Republic of the Philippines

Department of Agriculture
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
National Brackishwater Aquaculture Technology Research Center
Pagbilao, Quezon

National Mangrove Aquaculture Livelihood Project

By: Romeo E. Dieta, PhD and Florida C. Dieta, MSc

A Concept Paper
I. Overview of Mangrove Resources of the Philippines: Past and Present Situations
1. Historical Data
In 1918, Brown and Fischer estimated the mangrove forests of the Philippines
to be as much as 400,000-500,000 ha. However, the mangrove areas were
indiscriminately alienated for other uses as a result of industrial development and
urbanization. The Philippine mangrove forests have significantly dwindled at an
average of 4,572 ha annually. The depletion of mangrove forests was observed lowest
in 1920-1950 at 2,499 ha and highest from 1950-1972 at 6,685 ha annually. The latter
period coincided with the large-scale conversion of mangrove areas into fishponds
(DENR 1994).
2. Mangrove Areas
According to the National Forest Resource Inventory (NFRI), the estimated
remaining area of mangrove forests in the Philippines in 1988 is 139,100 ha (DENR
1994). Of the total 139,100 ha mangrove forests, 78,593 ha are found within the
mangrove forest reservations. Presidential Proclamation (PP) 2151 declares
approximately 4,326 ha as mangrove wilderness areas, while PP 2152 declares an
aggregate 74,268 ha as mangrove swamp forest reserves. Approximately 95% of these
mangroves are secondary growth and only 5% are old growth mangroves. These old
mangrove forests are mostly located in Palawan Island. Results of a survey revealed
that Palawan covers 35% of the conservation area followed by Surigao del Norte,
which covers 22% of the total mangrove forest reserve. Surigao del Norte covers
more than 50% of mangrove wilderness areas followed by Bohol with 29%. However,
recent survey showed that there are mangrove reservations areas illegally converted
and developed for aquaculture purposes. Portion of the mangrove swamp forest
reserves are found in Palawan, Quezon, Camarines Norte, Leyte, Cebu, Bohol, Lanao
del Norte, Misamis Occidental, Davao, Surigao del Sur and Zamboanga del Sur.
3. Roles and Potential of Mangroves in the National Economy
Mangroves represent a valuable renewable commodity for coastal
communities and are vital sources of forest products and aquatic resources. Direct
economic values estimated in the Philippines for mangrove wood and products
combined ranged from USD 150 to 1,396/ha/yr (White and Trinidad 1988). The
lowest estimate was based on the study of the Pagbilao mangrove forest for which
direct observation of occurring species for both fish and forest was made in a
relatively degraded area (Melana and Courtney 2000).
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Mangrove wood is mainly used as firewood or charcoal, where firewood is

traditionally marketed as small billets. The national statistics relating to the removal
of mangroves for firewood is incomplete but the estimate ranges from 1,000 m 3/yr in
1960 to 118,000 m3/yr in 1988 (ADB 1990). Charcoal for mangrove species is utilized
for domestic purposes, especially in rural areas. However, there is no record of
charcoal production from mangroves in the Philippines. Mangrove poles are
extensively used for the construction of houses, particularly in coastal areas. Others
are used to build fish corrals and fences.
Extractives derived from mangrove barks include tannin and dyes. There has
been a local industry for extracting tannins from mangrove bark. National returns for
tanbarks harvested averaged 337 mt/yr over the period 1969-87 (NRMC-NMC 1986).
Tannin is also used as adhesive material necessary in laying and gluing-up stages of
plywood/particle board manufacture. According to reports, tannin also serves as an
important constituent of ink, rust preventives and insecticides. Other minor products
derived from mangroves are cellulose xanthate, oil, medicine, resin, and tea and
livestock supplements. Nipa palm sap are extracted and fermented for vinegar, local
wine and alcohol. Nipa shingles are used as roofing materials. This indicated that
mangroves had been a good source of livelihood of coastal fisherfolk. However, there
are no reports available as to the total production and estimated values of these
mangrove products.
Studies in fishes indicated that there are at least 68 families that are
represented in the mangroves of the Philippines with the family Mugilidae being the
most abundant followed by Carangidae (NRMC-NMC 1986). Fifty-four (54) species
of crustaceans have been reported to occur in mangrove areas throughout the
Philippines. They are dominated by species of the following families: Penaeidae,
Ocypodidae, Grapsidae and Portunidae. Actual experiences at NBATRC Pagbilao
have shown that several species of groupers (Family Serranidae) also abound in
mangrove creeks and rivers. In addition, at least 63 species of mollusk are known to
occur in Philippine mangrove areas. This demonstrated the potentiality of mangroves
for mangrove aquaculture purposes.
The dependence of fisheries, both inshore and offshore, on mangroves as
natural habitats has become widely accepted. Mangrove ecosystem provides detritus
and nutrients that form the food base of complex marine organisms, which in turn
support valuable estuarine and nearshore fisheries. The decomposing leaf litter is
utilized by many aquatic organisms thriving in mangrove and nearshore ecosystems,
such as, in the seagrass beds and coral reefs. Mangrove swamps serve as feeding,
nursery and breeding grounds for commercially valuable fish species including
mollusks and crustaceans. They are also rich sources of fish fry, which contribute a
great deal to the country’s fry gathering industry. Melana and Courtney (2000)
reported that parallel with the decline in the mangrove areas of the Philippines is the
significant reduction of fishery resources. The loss of mangrove forest in the
Philippines is also correlated with decreasing fisheries production in municipal waters
and the depletion of larval and juvenile stages of shrimps and milkfish which are seed
sources for pond aquaculture (Camacho and Malig as cited in ADB 1990). However,
with proper utilization and management of destroyed mangroves, the potential effects
of conversion into mangrove aquaculture projects will negate if not totally improve
the impact on its fishery resources.
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4. Markets and Supply/Demand

Except for tannin, viscose rayon and resin which have export potentials, other
common mangrove products such as nipa shingles (pawid), firewood, charcoal, wine
(tuba and lambanog), vinegar (suka) and mangrove poles are obviously being
marketed in local variety (sari-sari) stores and national roads. This indicated that
there is a market demand for these mangrove products. Based on Pagbilao, Quezon
current market prices, nipa shingles are sold for PhP 60/sack (at least 1,000 pc/sack);
firewood at PhP 120/m3; charcoal at PhP 140/sack; wine (tuba and lambanog) at
PhP20 and PhP50/liter, respectively; vinegar at PhP 20-30/liter and mangrove poles (3
mL) at PhP 25-30/pc. However, there are no records available as to how much are
being traded for these valuable mangrove products. On the other hand, high value
aquaculture species such as groupers, mudcrabs and shrimps command high prices
due to export market, while tilapia, milkfish, mullets and other fishes are easily sold
in local markets.
5. Reasons for the decreasing mangrove areas
Mangrove ecosystems are vulnerable both to natural and man-made
disturbances. The most obvious impact of human activity can be seen in the rapid
reduction of mangrove swamps. This can be attributed to the following: (1) clear-
cutting of vegetation and forest products, conversion into fishponds, saltbeds,
industrial sites and human settlements; and (2) death of vegetation resulting from
waste disposal, soil erosion and siltation. The conversion of mangrove swamp into
brackishwater fishpond is a principal factor behind the loss of mangrove forests
(Zamora 1990 as cited in DENR 1994). Government efforts to address these
mangrove destructions had become futile due to lack of resources, information, clear-
cut policies, educational campaign and deteriorating socio-economic condition. These
constraints and limitations had become the primary factors that contributed to the
rapid destruction of mangrove areas in the country.
The existing brackishwater fishpond is estimated at 239,323 ha (BFAR 2000).
The continuous illegal conversion of mangrove areas for aquaculture purposes also
includes those areas within the mangrove forest reserves (DENR 1994). Since the
effectivity of the Presidential Proclamations (PP) 2151 and 2152 in 1981, there had
been approximately 9,532 ha of mangroves illegally converted into fishponds. These
illegally constructed fishponds can be retrieved back by the government and turned
into mangrove aquaculture livelihood projects for marginalized fisherfolk.
Erosion also affects the reduction of mangrove ecosystem. Most of the upland
ecosystems in the Philippines have already been subjected to severe utilization and
developmental activities. These activities, among others, are logging, agricultural
plantation establishment, mining and infrastructure build-up. Alteration of surface and
sub-surface soil structures resulted in irregular surface run-offs and severe siltation in
river mouths and estuaries where most of the mangroves are established. The
conversion of denuded and destroyed mangrove areas into mangrove aquaculture
livelihood projects will rebuild its mangrove forest through replanting and proper
management and will minimize soil erosion and siltation in the locality.
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Nature has also brought stresses on mangrove ecosystems. According to

reports, mangroves in estuarine areas and riverbanks have often become hosts to
clams and barnacles. Spats of these species attach themselves to roots and lower
portions of tree trunks and complete their life cycle in these trees. The resulting shells
when developed usually are embedded partially into the bark and trunk of trees, which
result in the obstruction of nutrient flow within the tree, hampering plant growth and
resulting in death, in the case of severe infestation. Replanting of mangroves through
mangrove aquaculture will replace back lost ones due to natural causes and will
restore back its natural habitat.
5. Laws, Rules, Regulations and Policies on Mangroves
 Historical Overview
The history of Philippine policy initiatives and legislation related to the use of
coastal resources started with the enactment of the first Fisheries Act (Commonwealth
Act No. 4003) in 1932. Coastal areas and resources in the Philippines were once
managed under the assumption that there was limited demand for what we considered
unlimited economically valuable fish and other items (DENR, DA-BFAR and DILG
2001). In 1952, the Bureau of Forest Development (BFD) Circular No. 95 was created
to zonify swamplands for various uses. Legalization on the definition and regulation
of Fishpond Lease Agreement (FLA) started in Fisheries Administrative Order No. 60
of 1960.
The 1960s to mid-1970s marked the period of rapid expansion and
development in fisheries and aquaculture. Presidential Decree (PD) No. 43 0f 1972
directed and facilitated the orderly, systematic and expeditious transfer of jurisdiction
of public land available for fishpond development to the Bureau of Fisheries and
Aquatic Resources (BFAR). PD 704, known as the Fisheries Decree of 1975, was
signed into law forming the basis of the integrated law system on Philippine fisheries
sector. Sections 23-25 defined the disposition of public lands for fishponds. In the
same year PD 705 or the Revised Forestry Code was also enacted. It spelled out the
kinds of public lands suitable for fishpond purposes that are to be released to and
placed under the administrative jurisdiction and management of BFAR. It also
declared that 20 m wide mangrove strip along shorelines facing oceans, rivers, bays,
etc. is to be retained for coastal protection. However, this regulation on shorelines is
not being followed, in most instances small rivers and creeks in between areas are
also converted into fishponds. Also, FLA holders have not followed strictly the
conditions stipulated under the contract. Most FLAs issued by BFAR have not been
fully developed making some areas idle and unproductive up to the present.
The period between 1970s-1980s covered a decade of unrestrained
development in coastal resources, which resulted in a build-up of environmental
issues. In 1976, the Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR) issued Special Order (SO)
No. 309, creating the Philippine National Mangrove Committee to formulate a
comprehensive national mangrove plan and review fishpond and timber license
applications. SO 178 issued in 1980 reorganized both the membership and functions
of the committee and aligned them with the new research emphasis on the ecological
importance of mangroves to Philippine coastal environment. This included the
scientific methods in the rehabilitation of denuded mangrove areas. In 1981, PP 2151
was issued declaring specific areas in the country totaling 4,326.50 ha as wilderness
 5

areas in which any form of exploitation was henceforth banned, while PP 2152
proclaimed the entire province of Palawan and other selected mangrove areas totaling
74,267.9 ha as mangrove forest reserves. Unconfirmed reports have indicated that
illegal construction of fishponds inside this mangrove reserves also occur.
In 1982, PP 2146 was approved prohibiting mangrove cutting throughout the
country. At the same year, MNR issued Administrative Order (AO) No. 3 revising the
guidelines in the classification and zonification of forest lands. Other mangrove-
related DENR AOs have been issued since 1986, introducing measures designed to
prevent further destruction of mangrove resource especially through fishpond
development. MNR issued AO 42 declaring the expansion of mangrove forest belt in
storm surge, typhoon prone areas to 50-100 m along shorelines and 20-50 m along
riverbanks. DENR Memorandum Circular (MC) No. 15 of 1989 was issued
prioritizing the implementation of mangrove reforestation. DENR issued AO 76 in
1987 establishing buffer zones: 50 m fronting seas and oceans and 20 m along
riverbanks. It also required FLA holders to plant 50 m mangrove strip along buffer
zone areas. At about the same year, interest in coastal resource management has
gained impetus. Various foreign-assisted projects were drafted and commissioned
such as the Fisheries Sector Program (FSP) and Central Visayas Regional Project
(CVRP).At present there is no concrete information whether further conversion of
remaining mangrove areas into fishponds has stopped due to DENR administrative
orders and circulars. There is a need to conduct field surveys to determine if the
regulations on buffer zones are being followed by FLA (Fishpond Lease Agreement)
recipients.
In 1990, DENR AO 15 introduced the revised regulation governing the
utilization, development and management of mangrove resources. It provided for the
issuance of Certificate of Stewardship Contract (CSC) for the management of
mangrove areas, provided that the activities are sustainable. DENR MC No. 5 of 1990
provided guidelines on the cutting of mangrove trees within approved FLA area.
There is a need to conduct studies on the impact of DENR CSC to determine whether
this project had become successful. There are unconfirmed reports that some CSCs
issued to fisherfolk had become basis for cutting remaining mangrove trees in the area
and converted it into fishponds. These mangroves destroyed under CSCs are potential
for conversion into mangrove aquaculture livelihood projects for coastal fisherfolk.
In 1991, RA 7160 (the Local Government Code) was passed devolving
primary mandate for managing municipal waters to Local Government Units (LGUs)
which include the communal forests less than 500 ha, implementing community
forestry projects, and enforcement of community-based laws. The same year, RA
7161 was passed banning the cutting of all mangrove species. DENR AO 9 was
issued defining the policies and guidelines for Mangrove Stewardship Agreement,
while DENR AO 34 was issued defining the guidelines for Environmental Clearance
Certificate (Applicable to fishponds). In 1994, DENR AO 30 created the non-
government assisted community-based mangrove forest management (CBFM) and it
was institutionalized at the DENR in 1995. Republic Act 8550 known as the
Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998 was passed establishing coastal resource
management as the approach for managing coastal and marine resources. Once again,
the technology on mangrove aquaculture offers a sustainable alternative livelihood
projects for CRM dependents. In the same year DENR-AO No. 98-17 defined the
major cause of mangrove deforestation as conversion to fishpond. Henceforth, it
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prohibits the further zonification and release of already zonified mangrove forest for
fishpond development.
In 1999, the Philippines became a signatory to the implementation of the
Rome Declaration on the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. And in 2000,
the DENR and DA signed a joint Memorandum Order on the implementation of the
Fisheries Code (RA 8550).
 Existing Legal Framework
The existing legal and policy framework on mangroves in the Philippines is
comprised of the management systems provided in several major laws, namely the
Local Government Code of 1991, the Fisheries Code of 1998, and the National
Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act. These legal instruments are
implemented by means of a wide range of administrative orders, circulars, or
memoranda issued by the President or the concerned executive department or agency.
Appendices 1a and 1b cite existing fishery laws and environmental laws, respectively
in the country with relevance to mangroves.
6. Existing Technology
 Background

Mangrove aquaculture or aquasilviculture is a multipurpose production

system that allows production of fish in a mangrove reforestation projects. It
provides the farmer harvestable resources such as fish, timber and other natural
products to sustainably augment their income and at the same time, maintain the
natural function of the mangrove ecosystem with minimal disturbance
(Fitzgerald 1997 and Primavera 1999). Hence, it provides a compromise to the
many competing users and beneficiaries of mangrove resources, namely: fish
farmers, capture fishers, wood gatherers and the local community as a whole.

There are two basic models being adopted in silvofishery projects. Type I
model consists of mangrove within the pond with a ratio of 60-80% mangrove
and 20-40% pond canal culture water area. Type II model consists of the
mangrove outside the pond with similar mangrove to water ratio. From these
basic models, there are varieties of designs. Among these are the “Empang Parit”
in Indonesia, “GeiWai” in Hongkong, “Shrimp-Mangrove” and “Aquasilviculture” in
the Philippines (Fitzgerald 1997).

Mangrove aquaculture projects in Indonesia usually consist of an

excavated central platform that alternates between mangrove areas and a canal
that runs along the pond dikes where fish, shrimp and crabs are cultured
extensively. An individual farmer is reported to operate between 1.5-10 hectares
of silvofisheries ponds and they earn an average gross income of US$580/ha/yr
with a net profit that averages $376/ha/yr. In Hongkong, on the other hand, the
projects are situated in shallow intertidal ponds with wide channels of 1 meter
deep and with planted island platforms in the central part of the canal. The
mangrove area is generally long narrow strips with cleared channels between
them. The ponds are stocked naturally by the incoming tidal water resulting in a
polyculture. Production of aquaculture species in these ponds reaches
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190kg/ha/yr. Likewise in Vietnam, an integrated farming system that promotes

shrimp culture alongside mangrove protection was developed. The mangroves
are planted on the central platform of the pond. Stocking is done by natural tidal
inflow and little or no supplementary feeding is provided (Fitzgerald 1997). Binh
et al (1997) reported that the average production in a shrimp pond with a
mangrove area of 10% of the total pond area was 204 kg/ha/yr while in a
shrimp pond with 40% mangrove area average shrimp production was
324kg/ha/yr.

In the Philippines, the concept of mangrove-friendly aquaculture started

as early as the 1970s with the so-called ecological fishponds. With the alarming
decline of mangrove areas in the country, the National Mangrove Committee of
the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) finally
implemented aquasilviculture in 1988 in a farm in Ubay, Bohol. Although there
was no concrete report on the economic benefits of the project, this
aquasilviculture concept later spread to the other regions under the Coastal
Environment Program of the DENR, with several modifications and management
schemes. One example of aquasilviculture is the 4.4 ha farm owned by the Sur
family in Puerto Galera, Oriental Mindoro called the agri-nipa-aquaculture
system where agricultural crops are integrated with tilapia culture and nipa
production (Castanos 1997). In Aklan, mangrove trees are left alone to grow
inside pens that hold mudcrab stock (Surtida 1997). There are also models
integrating fishery activities within mangrove areas in Catanauan and Lopez,
Quezon, Ilin Island, Occidental Mindoro, Sta. Fe Romblon, Palawan, Camarines
Norte, Iloilo, Guimaras Island, Negros Occidental, Ubay and Hunan, Bohol,
Zamboanga Del Norte, Silay City and Banacon Island (Bravo et al.; Fitzgerald
1997; and Surtida 1997). A mangrove aquaculture technology verification project
was initiated at the BFAR National Brackishwater Aquaculture Technology
Research Center at Pagbilao, Quezon in 1996-1998. Result of the trials revealed
that the technology is technically feasible & economically viable given the proper
technology & management under present economic and environmental
conditions (Dieta 2005). In the year 2003, as part of the whole management
strategy to increase fish production by 10%, the BFAR initiated for the
conversion of coastal wetlands, particularly the abandoned and underdeveloped
fishponds into productive areas utilizing environment-friendly mangrove
aquaculture technology (Dieta & Arboleda 2004). In the year 2000, at least 4
hectares of undeveloped BFAR-NBATRC mangrove area was replanted with
mangrove trees and transformed into a mangrove aquaculture project to show-
case the technology to interested clienteles.

 Benefits from Mangrove Aquaculture Livelihood Projects

Forest values. Mangrove species offer benefits similar to those derived

from upland forests like wood and other non-timber products such as resin,
wooden poles, charcoal, firewood, tea from leaves of some species, dye, viscose
rayon for textile fabric manufacture, livestock feed supplement, medicine, wine
(tuba and lambanog), vinegar, nipa shingles (sasa/pawid) for the construction of
nipa hut and mangrove propagules/seedlings for replanting and reforestation.
 8

Fishery values. Mangrove forests support the fishery resources within the
ecosystem, while mangrove swamps serve as spawning and nursery ground or as
permanent habitat for some species. In mangrove aquaculture projects, fish
farmers can produce important finfishes (groupers, siganids, spadefish, mullets,
milkfish, tilapia, and snappers), crustaceans (shrimps, crabs) and mollusks
(oysters, snails, and bivalves) while growing mangrove trees. Other groups of
aquatic organisms depend on planktonic or benthic organisms – a food supply
generated within the mangrove creeks, rivers and estuaries. Large quantities of
organic detritus produced in the mangrove are washed away by tidal and run-off
waters into the coastal zone to support the productivity of organisms in the
coastal waters.

Ecological values. Utilizing abandoned and unproductive fishponds for

mangrove aquaculture will enhance mangrove reforestation. Likewise, it will
transform idle resources into productive ecosystems. Aside from minimizing soil
erosion, mangrove also minimizes pollution of seawater. When planted along
tidal flats, riverbanks and fishpond peripherals, mangrove forests serve as
shelterbelt against tidal waves, typhoons and strong winds. They also serve as
habitat of some wildlife such as birds, rodents, reptiles, amphibians, mammals
and insects. This faunal component helps maintain ecological balance within the
mangrove ecosystem.

Socio-economic values. Besides the marketed goods, mangroves also provide

recreation to the community. Ecotourism associated with mangroves is now
developing. The project may also serve as venue for learning/education by using it as
“laboratory” for research. The knowledge that this ecosystem exist may provide an
aesthetic service to some individuals. Others acquire spiritual and religious, or
cultural and artistic inspiration. This is particularly the case for indigenous
populations living within or near the area.

7. Linkages/Support Services:
Department of Agriculture (DA)
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR)
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)
Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG)
Local Government Units (LGUs
Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR)
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II. Conclusion and Recommendations

A comprehensive review of the past and present situations of the

Philippine mangrove resources has revealed that there are indeed vast
mangrove areas that have been denuded, destroyed and converted into fishpond
purposes. Furthermore, not all mangroves awarded by BFAR to fish farmers
under Fishpond Lease Agreements (FLAs) have been fully developed and
therefore, became idle and unproductive under present state. On the other hand,
mangroves awarded by DENR through a Certificate of Stewardship Contract
(CSC) to coastal farmers have not been properly managed; instead most of them
have been denuded and converted into underdeveloped and underutilized
fishponds. At present there are no complete records available to determine how
much of these mangrove areas are idle, underdeveloped, underutilized and
illegally converted into fishponds. There is therefore a need to conduct a
comprehensive survey to identify and calculate these unproductive areas
throughout the country. There is no doubt that mangroves provide ample
livelihood opportunities to coastal fisherfolk for decades, although these
opportunities have not been fully exploited and managed properly by its end-
users. On the other hand, coastal fisherfolk are amongst the poorest of the poor
in the Philippine society due to lack of capital and livelihood opportunities.
Mangroves have the principal attributes necessary for productive development.
There are large numbers of abandoned, underdeveloped, underutilized and
unproductive mangroves and fishponds throughout the country that are
available for development. There are commercially important aquaculture
species (mudcrab, grouper, shrimp, and mollusk) that thrive in mangroves.
Furthermore, there are vast numbers of fisherfolk cooperatives and associations
throughout the country willing to provide the manpower needs and eventually
become recipients of the mangrove aquaculture livelihood projects. Lastly, there
are existing markets and demand for mangrove aquaculture products,
technology and technical expertise to support the growth of mangrove
aquaculture development projects. With proper government support and
direction, destroyed mangroves and abandoned and underutilized fishpond
projects throughout the country can be made productive by converting them into
an environment-friendly livelihood projects for coastal fisherfolk. All options
considered more socio-economic benefits can be derived from the proper
utilization and management of abandoned and unproductive fishpond areas. The
most logical approach points to the development and renewal of destroyed
mangroves by converting them into mangrove aquaculture projects that would
provide additional livelihood opportunities to marginalized coastal fisherfolk
throughout the country.
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III. Strategic Plan and Methodologies

1. Vision and Objectives
Vision
A renewed and productive mangrove ecosystem in harmony with sustainable
and eco-friendly livelihood projects of fisherfolk and farmers in the Philippines
Objectives
a. To be able to rebuild integrity of mangrove forests by integrating mangrove
reforestation, conservation and aquaculture in abandoned, undeveloped and
underutilized fishponds and denuded mangrove areas;
b. To be able to develop and implement sustainable mangrove aquaculture
technology packages that are friendly to mangroves and the environment;
c. To be able to demonstrate the economic feasibility of mangrove
reforestation-cum-aquaculture technology;
d. To be able to disseminate mangrove aquaculture technology through
piloting, demonstration and training;
e. To be able to convert idle and unproductive fishpond areas into productive
mangrove aquaculture livelihood projects of fisherfolk and displaced farmers.
2. Development Strategies and Approaches
Establishment of Mangrove Aquaculture/Aquasilviculture Projects

Technical Considerations:

1. Site selection
Destroyed and denuded mangrove areas, underdeveloped, abandoned and
unproductive fishpond projects including those that are covered by FLAs and CSCs
can be used for mangrove aquaculture projects. The site must be reached by daily
tidal flooding and fresh tidal water inflows. The tidal water should be clean and free
from organic pollution. Soil type can be silty-clay-loam and or clay loam. Ideal
temperature ranges from 25-32oC and pH 6.5-9. The ideal area should not be prone to
typhoon and damaging flood. Clearance from DENR-FORI and permit from the
concerned municipality may be required before any mangrove aquaculture project can
be established. Prohibited areas are those mangroves used as sanctuary and forest
reserves.

2. Preparation of Project Site

For purposes of discussion, a model lay-out design and cost estimate of a

1 ha mangrove aquaculture project with emphasis on the polyculture of grouper,
tilapia and mudcrab is given in Appendices 2a and 2b. The selected area is
cleared of undesirable plants and organic debris. Peripheral dikes, small ditches
and canal systems may be constructed without destroying existing mangrove
trees. The project site must be enclosed with nets to prevent the escape of
 11

aquaculture species. A small guard post cum caretaker’s house can be

constructed if so required.

3. Seeding of Mangrove Aquaculture Project

For mangrove species, planting materials such as bakawan (Rhizophora),

tangal (Ceriops), pototan (Bruguiera), api-api, bungalon (Avicennia), pagatpat
(Sonneratia), kulasi (Lumnitzera), nipa (Nipa) and tabigue (Xylocarpus) can be
collected and planted at regular interval of 2-3 meters apart. Existing dominant
mangrove species in adjacent mangrove areas is the basis for selecting the
species to plant. Proper handling and transport of collected materials should be
followed. To sustain the availability of planting materials, establishing a small
nursery is recommended. Transplanting and field planting should be done,
particularly in areas with scarce vegetation.

On the other hand, potential aquaculture species that can be integrated

with mangrove are grouper, tilapia, shrimp, mudcrab and mangrove clams
(tapalang & paros). Fry/fingerlings/post larvae/juveniles are collected and
stocked in the project. However, natural stocking may come from tidal flooding
that brings in the post larval shrimps and crabs. In artificial stocking, the seed
sources should be near to avoid stress and mortality.

4. Care and Maintenance of the Project

The pond water should be changed regularly and maintained at high level
during high spring tides. Undesirable weeds, unnecessary mangrove trees and
branches are cleared regularly. Decomposing leaves and branches should be
removed outside the pond. Thinning and pruning are also done if necessary.
Dead mangrove trees and seedlings must be replaced at once. Broken nets and
wooden posts are replaced. The stock should be given artificial feed when
natural food is scarce. Stock sampling should be conducted regularly to check on
growth development. Guarding the project site is also a must.

Carnivorous stock such as grouper and mudcrab can be given with trash
fish/snail equivalent to 5% of the total biomass every other day. Feed ration will
be divided into 2 parts: First part at 8:00 AM, second part at 5:00 PM. Feed ration
will be adjusted after every stock sampling. At least 5% of the stock will be
sampled every month to measure growth increment and adjust feed ration.

5. Harvesting

For aquaculture species, harvest is done when it reaches marketable size.

Mudcrab can be selectively harvested after 3 months from seeding, while shrimp
and tilapia can be harvested after 4 months. Groupers can be harvested and sold
live after 8 months. Mangrove clams and snails can also be collected regularly to
supplement farmers’ food requirement. Consider also that harvesting is best
done when supply is low and the price is high. For mangrove species, harvest is
done every after 4-6 months for nipa shingles; 4 years for small wooden poles
with 3-4” diameter; 5 years for charcoal; 10 years for bigger poles with 10-12”
diameter; and 15 years for timber starting from planting. Selective cutting and
re-planting should be done to ensure regeneration of the site.
 12

Marketing Consideration:
Marketing of fish and other aquaculture products is not a problem because
they are included in everyone’s diet requirement. Likewise, demand for mangrove
products is enormous considering that these species are used as wooden poles for nipa
hut and timber for house construction, fuel, wood, charcoal, dyeing materials, shingle
(pawid) making, food, vinegar, wine, alcohol, medicines, and forage for livestock. For
the purpose of calculating the financial benefit that can be derived from mangrove
aquaculture project, a cost and return analysis of a one (1) hectare project is given in
Appendix 3.

IV. Constraints, Limitations and Workable Options

Mangrove aquaculture has also disadvantages compared to brackishwater

fishponds. Among those reported are: (a) lower production because of limitations on
species cultured and area of aquaculture production (Practice only extensive
polyculture method to optimize production); (b) reduced water circulation and greater
potential for stagnant areas with low oxygen levels (There is a need to construct
peripheral and central canals equivalent to 30-40% of total area to improve water
circulation & minimize risk for fish kill); (c) mangrove trees reduce penetration of
sunlight to the pond lowering the productivity of phytoplankton and benthic algae
(Regular trimming of unnecessary mangrove branches and clearing of unwanted
grasses and weeds is highly recommended); and (d) potential toxicity of tannin from
mangroves ( Conduct regular removal of old nipa leaves, broken twigs and debris
outside the pond).
 13

V. References
ADB (Asian Development Bank). 1990. Mangrove development project feasibility
study (final report). Vol. 1. ADB T.A. No. 1225 - PHI: DENR, Philippines
BFAR (Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources). 2001. Philippine fisheries
profile. Department of Agriculture. Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources, Quezon Ave., Quezon City.
Brown, W. H. and A. F. Fischer. 1918. Philippine mangrove swamps. Bureau of
Forestry Bull. No. 17. Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources,
Bureau of Printing, Manila
BINH, C.T., M.J. PHILIPPS and H. DEMAINE 1997. Integrated shrimp-mangrove
farming systems in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam. Aquaculture Research 28:
599-610.
BRAVO, D.R., E.E. MELANA, V. TALABERO and A. MAPALO. Aquasilviculture for
marginal fisheries IN: Sustainable Livelihood Options for the Philippines,
Diliman, Quezon City.

CASTANOS, M. 1997.An Aquasilvi farm in the Philippines, SEAFDEC Asian

Aquaculture 19(5): 18-20.

DENR (Department of Environment and Natural Resources), BFAR (Bureau of

Fisheries and Aquatic Resources) of the Department of Agriculture (DA),
DILG (Department of Interior and Local Government) and CRMP (the
Coastal Resource Management Project) of the Department of Environment
and Natural Resources. 2001. Philippine Coastal Management Guidebook
No. 1: Coastal management orientation and overview. Coastal Resource
Management Project of the Department of Environment and Natural
Resources, Cebu City, Philippines, 58 p.

DENR (Department of Environment and Natural Resources), BFAR (Bureau of

Fisheries and Aquatic Resources) of the Department of Agriculture (DA),
DILG (Department of Interior and Local Government) and CRMP (the
Coastal Resource Management Project) of the Department of Environment
and Natural Resources. 2001. Philippine Coastal Management Guidebook
No. 2: Legal and jurisdictional framework for coastal management. Coastal
Resource Management Project of the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources, Cebu City, Philippines, 170 p.
DENR, DAO 03, Series 1991. Policy and Guidelines in the Award and
Administration of Mangrove Stewardship Agreement, Department of
Environment and Natural Resources, Diliman, Quezon City Philippines.

DENR, DAO 15, Series of 1990. Regulation Governing the Utilization, Development
and Management of Mangrove Resources, Department of Environment and
Natural Resources, Diliman, Quezon City Philippines.
 14

DENR, DAO 30, Series of 1994. Implementing Guidelines for Non-Government

Organization Assisted Community-Based Mangrove Forest Management
(NGO-Assisted CBMFM).Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Diliman, Quezon City Philippines.
DIETA, R.E. Mangrove aquaculture in the Philippines. Training and extension
material. Revised August 2011. 12 p.
DIETA, R.E. and F.C. Arboleda. 2004. The use of mangroves for aquaculture:
Philippines. In: Promotion of mangrove-friendly shrimp aquaculture in
Southeast Asia. Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries
Development Center. Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines.
FITZGERALD, W.J. 1997. Silvofisheries – an environmentally sensitive integrated
mangrove forest and aquaculture system. Aquaculture Asia.
JOFCA (Japan Overseas Forestry Consultants Association)/NAMRIA (National
Mapping Resources Inventory Authority). 1999. Study on mapping and land
cover assessment of mangrove areas in the Republic of the Philippines (Final
Report). National Mapping Resources Inventory Authority, Fort Bonifacio,
Makati, Philippines.
Melana, D. M. and C. A. Courtney. 2000. Mangrove conservation and rehabilitation
in the Philippines. Paper presented and discussed during the “2 nd session of the
JICA 3rd country training programme on responsible aquaculture” at the
Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center,
Tigbauan, Iloilo, December 3-5, 2000.
NRMC (Natural Resources and Management Center) - NMC (National Mangrove
Committee). 1986. Mangroves of Asia and the Pacific: status and
management. Technical report UNDP/UNESCO Research and Training Pilot
Programme on Mangrove Ecosystems in Asia and the Pacific (RAS/79/002).
Natural Resources and Management Center and National Mangrove
Committee, Ministry of Natural Resources, Philippines.
PRIMAVERA, J.H. 1999. The mangroves of Southeast Asia, SEAFDEC Asian
Aquaculture 21 (1):8.
PRIMAVERA, J.H. 2000. Development and conservation of Philippine mangroves:
institutional issues. Ecological Economics 35:91-106.
SURTIDA, M.B. 1997. Integrated farming is profitable. SEAFDEC Asian
Aquaculture 19(5): 16-17, 31.
TAKASHIMA, F. 1999.Silvofishery; an aquaculture system harmonized with the
environment, SEAFDEC Asian Aquaculture 21(1):8.

White, A. T. and R. O. de Leon. 1986. Mangrove resource decline in the

Philippines: Government and community look for new solution. Tambuli
1:6-11.

White, A. T. and A. C. Trinidad. 1998. The values of Philippine coastal resources:

why protection and management are critical. Coastal Resource
Management Project, Cebu City, Philippines, 96 p.
 15

VI. Appendices
Appendix 1a. Fishery laws with relevance to mangroves
LEGISLATION REMARKS/DESCRIPTION

RA 8550 The Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998

* Mandates the development, management and conservation of
fisheries and aquatic resources including other resources affecting
them. Chapter II, Article 3 of the code states that public lands and
pond suitable for fishery operations shall not be disposed or alienated.
It also provides guidelines on the issuance/renewal of FLAs and
reversion of all abandoned, undeveloped or underutilized fishponds
into mangroves.

RA 8435 The Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act (AFMA) of 1997

* Provides for maximization of agricultural and fisheries productivity
and acceleration of modernization of said sectors. Aside from
providing various incentives and many programs for developing
agricultural production, the AFMA has implications on management
of coastal resources such as mangroves as it deals with fishery
production. The AFMA prioritizes industrialization for agriculture
and fisheries sector, and is focused on turning these sectors from
resource-based to technology-based industries. This is to be achieved
through the formulation of AFM Projects that have as their goals food
security, poverty alleviation and social equity, income enhancement
and profitability, global competitiveness, and sustainability.

RA 6657 * Exemption of fishpond areas from the Comprehensive Agrarian

Reform Law for 10 years.
RA 7160 The Local Government Code of 1991
* States that the municipalities should enforce fishery laws in
municipal waters including conservation of mangrove forests
RA 7881 * Extension of fishpond exemption from agrarian reform.
FAO 125 * Prescribes the rules and regulations governing the granting of 25year
FLAs

FAO 197 * Prescribes the rules and regulations governing the lease of public
lands for fishpond development

FAO 214 * States the Code of Practice for Aquaculture outlining the general
principles and guidelines for environmentally-sound design and
operation for the sustainable development of the industry.

BFAR AO 125- 2 * Increases fishpond lease from US$2 to US$40 per hectare per year
effective 1994.

Joint DA- DENR General Memorandum Order No.3, series of 1991

MO * States the guidelines for cancellation and reversion of FLAs into
mangrove forest lands under the administration of DENR.
Memorandum Order No. 1, series of 2000
*Identify/define the areas of cooperation and collaboration between the
Department of Agriculture and Department of Environment and
Natural Resources in the implementation of RA 8550.
 16

Appendix 1b. Environmental laws with relevance to mangroves

LEGISLATION REMARKS/DESCRIPTION

PD 705 The Forestry Act of 1975

Section 16 *States that areas needed for forest purposes include strips of
mangroves or swamplands at least 20m wide, along shorelines facing
oceans, lakes, and other bodies of water; all mangrove swamps set
aside for coastal protection shall not be subject to clear-cutting
operation; mangrove swamps release to the BFAR for fishpond
purposes which are not utilized, or which have been abandoned for 5
years shall revert to the category of forest land.

* Identifies riverbanks, easements, deltas, swamps, former riverbeds,

Section 33
and beaches as reforestable areas, covered with suitable and sufficient
trees.

* States that mangrove forests which protect the shoreline, the

Section 43 shoreline roads, and even coastal communities from the destructive
force of the sea during high winds and typhoons shall be maintained
and not alienated; such strips must be kept from artificial
obstructions.
RA 7161 * Incorporating certain sections of the Internal Revenue Code to PD
705, among others, bans the cutting of all species of mangroves.
PD 1151 Philippine Environmental Policy
* Creation, development, maintenance, and improvement of conditions
under which man and nature can thrive in productive and enjoyable
harmony with each other; to fulfill the social, economic, and other
requirements of present and future generations of Filipinos and to
ensure the attainment of an environmental quality that is conducive to
a life of dignity and well-being.
PD 1152 Philippine Environment Code
* States the management and conservation of our natural resources.
PD 1586 Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) System
* All agencies and instrumentalities of the national government,
including GOCCs, private corporations, firms and entities with
projects of proposed projects that may significantly affect
environmental quality must comply with an EIS System.
PD 2146 * Lists fishpond development as environmental critical project (ECP)
and mangroves as environmentally critical area (ECP)
PD 2151 *Declares certain islands and/or parts of the country as wilderness
areas.
PD 2152 *Declares the entire province of Palawan and certain parcels of the
public domain and/or parts of the country as mangrove swamp forest
reserves.
EO 117 *Establishes the Inter-agency Task Force for Coastal Environmental
Protection.
EO 192 The Reorganization Act of the DENR
*Establishes mandate of the DENR to include the conservation,
management and proper use of the country’s environment and natural
resources, as well as the licensing and regulation of all natural
resources
 17

LEGISLATION REMARKS/DESCRIPTION

EO 263 *Adopts Community-based Forest Management (CBFM) as the

national strategy to ensure the sustainable development of the
country’s forest land resources and provides mechanisms for its
implementation.
DAO 76, s1987 *Establishes buffer zone in coastal and estuarine mangrove areas.

DAO 07, s1989 *Suspends the application and issuance of mine prospecting permits in
government reservations, including mangrove reserves.
DAO 15, s1990 *Prescribes the regulations governing the utilization, development, and
management of mangroves.
DAO 03, s1991 *States the policy and guidelines for the award and administration of
mangrove stewardship agreement.
DAO 04, s1991 *Prescribes revised regulations governing the Integrated Social
Forestry Program.
DAO 09, s1991 *States the policies and guidelines for Mangrove Stewardship
Agreement.
DAO 18, s1991 *Prescribes the rules and guidelines governing the distribution of
canceled or expired FLAs; identifies responsibilities of DA-BFAR
and DAR with respect to canceled or abandoned FLA.
DAO 34, s1991 *Prescribes the guidelines for the issuance of Environmental
Compliance Certificate (ECC) or Environmental Clearance (EC) for
fishpond development
DAO 21, s1992 *Prescribes the implementing guidelines for EIS.
DAO 16, s1993 *Prescribes the guidelines for the establishment and management of
buffer zones for protected areas.
DAO 30, s1994 *Prescribes the implementing guidelines for NGO-assisted
Community- based Mangrove Forest Management (CBMFM) for
DENR.
DENR MO 98- *Defines the major cause of mangrove deforestation as the conversion
17, s1998 into fishpond, prohibits the further zonification of mangrove forest
for fishpond development and the release of already zonified
mangrove forests for the fishpond purpose.
DENR Memo *Prioritizes the implementation of mangrove reforestation for the
Circ.#15,s1989 rehabilitation and development of mangrove forests.
DENR Memo *Prescribes the guidelines for cutting of mangrove trees within
Circ. #05, s1990 approved FLA areas. Among others, it provides that buffer zones are
to be maintained and developed; cut trees are to be turned over to
DENR for disposition through public bidding; and an area equivalent
to the size where mangroves are clear cut shall be planted with
mangrove species by the FLA owner.
DENR Memo *States the conditions governing the issuance of mangrove cutting
Circ. #7, s1991 permits within approved FLA areas and the survey of areas for FLA
applicants.
Letter of *Declares that mangrove forests essentially needed for foreshore
Instruction No. protection, the maintenance of estuarine and marine life, including
917 special forest which is the exclusive habitats of rare and endangered
Philippine flora and fauna are wilderness areas.
 18

Appendix 2a. Model layout design of mangrove aquaculture project.

 19

Appendix 2b. Cost estimate for one-hectare mangrove aquaculture project.

(DESIGN – 1)

==============================================================

I. MATERIALS QUANTITY UNIT PRICE COST

PE net enclosure, #17, 200 MD 3 rolls P 9,000.00 P 27,000
PE rope #8 (4mm Φ) 4 rolls P 250.00 P 1,000
PE twine #2 (1mm Φ) 2 rolls P 50.00 P 100
Bamboo puno (3mL long) 100 pc P 40.00 P 4,000
PVC pipe, 9” Φ x 6m 3 pc P10,000.00 P30,000
PVC elbow, 9” Φ 2 pc P 1,800.00 P 3,600
========
SUB-TOTAL = P 65,700

MISCELANEOUS & CONTINGENCIES

(10% of material cost) P 6,570

II. CONSTRUCTION COST

Labor Cost for installation of nets & posts
(15% of material cost) P 9,855

Earth work (1,800m3 x P65.00/m3) 117,000

========
SUB-TOTAL = P 127,000

GRANDTOTAL = P 199,125
SAY = P 200,000

Note: Metro Manila price as of March 2011

Revised as of March 2011

 20

Appendix 3. Cost & Return Analysis of a One (1) Ha Mangrove Aquaculture Project

A. Development Cost ------------------------------------------------------ P200,000

(site preparation, canals, ditches, net installation, inlet pipes and dikes)
P 200,000
B. Depreciation Cost = ----------------- = P 20,000
10 crops
C. Production Cost Per Year
King Crab juvenile (2-3” CL): 1,000 pc @ P22------------------------ P 22,000
Grouper fingerling. (2-4” BL): 500 pc @P25-------------------------- P 12,500
Trash Fish (FCR = 5): 2,975 kg @P 20 -------------------------------- P 59,500
Golden Snails (FCR =3): 525 kg @P5 -------------------------------- P 2,625
Farm Caretaker (1 for 5 ha @ P9,000/mo x 12 mo/crop) --------- P 21,600
Hired Labor (Pond prep & harvesting) 10 man-days @ P250 ---- P 2,500
Marketing cost ( 5% gross sales ) -------------------------------------- P 12,950
Miscellaneous and contingency cost (10%) ----------------------- P 13,368
Sub-total = P147,043
Notes:
1. Plant materials are collected free from nearby mangrove areas
2. Labor for security and maintenance of project is taken care of by the fisherfolk

D. Calculation of Benefits

Production:
500 pc x 70% SR
Grouper = ---------------------------- = 280 kg
1.25 pc/kg
1,000 pc x 65% SR
Mudcrab = ---------------------------- = 420 kg
1.43 pc/kg

Gross sales (GS): Grouper: 280 kg live @ P400 --------------- P112,000

Mudcrab: 520 kg live @ P380 --------------- P159,600
Total GS = P271,600
Less: Total costs (B & C) ------------------------------------------ P167,043
Income before tax ------------------------------------------ P104,557
Less: Tax (10%) ---------------------------------------- P 10,456
Net income after tax ---------------------------------------- P 94,101

Yearly Supplemental Sales from Mangroves (Per Ha):

After 1-2 years: Other fishery products ------------- P 6,000
(Snails, shells, wild fishes, etc)
After 3-5 years: 20 sacks, Nipa shingles @P60 ------------- P 1,200
After 4-5 years: 100 pc, Wooden Poles @P30 ------------- P 3,000
After 5-6 years: 50 sacks, Charcoal @P140 ------------- P 7,000
After 10 years: 25 pc, Wooden Posts @P200 ------------- P 5,000