). The signal abnormality in the left subinsular cortex is found to have very subtle
enhancement on the postgadolinium image. Increased vascular markings are also seen in the right basal ganglia
(arrow, C). While the enhancement is subtle, early intervention with corticosteroids reversed the encephalopathy in
this case, providing further evidence that early inflammation was developing.
Comment. While no opportunistic organism could be identified as the etiology of his mental status
change, this patient was at risk for IRIS given his low CD4+ T-cell count at the time of initiation of
ART, as well as the rapid decrease in his HIV viral load after starting ART. The enhancement on MRI,
albeit subtle, also provided a clue to the diagnosis. In a patient with clinical deterioration in the
context of improved virologic control, the diagnosis of IRIS, and therefore treatment with adequate
doses of immunomodulatory agents, must be considered.
of demyelination or tumefactive inflam- 10. Heaton RK, Clifford DB, Franklin DR Jr, et al.
HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders
mation, similar to the Marburg variant of persist in the era of potent antiretroviral
multiple sclerosis.76 The focal nature of therapy: CHARTER Study. Neurology
this patient’s presentation invokes the 2010;75(23):2087Y2096.
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patients on highly active antiretroviral
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