PROJECT FOR PSYCHOLOGY, 2021

Dr. Ram Manohar Lohiya

National Law University, Lucknow

2020-21
Project - Psychology
Topic- Media Violence and Aggression
Submitted To: Submitted
By:
Ms. Isha Yadav Shubhendra
Mishra
Assistant Professor, B.A LL.B (Hons.)Sem-I
Psychology. En no.:200101135

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS...........................................................................................................2
DECLARATION.......................................................................................................................3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.........................................................................................................4
SYNOPSIS.................................................................................................................................5
OBJECTIVES........................................................................................................................5
 To study the effects of media violence on the aggression of people of different age
groups.....................................................................................................................................5
RESEARCH QUESTIONS....................................................................................................5
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY-.........................................................................................5
 A Review of literature will be done for this project. Under this method the techniques
of natural observation, case studies have been included........................................................5
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................6
 WHAT IS MEDIA VIOLENCE AND WHY DOES MEDIA INCLUDES
VIOLENCE?..........................................................................................................................6
 Definition.....................................................................................................................6
 Reasons for inclusion of violence in media.................................................................6
EMPERICAL EVIDENCE REGARDING MEDIA EFFECTS ON AGGRESSION AND
VIOLENCE................................................................................................................................8
 LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS.............................................................................8
 FIELD EXPERIMENTS.............................................................................................9
 NATURAL EXPERIMENT: INTRODUCTION OF TELEVISION.........................9
 NATURAL EXPERIMENT : PUBLICIZED VIOLENCE......................................10
DIFFERENTIAL IMPACT AND CONSEQUNCES OF MEDIA VIOLENCE ON
DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS..................................................................................................11
 IMPACT AND EFFECT ON CHILDREN...............................................................11
 SHORT TERM EFFECTS........................................................................................11
 LONG TERM EFFECTS..........................................................................................12
 IMPACT ON ADULTS............................................................................................13
 SHORT TERM EFFECTS........................................................................................13
 LONG TERM EFFECTS..........................................................................................13
AGE DIFFERENCES IN SHORT TERM AND LONG TERM EFFECTS...........................14
CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................15
REFERENCES.........................................................................................................................17
JOURNALS.........................................................................................................................17

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WEBSITES..........................................................................................................................17

DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project work entitled “Media Violence and Aggression” submitted to
the Dr. Ram Manohar Lohiya National Law University, Lucknow is a record of an original
work done by me under the guidance of Mrs. Isha Yadav, Assistant Professor, Psychology,
RMLNLU and this project work is submitted in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for
the award of the degree of B.A. LLB. (Honours).

The results embodied in this thesis have not been submitted to any other University or
Institute for the award of any degree or diploma.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my deep sense of gratitude to my respected and learned guide, Mrs.Isha Yadav,
Asst. Professor, Psychology, for her valuable help and guidance, I am thankful to her for the
encouragement she has given me in completing the project.

I am also grateful to our respected library teachers for permitting us to utilize all the
necessary facilities of the Institution.

I am also thankful to all the other faculty and staff members for their kin co-operation and
help.

Lastly, I would like to express my hearty thanks to my parents and classmates for the moral
support and encouragement.

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SYNOPSIS
OBJECTIVES
 To study the effects of media violence on the aggression of people of different age
groups.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
 What is media violence and why does media include violence?
 What is the differential impact of media violence on people belonging to different age
group?
 Which age is the most vulnerable and how to minimize this vulnerability?

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY-
 A Review of literature will be done for this project. Under this method the techniques
of natural observation, case studies have been included.

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INTRODUCTION

 WHAT IS MEDIA VIOLENCE AND WHY DOES MEDIA INCLUDE

VIOLENCE?
 Definition
Not restricted to any specific type of media, media violence has been defined as visual
portrayals of acts of physical and verbal aggression by one human being or human-like
character against another”. It is a form of aggression generated due to constant exposure to
violent forms of mass media, such as television, video-games, movies and social media
platforms, resulting in loss of lives, human suffering, economic hardships as well as a tenor
of fear and anxiety. This generated aggression, according to aggression and violence scholars,
has a reasonable chance of causing harm to a person serious enough to require medical
attention. It is important to note that it is not necessary that this aggression may necessarily
result in physical harm, but can also result in metal injury to the person exposed to it.

 Reasons for inclusion of violence in media

The mass media explosion:
There occurred a mass media explosion in the 20th century where inventions such as the
television set, the digital computer, and the videocassette player permanently changed the
way people used to gain information about the world until now, including information
regarding how violent the world really is. Since then, the public has been consuming media
as if it were ambrosia. As the time progressed, a variety of inventions took place which have
also become ubiquitous implements in modern society. These include televisions (now the
difference being that it can cover almost the entire globe), video-games (variety of consoles
and emergence of various platforms, with prime focus on games involving violence), movies
(now portraying more violence than ever) and social media (can be categorized as the most
prominent platform where violence gets promoted in various forms).

Desensitization leading to increased tolerance:

Earlier studies have steered that audiences do not appear to be basically drawn to violence in
and of itself, but seem to be drawn to violent content as a results that they anticipate various
benefits, like thrill and suspense. These findings suggest that such indulgent pleasures unit of
measurement alone a district of the story regarding why we've an inclination to willingly
expose ourselves to scenes of bloodshed and aggression. Some sorts of violent portrayals

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seem to attract audiences as a results that they promise to satisfy truth-seeking motivations by
providing meaningful insights into some side of the human condition. "Perhaps depictions of
violence that unit of measurement perceived as meaningful, moving and stimulating can
foster sympathy with victims, admiration for acts of spirit and moral beauty inside the face of
violence, or self-reflection with connexion violent impulses," said Bartsch. "Examining the
prevalence of such prosocial responses and conjointly the conditions to a lower place that
they occur offers in theory intriguing and socially valuable direction for a lot of work."

One of the leading reasons why inclusion of violence in different forms of media keeps
prevailing is Desensitization. Desensitization happens once perennial exposure to at least one
factor that originally caused a precise result, sort of a heightened feeling like anxiety, reduces
or maybe eliminates that result. Academic degree abundance of study has shown that
enhanced exposure to media violence can increase one’s tolerance of violence (Ewoldsen &
Roskos, 2012). Researches have found that exposure to media violence will desensitize
individuals to violence within the globe which, for a few individuals, witnessing violence
within the media becomes pleasurable and doesn't end in the anxious arousal that might be
expected from seeing such imagination.

Violence becoming a major member of one of the most addictive domain of human beings.
Undoubtedly, consumption of media at an extreme rate is a form of addiction. This
consumption can largely be associated to the firing up of dopamine signals within the brain
which causes the release of the dopamine in our brain. Dopamine is a neuro-transmitter
which plays a role in how we feel pleasure.

Be it television, video-games or social media, human beings derive pleasure from its
consumption. Media consumption produces the same neural circuitry within the brain which
is produced when a human being is engaged in gambling and the use of recreational drugs,
whose primary aim is to keep the consumer engaged with the habit or the product, promoting
its practice or consumption. When this domain gets clubbed with violence, it still gets
endorsed and promoted because it is associated with pleasure, and its negative aspects are
overlooked by the majority. It can be said to be somewhat similar to drug or alcohol
consumption, or smoking. Despite knowing that it can lead to serious health issues, it still
gets consumed at an enormous rate because it generates pleasure.

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The addiction to media use to can be largely attributed to the fact that media violence gets
desensitized because of the gigantic rate of its consumption coupled with the mass explosion
of media in the recent world.

EMPERICAL EVIDENCE REGARDING MEDIA EFFECTS ON AGGRESSION

AND VIOLENCE
The relationship between exposure to media violence and aggression has been examined
using natural experiments, laboratory experiments, field experiments. This project reviews
some of the key domains in each of these fields.

 LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
Laboratory experiments are known to examine the short- term effects of media violence.
Majority of the studies illustrate that subjects in such experiments observing media violence
tend to behave more aggressively than do the subjects in the control groups. A meta- analysis
of these studies reveals perennial and substantial media effects. However the research is
inconsistent in showing whether it is necessary to instigate subjects before showing violence
to get an effect (Freedman 1984). Thus, there exists an ambiguity regarding the fact that
whether exposure to media acts as an instigator of aggression of aggression in the laboratory
or merely as a facilitator,

Researchers have raised questions about the external validity of laboratory experiments in
this area. They contend that the laboratory situation is very different from situations leading
to violence that takes place outside the laboratory. For subjects to engage in aggressive
behaviour in the laboratory, the behaviour must be sanctioned. Subjects are told, for example,
that the delivery of shocks is a teaching method or a part of a game. Subjects are then
subjected to an attack by a confederate and given a chance to retaliate and repel. Unlike
aggressive behaviour outside the laboratory, there is no possibility that this will be punished
by third parties or subject them to retaliation from the target. It is difficult and probably
impossible to determine that to what extent these differences limit the generalizability of
experimental studies. Evidence suggests that aggression measures in many laboratory studies
do involve an intent to harm. Experimental subjects may not be so different from those who
engage in violence in the laboratory, who see their behaviour as sanctioned and who do not
consider its costs. The demand cues in these studies are probably a more significant problem.
Demand cues are instructions or other stimuli that indicate to subjects how the experimenter
expect them to behave. Experimenter who show violent films are likely to communicate a

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message about their perception towards aggression. A violent film may imply to subjects that
the experimenter is a permissive adult or someone who does not particularly get offended by
violence.

 FIELD EXPERIMENTS
Concerns about external validity have instigated the researchers to employ field experiments.
Field experiments retain the advantages of experimental design but avoid the problem of
demand cues since subjects do not usually know they are being studied. A number of such
studies have been carried out in institutionalized settings. In these studies, boys are exposed
to either violent or nonviolent programming, and their aggressive behavior is observed in the
following days or weeks. But each of the studies has some important methodological
limitations. For example, although the boys in each treatment lived together, the studies used
statistical procedures that assumed that each boy's behavior was independent of one another.
Even if one overlooks the limitations, the results from these studies are inconsistent. In fact,
one of the studies found that the boys who watched violent television programs were less
aggressive than the boys who viewed nonviolent shows.
The results of field experiments have been examined in at least three meta- analyses.
Hearold's (1986) meta-analysis of a broad range of experimental studies shed light on an
effect for laboratory experiments but no effect for field experiments. A meta-analysis that
included more recent studies, however, did find an effect for field experiments .Finally,
Wood et al's meta-analysis (1991) was restricted to field studies of media violence
on unconstrained social interaction. In all of these studies children or adolescents were
observed unobtrusively after being exposed to an aggressive or non-aggressive film. In 16
studies subjects engaged in more aggression after being exposed to violent films, while 7
studies subjects in the control group engaged in more aggression and in 5 of them, there was
no difference between control and experimental groups.

 NATURAL EXPERIMENT: INTRODUCTION OF TELEVISION

These studies take advantage of the fact that television was introduced at different times in
different locations. They assume that people who are exposed to television will also be
exposed to a high dose of television violence. This is probably a reasonable assumption given
the extremely high correlation between television viewing and exposure to television
violence Hennigan et al (1982) compared crime rates in American cities that already had
television with those that did not. No effect of the presence or absence of television was

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found on violent crime rates in a comparison of the two kinds of different cities. Furthermore,
when cities without television obtained it, there was no increase in violent crime. There was
an increase in the incidence of larceny. Which the authors attributed to relative deprivation
suffered by viewers observing affluent people on television. Joy et al (1986) scrutinized
changes in the aggressive behavior of children after television was introduced into a desolate
Canadian town in the 1970s. The town was compared to two supposedly comparable towns
that already had television. Forty-five children in the three different towns were observed on
the school playground in first and second grade and then again two years later. Frequency of
both verbal and physical aggression increased in all three communities, the increase was
significantly greater in the community in which television was introduced during the study.
Some of the results were not consistent with a television effect, however. In the first phase of
the study, the children in the community without television were just as aggressive as the
children in the communities that already had television. Without television they should have
been less aggressive. Children in the community where television was introduced then
became more aggressive than the children in the other communities in the second phase,
when all three communities had television. At this point, the level of aggressive behavior in
the three communities should have been identical. To accept the findings, one has to assume
that the community without television at the beginning of the study had more aggressive
communities than the other for other reasons, but that this effect was counteracted in the first
phase by the fact they were not exposed to television before.

 NATURAL EXPERIMENT : PUBLICIZED VIOLENCE

The effect of highly publicized violent events on variations in homicide and suicide rates over
time have been inspected in a series of different studies. Phillips (1983) found an increase in
the number of homicides after highly publicized heavyweight championship fights. Modeling
effects were only observed when the losing fights by white fighters was followed by
increases in deaths through homicide of white males. The loss of prize fights by black was
followed by an increase in homicide deaths for black males on days 4 and 5. The rise in the
homicide rate was not canceled out by a subsequent drop, suggesting that the prize fights
affected the incidence and not just the timing of homicides.

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DIFFERENTIAL IMPACT AND CONSEQUNCES OF MEDIA VIOLENCE ON

DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS
 IMPACT AND EFFECT ON CHILDREN
The body of empirical research connecting children's exposure to media violence with
subsequent increases in their aggressive and violent behaviour was already substantial by the
1970s. The 1972 Surgeon General's Scientific Advisory Committee on Television and Social
Behaviour report and the National Institute of Mental Health 10-year follow-up
report provided widely accessible summaries of this growing body of research. By the 1980s,
most child development scholars had accepted the theory that exposure to media violence, at
least during some periods of a child's development, increased their risk for aggression.

 SHORT TERM EFFECTS

 The psychological processes that link children's exposure to violence with subsequent
increases in children's aggressive behaviours can be divided into those that produce more
immediate but transient short-term changes in behaviour and those that produce more delayed
but prolonged long-term changes in behaviour. Long-term increases in children's aggressive
behaviour are now generally agreed to be a result of the child's learning scripts for aggressive
behaviour, cognitions supporting aggression, and aggression-promoting emotions through the
observation of others behaving violently. This observational learning generally requires the
repeated observation of violence. On the other hand, short-term increases in children's
aggressive behaviour following the observation of violence are owing to 3 other quite
different psychological processes: (1) the priming of already existing aggressive behavioural
scripts, aggressive cognitions, or angry emotional reactions; (2) simple mimicking of
aggressive scripts; and (3) changes in emotional arousal stimulated by the observation of
violence. Neuroscientists and cognitive psychologists posit that the human mind acts as an
associative network in which ideas are partially activated, or primed, by stimuli that they are
associated with.1 The activation produced by an observed stimulus spreads in the network and
moves even remotely related concepts closer to a threshold of influence. Thus, an encounter
with an event or object can prime related concepts, ideas, and emotions in a person's memory,
even without the person being aware of it. 2 For example, the mere presence of a weapon in a
person's visual field can increase aggressive thoughts or behaviours.3 Seeing people fight
activates scripts for behaviour related to fighting and other aggressive ideas. Any cognitions,
1
Fiske  STTaylor  SE Social Cognition.  Reading, Mass Addison-Wesley1984;
2
Bargh  JAPietromonaco  P Automatic information processing and social perception: the influence of trait
information presented outside of conscious awareness on impression formation  J Pers Soc
Psychol 1982;43437- 449.
3
Berkowitz  LLePage  A Weapons as aggression-eliciting stimuli  J Pers Soc Psychol 1967;7202- 207

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behaviours, or emotions that have ever been linked to an observed violent scene will be
activated within milliseconds when that scene is observed. Human and primate young have
an innate tendency to imitate whomever they observe. Neuroscientists have discovered
“mirror neurons” in primates that seem to promote such processing. Consequently, children
who observe (in the media or in the environment around them) others exhibiting a specific
aggressive behaviour, eg, hitting, are more likely to perform the same aggressive behaviour
immediately. Theoretically, the more similar that children think they and the observed model
are, the more readily imitation will take place, but the imitation mechanism is so powerful
that even fantasy characters are imitated by young children. Observed violence often consists
of high-action sequences that are very arousing for youth as measured by increased heart rate,
blood pressure, skin conductance of electricity, and other physiological indices of arousal. To
the extent that media violence highly arouses the observer, aggressive behaviours may
become more likely in the short run for two possible reasons. First, high arousal generated by
exposure to violence makes any dominant response tendency more likely to be carried out in
the short term. Consequently, the child with aggressive tendencies behaves even more
aggressively. Second, when a child is highly aroused (eg, by viewing violence), a mild
specific emotion (eg, mild anger) experienced some time later may be felt more severely (eg,
intense anger) than otherwise because some of the emotional response stimulated by the
violent media presentation is misattributed as being due to the provocation. This process is
called excitation transfer.4

 LONG TERM EFFECTS

The long-term effects that exposure to violence has on children also involve the vicarious
conditioning of emotional reactions. Through classical conditioning, fear or anger can
become linked with specific stimuli after only a few exposures.5 These emotions influence
behaviour in social settings away from the media source through stimulus generalization. A
child may then react with inappropriate fear or anger in a novel situation that is similar to one
that the child has observed in the media. Repeated exposure to emotionally arousing media
can also lead to habituation of certain natural emotional reactions. This process is often
called desensitization, and it has been used to explain a reduction in distress-related
physiological reactivity to media portrayals of violence. Indeed, violent scenes do become
less arousing over time,31 and brief exposure to media violence can reduce physiological
4
Zillmann  DBryant  JComisky  PW Excitation and hedonic valence in the effect of erotica on motivated inter-
male aggression  Eur J Soc Psychol 1981;11233- 252
5
Harrison  KCantor  J Tales from the screen: enduring fright reactions to scary media  Media
Psychol 1999;197- 116.

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reactions to real-world violence.6 Behaviours that might seem unusual to the child viewer at
first will begin to seem more normative after repeated presentations. For example, most
persons seem to have an innate negative emotional response to observing blood and violence
as evidenced by increased heart rates, perspiration, and self-reports of discomfort that often
accompany such exposure. However, with repeated exposure, this negative emotional
response habituates, and the child becomes desensitized. The child can then think about and
plan proactive aggressive acts without experiencing negative affect.

 IMPACT ON ADULTS
For both adults and children, we expect that there will be positive relationships between their
degree of exposure to media violence and their subsequent short-term displays of aggressive
behaviours, emotions, and ideas. Priming, imitation, and excitation transfer would all
contribute to these effects.

 SHORT TERM EFFECTS

These short-term effects should be more pronounced for adults than for children because
priming depends on the prior existence of a well-encoded network of aggressive beliefs,
scripts and schemas. The development and expansion of such networks require time and
repeated learning experiences, so adults are more likely to possess well-elaborated, rich
networks of associations involving aggressive beliefs, scripts, and schemas. Consequently,
observations of violence by adults will prime a set of related aggressive constructs larger than
that for children and will prime them more rapidly.

There should be positive relationships for both adults and children between their degree of
exposure to media violence earlier in life and their subsequent long-term displays of
aggressive scripts, beliefs, and schemas. Observational learning of scripts, schemas, and
beliefs and the desensitization of negative emotional reactions to violence are the two
processes that contribute to these effects.

 LONG TERM EFFECTS

These long-term effects should be more pronounced for children than for adults because
observational learning and desensitization both depend on the observer having a mind that is
readily modifiable. The younger the children are, the more susceptible they should be to
encoding aggressive scripts, schemas, or beliefs through observational learning; also, the
younger the children are, the more quickly their emotional responses to observing violence

6
Thomas  MHHorton  RWLippincott  ECDrabman  RS Desensitization to portrayals of real life aggression as a
function of television violence  J Pers Soc Psychol 1977;35450- 458.

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should habituate. For adults, learning new scripts, schemas, and beliefs requires replacing old
ones, and the process is likely to take longer and require the observation of more powerful
scenes. In the rest of this article, we examine whether meta-analyses of the accumulated
empirical data on media violence are consistent with these predictions.

AGE DIFFERENCES IN SHORT TERM AND LONG TERM EFFECTS

It is expected that short-term effects of violent media on aggression to be larger for adults
than for children. In contrast the long-term effects of violent media on aggression to be larger
for children than for adults. This pattern of results would be supported by a significant
interaction between the type of study and age on violent media–related effect size estimates.

As can be seen in the Figure, media-related aggression was greater for adults than for
children in laboratory studies, but it was greater for children than for adults in longitudinal
studies. This is consistent with the theory that short-term effects are mostly due to the
priming of existing well-encoded scripts, schemas, or beliefs whereas long-term effects
require the learning (encoding) of scripts, schemas, or beliefs. Young minds with fewer
existing encoded cognitions can encode new scripts, schemas, and beliefs via observational
learning with less interference and effort than adults. Additionally, it also shows that there
were overall modest but significant effect sizes for exposure to media violence on aggressive
behaviours, emotions, and cognitions.

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CONCLUSION
There are important implications to be drawn from these conclusions for clinical practice.
Although observing violence may increase aggression in the short term for adults and
children, long-term effects are most likely to occur for children. Consequently, children need
the most protection from repeated exposures to violence. Infrequent exposure is not likely to
produce lasting consequences, but parents particularly need to be urged to protect their
children against the kinds of repeated exposures that heavy play with violent video games or
immersion in violent TV programs is likely to produce.

Parents also need to realize that the size of the long-term effect that such exposure has on
children will depend on the extent to which the child perceives the violence as realistic,
justified, and rewarded as well as on the extent to which the child identifies with the
perpetrator. Action heroes are more dangerous teachers of violent behaviour than villains.
Finally, parents need to be as concerned about the beliefs and attitudes that are being
conveyed in violent shows as they are about their child mimicking the behaviours shown. The
changes in how the child perceives the world from viewing violence and the beliefs about
aggression that the child acquires from viewing violence are likely to influence the child's
behaviour in the long term as much as the specific scripts for aggression that the child learns
from viewing violence.

Certainly there are gaps in the research, especially in monitoring people’s cumulative
exposure to violence across multiple forms of media, including advertising, music, social
media, and other online venues. In addition, longitudinal studies that include the most current
media — especially the hyper violent first-person shooter games — should be conducted.
And research needs to pay special attention to (and control for) of risk factors and variables
that are potentially influencing violent behaviour, including trait aggression and family
violence.. But in sum, a review of longitudinal studies about media violence indicates reasons
to be concerned that viewing (or playing) violent content increases the chance that a child
will engage in violent behaviour later in life, especially if the child is aggressive to begin with
and especially if other risk factors are present, such as growing up in a violent family
environment. While longitudinal research does allow us to speak in terms of a “causal”
relationship, it is probably more accurate and useful to think about media violence as a “risk
factor” rather than a “cause” of violence — one variable among many that increases the risk
of violent behaviour among some children. Just as not all children raised in violent homes
will become violent, not all people who play violent video games will become violent—but
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there is a greater chance that they will, especially if there are multiple risk factors operating at
the same time. And while it is tempting to think in terms of mass incidents such as
Columbine, Aurora, or Sandy Hook, it may be that the more important relationship between
media and behaviour lies with the “everyday” violence of pushing and hitting rather than with
the more shocking—and rare — rampages of mass murder.

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REFERENCES
JOURNALS
 Anderson, C. A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, R. L., Johnson, J. D.,
Linz, D., et al. (2003). The influence of media violence on youth. Psychological
Science in the Public Interest, 4, 81-110.
 Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2001). Media violence and the American public:
Scientific facts versus media misinformation. American Psychologist.
 Huesmann, L. R., Moise-Titus, J., Podolski, C. L., & Eron, L. D. (2003). Longitudinal
relations between children’s exposure to TV violence and their aggressive and violent
behavior in young adulthood: 1977-1992. Developmental Psychology, 39, 201-221.
 Thomas  MHHorton  RWLippincott  ECDrabman  RS Desensitization to portrayals of
real life aggression as a function of television violence  J Pers Soc Psychol 1977
 Zillmann  DBryant  JComisky  PW Excitation and hedonic valence in the effect of
erotica on motivated inter-male aggression  Eur J Soc Psychol 1981.
 Harrison  KCantor  J Tales from the screen: enduring fright reactions to scary
media  Media Psychol 1999;197- 116.
 Fiske  STTaylor  SE Social Cognition.  Reading, Mass Addison-Wesley1984
 Bargh  JAPietromonaco  P Automatic information processing and social perception:
the influence of trait information presented outside of conscious awareness on
impression formation   J Pers Soc Psychol 1982.
 Berkowitz  LLePage  A Weapons as aggression-eliciting stimuli  J Pers Soc
Psychol 1967;
WEBSITES
 Jamanetwork (https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/204790).
 JSTOR(https://jstornlul.refread.com/stable/2083426?
seq=8#metadata_info_tab_contents)

 Chausa(https://www.chausa.org/publications/health-progress/article/july-august-
2016/media-violence-effects-on-children-adolescents-and-young-adults).

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