Electric charges and fields

Electric changes : Electric change is an intrinsic property of elementary particles of matter which gives rise to
electric force between various objects .

it is represented by q The Si unit of electric charge is

.
Coulomb (C) A proton has
.
positive change G-e) and
an electron has negative change C- e) where e- 1.6×10-190 . .

• like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other .

change is called the

"
The property which differentiates the two kinds of Polarity of charge
"
• .

•
Charge is a scalar quantity • H hen some electrons are removed from the atom , it acquires a positive change and

when some electrons are added to the atom ,

it acquires a
negative charge .

•
Charge does not depend on the velocity particle
of the .

Properties of electric charge

41 .

Addivity of charges : charges are additive in nature .

Total charge of a system is obtained simply by
adding algebraically .

Question :-) What is the total charge of a system containing five charges +1
,
-12 ,
-3 ,
-14 and -5 in some

arbitrary unit ?
Answer : Total
charge
=
-11 -12-3+4-5 =
-1 in the same unit .

(2) .

Change is conserved
The total charge of an isolated system remain conserved constant .

Charge can neither be created nor be

destroyed 9T can only transferred from one body to another body

Sunil Jangra
•

(3) Quantization of change

.

i. e 9=-1 ne n = 11213
The charge on any body will be some integral multiple of e-
quantum of charge
-

e.
- - -
-
• .

Charge body ⇐ e) etc

•
on any can never be ,
1.5 .

CONDUCTORS : The substances through which electric changes can flow easily are called conductors .

e. g. Metal , human body and animal bodies , graphite acids etc -

are conductor .

Insulators : The substances through which electric charges cannot flow easily are called insulators .

e.
g Non-
metal like glass , diamond, porcelain , plastic , nylon , wood mica ,
etc are insulators .

Methods of charging
Charging rubbing when two bodies friction electrons from body
41 .

by .
: rubbed
together ,
due to some one pass
on to the other body .
The body that donates the electrons become positively charged and body which gains
electrons becomes
negatively charged .

21
Charging by induction
.

The process of giving one object a net electric charge without touching the object to a second charged object
" "
is called Changing by induction .

Sunil Jangra
5) Charging by contact or conduction : when a charged body is
. made to touch an uncharged body ,
some of the
charger from the charged body is transferred to the other body • This is called Charging by Touch .
 Q= Does in changing the mass of a body change ?
Ans -_ Yes , as
changing a body means addition and removal of electrons and electrons has a mass .

Difference between charge and Mass

CHARGE MASS
"" " """ "
" "" " "" "" " "" """ " """" "" "" °

② Charge on
.
a body does not depend upon velocity D. Mass of a body increases with its velocity .

Of the body .
as M=M0_ G- Velocity of
light in vacuum
THE m= mass of the body moving with

velocity 11 and Mo rest mass of the body .

3) is quantized 3) The quantization of mass is

.

Charge .

yet to be eastablisb .

-41 Electric is always conserved

charge 14 Mass is not conserved and it can be into energy
changed
. .
.

5) Force b/w two point charges can be attractive ,

. and vice-versa .

Or repulsive .
5) The Gravitational force between
.
two Masses is always
attractive .

Objects acquiring two kinds of charges on rubbing

Positive Charge Negative Charge .

1. Glass rod 1) .
Silk cloth
2) . Fur or woolen cloth 2) .
Ebonite , Amber , Rubber rod
31 Woolen
. coat 3) Plastic seat
.

4) .
Woolen carpet 4) Rubber shoes
.

5) -

Nylon or Acetate 5) .
Cloth
61 .

Dry hair . 61 Comb .

.

Gold Leaf Electroscope

A simple apparatus to detect
change on a body
and it's polarity is the Gold leaf Electroscope .

it consists of a vertical metal rod housed in

a box with two thin gold leaves attached to its
,

bottom end .
When a charged object touches the metal
knob at the top of the rod , charge flow onto the leaves

they diverge The degree of is

and .

divergence an

Sunil Jangra
indicator of the amount of charge .

Note: Charges were named as positive and

negative
by the American scientist Benjamin franklin .

Coulomb's Law : → Gt states that "

the force of interaction between any two point charges is directly proportional
to the product of the magnitude of the charges and inversely proportional to the Square of the distance
between them
9 92
.
• •
, y

ie
91%9,21 for
F =
where be constant of proportionality i. e k =L vacuum 1<=1
411-8 K K= dielectric Constant .

"
8.85×15 Oni'm k= 1=9×109
"

Nmyc
'
Eo absolute
-
-

permittivity
=
also known as permittivity .

411-8
for medium Fm
,¥qµ%÷
= →
for medium
.

I
¥m =L 9112 411-4 i
YE ¥ Fm=¥ say that force decreases
✗ =
or so we
e can
-

41T Eok r2 9,92 K time on introducing medium btw

Fm= force when any medium is introduced between the changes the charges .

f- = "
when vacuum / air between the charges .
?⃝
 Dielectric constant or Relative Permittivity K= E- °" Er
=§
=
Permittivity of any medium .

Eo
Permittivity of free space .

Coulomb's Law in vector form :

Éz= force on 9 , due to 92

FI =
force on 9 , due to 9,

Aceto Coulomb's law

Ñ=¥q%÷ I ,

a
is
→

Ñk=r± in
FI=¥,q9¥gÑ
→

where unit vectors

!¥
&
similarly "' & are
=
.

, ,

trial ,
Here FTz= -

FI ie First 1=2%-0 Coulomb's law

agrees with the
newton's third law .

Forces between Multiple charges / Superposition Principle

Acc to the principle of superposition
"
total force on a
given change due to

number of charges is the vector sum of

individual forces acting on that change
due to the presence of other charges .

ie
-

É= FIT FI
Sunil Jangra
On

Fi=F,I First - - - - -
1- Fin
Note:→ The vector sum is

91m¥ / É=<÷e I 9¥
-

É=¥g(%÷Ñ -1%9-3%-1
45
- - - -
+ tin ie
. ,
Mi obtained

Parallelogram
as usual

law of addition
by the

of vectors
Unit of charge : from Coulomb's law if 91--9<=16
9%2
F- k and r= Im

then 1=-9×109 N .

Continuous Charge Distribution

The region in which charges are closely spaced is said to have continuous distribution of charge .

it is of three types .

41 .
Linear charge distribution . 4. surface change distribution 3.1 . Volume Charge Distribution
The distribution in which charge when the charge is distributed on when the charge is distributed over a

is distributed
along the length of spread over a two dimensional surface three dimensional volume or
region 11 ,
is
a
body or
object
.
s is called surface Change distribution .
Called as volume Change distribution .

linear charge density is defined surface charge density is defined as the volume charge distribution is defined as

as the charge per unit length Charge per unit area Gt is denoted by the charge pee unit volume it is denoted
.
. .

it is denoted
"
X Cm
r=%- Cmg by
by .
^ si unit = p.

✗ =
DI si unit =
c- = Cmt f- de St unit = cm→
al m DTI

+ + +

+
Sunil Jangra
✗

¥¥÷÷f
✗
+ +
+ * +
+
* ✗
+ +
✗ +

F- ¥ ;
+ + +
✗
+ + +
Electric field : → The space in the surrounding of any change in which its influence can be experienced by other

charges is Called Electric Field 91 is . -

denoted by E-
Electric Field Intensity : The electrostatic force acting per unit positive ( test ) change in electric field is called electric
field Intensity at that point 9T is denoted by . É.

i. e É=I→ force experienced by test change % .

SI unit of É is N C / C Newton / coulomb)
90 is in the direction of electrostatic force
it is a vector quantity and its direction acting on positive charge .

Electric field due to a Point change

% •
90 The force between changes is given by coulomb's law
two .

p
where 9- source charge and 9o= Test charge
9¥
F=k
.

P .

É= É F
E=kE¥ xtq
Electric field intensity due to q at point P is or E =

Eo Eo
if 9>0 i. e positive charge
1kg4
,
E-
É is directed away from source
• if 9<0 i. e negative charge É is directed towards the source charge .

Electric Field due to system of changes

The electric field point
at P due to the system of n
charges
is É =
ET + Eat EI -1 - - - - -
+ ET

É 19g rip rip -1

%
¥,q9FnpÑp
=
-11 - -
+
- - -

rip rip
2
41170 411-80

É=¥eoÉ%÷ i. =/
ñip
É is a vector quantity that varies from
is
one point to another point in space and
determined from the positions of the source changed .

Electric Field Lines

An electric field line is an imaginary line or curve drawn through a region of space so that its

tangent at any point is in the direction of the electric field vector at that point .

>

;É° A •
>

,
• BLEAT > IEBI

The relative closeness of the lines

Sunil Jangra
,

at some place give an idea about

the intensity of electric field at that point .

Properties of Electric field lines

47 .
Electric field lines start from positive charge and ends at negative changes .

if there is a
single charge , they may start or end at infinity .

2) free region , electric field lines be taken to be

. In a
charge can

continuous curves without

any breaks
.

3) Two field
.
lines can never cross each other because at the point of

intersection the Electric field Intensity will have two direction which
is not possible

→¥¥
ET
.

form conservative + Ve Ve
47 Electric lines do not
any closed loops due to
-

Field ,

nature of electric field .

 Electric Dipole : Gt is a system of two equal and opposite charges separated by a certain distance
( Dipole length 2A) • -

q • •
.

• +q
a o a

Electric dipole moment : Electric Dipole moment is a vector I directed from

negative to positive charge
The
magnitude of dipole moment is p 912 a) and = vector form p→=q2a→ .

THE FIELD OF AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE

it For points on the axis

Let the point P beat distance r from the Centre of dipole
on the side of the charge q , as shown in fig .

Then É = -
I F- ① ( F is the unit vector
along the
-
oh -

411-8 (rta) dipole axis ( from -9 to 9)

É
.

also
É+q= 9- Ñ -
② The total Electric field at point P is É=É+q -1 -
q

411-44 ai -

we
get É= -9 fad F and magnitude E =
Izr (P=92a)
411-8 (r ?_a%
2

( for
41TEo Cr? ay
For r>> a short dipole]
E = ZKP Where 1<=1 NOTE : Total Electric Field & Dipole moment both are in same direction -

¢, , go
73
-
.

Ii) For Points equatorial plane ↳The of the electric fields due to
on the
magnitudes
the two charges +q and -9 given by
Sunil Jangra
are .

①
+9=4%0 ¥a
②
q=¢÷e
⇐ -
& E-
-

are equal
,
. ay
The direction of Éeq and É are shown in figure .
Clearly the components along the
q
-

dipole axis cancel away The components

.

along the dipole axis add up The .

total

electric field is opposite to F. É = -

L E
+ a
+ E-
g) cos 0 Ñ
É" p^
£¥÷rÑ3k For short Dipole i. e
-

r >> a

É= 29 a Ñ and Magnitude E
1¥
- =

¥er3 ,

Electric field due to dipole at any point from centre of Dipole is

IFE
1¥
E-
,

Dipole in a Uniform External Field

consider a permanent dipole of dipole moment Ñ in a uniform external

field É, as shown in fig There a force 9É on 9 and
.
-
9É on -

g. The net
force on dipole is zero
, since
É is uniform
when the net force is zero , the torque is independent of the origin .

Torque Magnitude of
-_
either force ✗ perpendicular distance between the two

antiparallel forces .

I =
qt-xzasi.no .
I =
PE Sino i. e -5=5 ✗ É
T is a vector quantity is normal to the paper , its direction
and
coming out of it .

This torque will tend to align the dipole with the field É .

When I is alinged to É , the torque is zero i. e E- PE sin 00--0

Dipole in a Non -
Uniform External field
In that case net force on dipole is non -
zero

Hence dipole will experience both force

and torque when placed in non - uniform

electric field .
 Potential Energy of Dipole
when an electric dipole is placed in an electric field É, a torque I=F×É acts on it .
if we rotate the dipole

through a small angle do opposite torque is

to the

dH=TdO dH= -
PE The change in electric Potential energy of the dipole is there dU= -

d#
so du =P Esinodo O
O

Integrating Tau =/ PE Sino do U= PEFCOSO]g U= -

PELOSO u = -
p→•E→
,
0
90°

Equilibrium of Dipole
U = -
PECOSO

it if 0=00 141 if.

0=1800
U= -

PE lminimum) 0=-1 PE
→

FNEFO É=0 F?ye+=0 -5=0

stable equilibrium •
unstable equilibrium position .

position .

Electric Flux
Electric flux over an area is equal to the total number of
electric field line crossing this area

Electric flux 101 through an area element as is given

by
☐
µ =E→ . Aj =
EASCOSO As area vector
SI unit =
Nm
'
/c É Electric field Intensity .

if 0=00 if 0=900
then A-
01 = EASLOSOO then 101 =
EAS cos 90°
A = EAS 11-01=0
Maximum flux .
°
: cos 900--0 .

Gauss Theorem
'
surf
Gaussian
The electric flux over
any closed surface is 1 times the total charge enclosed 1
Go
by that surface it
¥=§É
.

¢5 =L Iq 9- enclosed charge
.
-
.

Eo

if a q is placed at the
charge centre of a cube then total electric flux linked
with the whole cube = 9-
Eo Sunil Jangra
& electric flux with one face of the cube =
9-
6 Eo

Application -
I : field due
infinitely long straight uniformly charged
to an wire .

Consider a
long line charge with a linear
charge density do
we have to calculate the electric field at a point , a distance Gaussian
from the line II f surf
r
charge .

Acc to Gauss Theorem

I
E.
fÉds→= % § di-fE-di-foE.cl?-- 9- II
10=1 a-
Eo %
z * I

for I & III faces É and di perpendicular to each other

i. e 0=900 & Cos qo°=0 .
so we will consider only II phase
because É & di are parallel i. e 0=00 .
 § Edscoso ago
it
=

§Eds=¥ ,
E§dS=1
Eo
Exaitrl =G
Eo
E- 9-
Arrl Go
E=1
21TEor
ie
Eat
( Note Ids -
-
curved surface area 12TH) &
4=941

Application :2→ Field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet

let T be the uniform surface change density of an infinite plane sheet
Plane of the sheet is Normal to the x-axis .
surface
A- =
cross-sectional area of gaussian surface .

gaussian sweet .

"
From figure we can say that only face 1 & 2 will considered
q
here . Acc to Gauss's
.

Theorem
E. di
§ E. di + § 9- EA + EA 9- 2EA=1
-

= -

Eo Eo Eo

( Note fds=A ) Sunil Jangra

I 2

E= 9- and E- oh E- I
A 2Eo
✗ AEO

Sheetz
For two parallel charged
s ,

when both sheet are positively charged when both sheet are oppositively charged .

for Ppr I 2
, z
+r r
+ ri
-
- ru '
+ +
I + It -
I 1- t
I + II - II
+ + +
+ + -

+ +
+ -

+ + + + + -
,
⇐°
E- 0
-

t 1- E- I -
+ + + +
-

+ + -
+
+ t +
+ 1- Eo -
-

+ + + + + -

For I E- It E. For ☒ region

region
2Eo LEO E =
I -

12
for II E= I I dEo 2Eo
region
-

LEO LEO

Question :→ An electric dipole is placed at the Centre of a sphere .

Find the electric flux passing through
the sphere .

is Eero
Solution : Net
charge inside sphere Therefore according to
gauss's law net flux
.

,
-
+
passing through the sphere is zero . -

q +a

"'
F- The electric field components in fig are En= an , Ey & EEO in which 4=800 Nlc Mk . Calculate
a) the flux
.

through the cube y^

"2
Solution :
Magnitude of electric field at left side is Eiga ni >
ñr
11 11 11
Right side is Epi 2gal " ,
,
a n
Fluxes left &
at
Right are .

2
a

01 ,=ÉiAs→
a
0=1800 a

-1
F - 2A

Ole
"

Eea
-

"' "'
0=00 01,2+10, Era?Eei qa[
'
& pie + Era since Net flux through the Cube = __ 2A -
a ]
of ✗ ask 4-2-17 1005 Nm'd
= =

b) Charge within the cube

10=9 =) 9. =
Eo =/ • 05×8085×10-11 9.27 ✗ 1512C
go
 The force of interaction
Q= between two
charges 9 Gnc and %=2uC is 12 N If charge q= -2sec is added
-_ •

,
to each of the charges , then the new force of interaction is
solution 91--6-2=4 UC
k9g¥
for first case F- =
12N i -

e f- =
Now Ace to -

2nd Case
qI=
.

2-2 =
0

so New Force 11
CNCERT
G-- The electric flux through the surface Exemplar)

of
S S S

it . ii) iii iv.

Answer : ace to gauss theorem electric flux is tame for all the figures .

10--1;n hue
9in-9
•
:

Q= The figure Shays some of the electric field lines

corresponding to an electric field .
The figure suggests .

Solution
A
B. , C
from figure
Sunil JangraEA
we can say that
=
Ec > EB
>

Important Topic of the chapter .

Electric Field due to

Gauss's Theorem
•
•

• it's Application
Dipole
t'
→
Equatorial
line
Axial
• Electric flux line

•
Torque on a dipole
•
Equilibrium of Dipole

•
Coulomb's law

• Vector form of Coulomb's

law .