The Power of Steel in Hard Rock Haulage by

Hoist and Belt Conveyor

J.C. Spreadborough
JS13 Engineering Pty Ltd, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

ABSTRACT
The lift and load capacity of hoist and belt conveyor systems depend on the strength and
weight properties of hoist ropes and conveyor belts. High lift hoists utilize steel wire ropes,
often with internal plastic layers and compacted strands. High lift belt conveyors utilize planar,
equi-spaced, rubber embedded steel cords with strengths ranging up to 10000 kN/m. Synthetic
fibers offer combinations of strength and weight that may challenge the application of steel
wire ropes for hoists and steel cords for belt conveyors. Hoists are applied for hard rock haul-
age in single lifts up to around 3000 m. Belt conveyors are applied in single lifts up to around
500 m. Hoists are limited in production rate by speed and by lift-dependent cycle times. Belt
conveyors are limited in production rate by speed and available belt width. Both hoists and
belt conveyors can be applied with multiple streams and multiple flights. This paper presents
an analysis of the current limits of application of hoists and belt conveyors, and a review of
options to address these limits of application.

INTRODUCTION
The International Caving Study (Brown, 2003) observed an increasing trend in the scale of
underground mass mining operations. Current and future underground mass mining oper-
ations were categorized as ‘large’, ‘bulk’ and ‘super’, with ‘super’ defined as producing or plan-
ning to produce greater than 25 Mt/a. These ‘super’ mines are addressing production rates
exceeding 40 Mt/a and lifts up to 2000 m using hoists with steel wire ropes and steel cord belt
conveyors.
The lift and load capacity of hoist and belt conveyor systems depend on the strength and
weight properties of the hoist ropes and conveyor belts. This paper presents an analysis of the
current limits of application of steel wire ropes and steel cord conveyor belts for haulage in
underground mass mining operations. These limits of application are illustrated with reference
to a ‘beyond super’ haulage system duty of 2000 m @ 60 Mt/a, i.e., 10000 t/h @ 6000 h/a.
Synthetic fibers offer combinations of strength and weight that may challenge the applica-
tion of steel wire ropes for hoists and steel cords for belt conveyors. The application of synthetic
fibers to hoist ropes and conveyor belts are reviewed for increased limits of application.

HOISTS AND BELT CONVEYORS

Hoists
Hoisting is a batch process. Hoisting systems can be based on either the friction or drum hoist
configuration. These are represented schematically in Figures 1 and 2.
353
354 INCLINE TRANSPORT: HOIST, CONVEYOR, AND TRUCK

Figure 1.  Friction hoist configuration—schematic and free body diagrams

The head ropes in the friction hoist configuration pass over the drum and are driven by
friction between the rope and the drum lagging. Friction hoist drums are typically fitted with
multiple head ropes. Friction hoist skips are fitted with tail ropes to maintain the rope tension
ratio at the drum to prevent slip.
The head ropes in a drum hoist configuration are terminated to the hoist drum and coil
onto the drum as the associated skip is raised and off the drum as the skip is lowered. Drum
hoists are configured with one or two head ropes on each skip. Drum hoist skips typically have
no tail ropes.
Hoisting systems can incorporate more than one flight with provision for buffering and
batching in the transfer from one flight to the next.

Belt Conveyors
Belt conveying is a continuous process and is represented schematically in Figure 3. The belt
passes over the driving pulley(s) and is driven by friction between the belt and the pulley lag-
ging. The conveyor incorporates a take-up mechanism to maintain the required tension ratio
at the drive pulley to prevent slip and to maintain the required minimum belt sag.
Belt conveyor systems can incorporate more than one flight and require no buffering and
batching in the transfer from one flight to the next.
Conveyor belts incorporate planar, equi-spaced, rubber embedded steel cords. Tensile
loads are carried by the steel cords. Belts are spliced by interleaving the cords within the rubber
embedment. Tensile cord loads are transferred at the splice by rubber in shear.

STRENGTH AND WEIGHT PROPERTIES—ROPES, CORDS, AND BELTS

The lift and load capacity of hoist and belt conveyor systems depend on the strength and weight
properties of hoist ropes and conveyor belts.
 THE POWER OF STEEL IN HARD ROCK HAULAGE 355

Figure 2.  Double drum hoist configuration—schematic and free body diagrams

Figure 3.  Belt conveyor—schematic and free body diagrams

High lift hoists utilize steel wire ropes often with internal plastic layers and compacted
strands. Figure 4 depicts a steel wire rope with eight compacted strands, an internal plastic layer
and independent wire rope core. A composite rope with eight compacted steel wire strands,
an internal plastic layer and a proportional load carrying synthetic fiber core is depicted in
Figure 5 (Ridge et al., 2007).
High lift belt conveyors incorporate steel wire cords embedded in rubber.
The strength (F) and the linear mass (m’) of a rope or cord are related to the diameter (D)
as follows:

F = Kf ∙ Rr ∙ D2

m' = Km ∙ D2
356 INCLINE TRANSPORT: HOIST, CONVEYOR, AND TRUCK

Figure 4.  Steel wire hoist rope— Figure 5.  Composite hoist rope—
8xK26WS-ESIWRC 8xK26WS-ESSFC (Ridge et al., 2007)

Table 1.  Hoist rope and conveyor cord—mass coefficient (Km), strength coefficients (Kf∙Rr)
and free length (Lf)
Km (kg/m3) Kf∙Rr (MPa) Lf (km)
8xK26WS-ESIWRC-1960 4503 858 19.4
8xK26WS-ESSFC 3667 863 24.0
ST Cord 3533 913 26.3
DS Cord 919 863 95.7

The strength coefficient x strength grade (Kf∙Rr) and the mass coefficient (Km) have been
derived from supplier data by least squares regression. Table 1 presents typical values for:

77 steel wire hoist rope with eight compacted strands, internal plastic layer and inde-
pendent wire rope core (8xK26WS-ESIWRC-1960, Figure 4)
77 composite hoist rope with eight compacted steel wire strands, an internal plas-
tic layer and a proportional load carrying synthetic fiber core (8xK26WS-ESSFC,
Figure 5, Ridge et al., 2007).
77 steel cords for conveyor belts (ST Cord)
77 synthetic fiber cords for conveyor belts (DS Cord).

Table 2 presents diameter (Dr), strength (Fr) and linear mass (m’r) data for 8xK26WS-ES-
IWRC-1960 and 8xK26WS-ESSFC hoist ropes. Figure 6 illustrates the linear relationship
between strength (Fr) and linear mass (m’r) for these hoist ropes.
Table 1 also lists the ratio of the strength of the rope or cord (F) to its linear weight
(m’ × g). This value, free length (Lf) is the maximum length of a rope or cord that can support
its own weight. Ropes or cords with greater Lf can carry a given end load at greater lift.
A composite hoist rope has a greater free length than a steel wire hoist rope. For end load
= 40 t, rope diameter, Dr = 60 mm and factor of safety, FS = 5.1, the maximum lift for the
composite hoist rope 8xK26WS-ESSFC is 25% greater than that for the steel wire hoist rope
8xK26WS-ESIWRC-1960.
 THE POWER OF STEEL IN HARD ROCK HAULAGE 357

Table 2.  Hoist rope—diameter (Dr), strength (Fr) and linear mass (m’r)

Type Dr (m) Fr (kN) m'r (kg/m)

8xK26WS-ESIWRS-1960 0.020 343 1.80
0.030 772 4.05
0.040 1373 7.20
0.050 2145 11.26
0.060 3089 16.21
8xK26WS-ESSFC 0.020 345 1.47
0.030 777 3.30
0.040 1381 5.87
0.050 2158 9.17
0.060 3107 13.20

Figure 6.  Hoist rope—strength (Fr) vs. linear mass (m’r)

A synthetic cord has a much greater free length than a steel cord. For end load = 4 t, cord
diameter, Dc = 20 mm and factor of safety, FS = 5.1, the maximum lift for a synthetic cord is
more than 3 times that for a steel cord.
Steel cord conveyor belts are a composite of steel wire cord and rubber. Synthetic fiber
cord conveyor belts are a composite of synthetic fiber cord and rubber. Tensile loads are car-
ried by the steel wire or synthetic fiber cord. Tensile loads are transferred through the splice
by the rubber in shear.
The total belt thickness includes cord protection rubber covers at the carry side and at the
pulley side. The minimum carry side and pulley side covers are proportional to cord diam-
eter (Dc). The additional carry cover thickness required for wear is assessed for the appli-
cation loading conditions and loading frequency, and the material lump size, density and
358 INCLINE TRANSPORT: HOIST, CONVEYOR, AND TRUCK

Table 3.  Conveyor belt—description, cord diameter (Dc), cord pitch (Pc), cord gap (Gc) and
linear mass (m’b)
Dc (m) Pc (m) Gc (m) m'b (kg/m)
1000 ST4000nst5 9x5 0.0064 0.0094 0.0030 34.7
1000 ST5000nst5 10x6 0.0077 0.0108 0.0031 41.3
1000 ST6300nst5 11x7 0.0093 0.0126 0.0033 49.1
1000 ST8000nst5 13x9 0.0114 0.0149 0.0035 61.0
1000 ST10000nst5 14x10 0.0139 0.0176 0.0037 71.8
1000 ST12500nst5 16x12 0.0169 0.0210 0.0040 87.0
1000 ST16000nst5 19x15 0.0212 0.0256 0.0044 108.7
1000 DS4000nst5 9x5 0.0067 0.0098 0.0030 23.6
1000 DS5000nst5 10x6 0.0081 0.0112 0.0032 27.4
1000 DS6300nst5 11x7 0.0098 0.0131 0.0033 31.6
1000 DS8000nst5 13x9 0.0120 0.0156 0.0035 38.7
1000 DS10000nst5 15x11 0.0146 0.0184 0.0038 46.2
1000 DS12500nst5 17x13 0.0178 0.0219 0.0041 54.5
1000 DS16000nst5 20x16 0.0223 0.0268 0.0045 66.5

abrasiveness. An application that is assessed to have a severe cover duty will require a belt with
a thicker carry cover than that required for a light cover duty.
The strength properties of the composite are defined by belt width (Wb), cord pitch (Pc),
cord diameter (Dc) and strength coefficient x strength grade (Kf∙Rr). The weight properties of
the composite are defined by the rubber density, belt width (Wb), carry cover thickness (Cc),
pulley cover thickness (Cp), cord pitch (Pc), cord diameter (Dc) and mass coefficient (Km).
Table 3 presents cord diameter (Dc), cord pitch (Pc), cord gap (Gc) and linear mass (m’b)
data for:

77 a selection from the available range of steel cord belts: ST4000 to ST10000
77 an extended range of steel cord belts: ST12500 and ST16000
77 an extended range of synthetic fiber cord belts: DS4000 to DS16000.

Table 3 is based on:

77 cover thicknesses Cc and Cp defined for a typical ‘hard rock’ duty according to
DIN22101 (DIN 2011)
77 Dc and Pc calculated with reference to DIN22129.4 (DIN 1991) for a 5 step splice
with splice cord gap, Gcs = 2 mm (Figures 7 and 8).

Figure 9 illustrates the linear relationship between strength/width ratio (kN) and linear mass
(m’b) for steel cord conveyor belts and for synthetic fiber cord conveyor belts. The extended
steel cord and synthetic cord ranges are depicted by broken lines. The greater slope of this lin-
ear relationship for synthetic fiber cord conveyor belts compared with the steel cord conveyor
 THE POWER OF STEEL IN HARD ROCK HAULAGE 359

Figure 7.  Steel cord conveyor belt—5 step splice arrangement

Figure 8.  Steel cord conveyor belt—5 step splice cross sections

belts demonstrates a greater lift capacity. For the same flow rate and cover duty, the maximum
lift for a 2400 DS10000nst5 15×11 conveyor belt is 5% greater than that for a 2400 ST10000nst5
14×10 conveyor belt.

HOISTS AND BELT CONVEYORS—LIMITS OF LIFT AND PRODUCTION

Hoists
Hoists are limited in production rate by practical limits on the maximum hoisting speed and
by lift-dependent cycle times. Figure 10 depicts a typical hoisting cycle for a 1000 m lift.
Figures 11 and 12 present the lift vs. flow rate characteristic curves for friction hoist con-
figurations with:

77 number of head ropes Nhr 6

77 head rope factor of safety FShr 5.1
360 INCLINE TRANSPORT: HOIST, CONVEYOR, AND TRUCK

Figure 9.  Conveyor belt—strength/width ratio (kN) vs. linear mass (m’b)

Figure 10.  Hoisting cycle—skip velocity (v) vs. time (t)

77 skip mass/payload ratio rc 94%

77 head rope diameter Dhr 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 mm

Figure 11 presents characteristic curves for steel wire 8xK26WS-ESIWRC-1960 hoist ropes.
Figure 12 presents characteristic curves for composite 8x26WS-ESSFC hoist ropes.
These lift vs flow rate characteristic curves are overlaid with duty points for a number of
existing hoists and for the ‘beyond super’ duty (2000 m @ 10000 t/h) with alternative duty
points for combinations of:

77 1, 2 and 3 streams, i.e., 10000, 5000 and 3333 t/h per stream respectively
77 1, 2, 3 and 4 flights, i.e., 2000, 1000, 667, and 500 m per flight respectively.

Figure 11 demonstrates a viable solution for the ‘beyond super’ duty using 8-K26WS-
ESIWRC-1960 steel wire ropes with 2 parallel streams of 5000 t/h, each with 2 flights of nomi-
nally 1000 m, ie (2 × 1000 m) @ (2 × 5000 t/h). A similar solution is demonstrated (Figure 12)
for the 8-K26WS-ESSFC composite ropes.
 THE POWER OF STEEL IN HARD ROCK HAULAGE 361

Figure 11.  Friction hoists—lift (H_) vs. flow rate (Im_) for 20 to 60-8x26WS-ESIWRC-1960

Figure 12.  Friction hoists—lift (H_) vs. flow rate (Im_) for 20 to 60-8x26WS-ESSFC

Belt Conveyors
Belt conveyors are limited in production rate by practical limits on belt speed and the available
belt widths. Figure 13 depicts the relationship between belt width and burden cross section.
Belt conveyors are further limited by trough-ability. A belt with poor trough-ability prop-
erties will mis-track (will not follow the supporting roller alignment). Poor trough-ability is
associated with reduced belt width, increased trough angle and increased belt cross-stiffness.
Figures 14 and 15 present the lift vs flow rate characteristic curves for:

77 currently available steel cord belts ST4000, ST5000, ST6300, ST8000 and ST10000
and an extended range (depicted by broken lines) ST12500 and ST16000
77 an extended range (depicted by broken lines) of synthetic fiber cord belts DS4000,
DS5000, DS6300, DS8000, DS10000, DS12500 and DS16000.

These characteristic curves are based on DIN22101 (DIN 2011) and:

77 belt speed vb 6.6 m/s

77 slope δ 10°
77 lump size dlump 25% belt width (Wb)
362 INCLINE TRANSPORT: HOIST, CONVEYOR, AND TRUCK

Figure 13.  Conveyor belt—belt and burden cross section

These lift vs flow rate characteristic curves are overlaid with duty points for a number of exist-
ing or planned belt conveyors and for the ‘beyond super’ duty (10,000 t/h, 2000 m lift) with
alternative duty points for combinations of:

77 1, 2 and 3 streams, i.e., 10000, 5000 and 3333 t/h per stream respectively
77 2, 3 and 4 flights, i.e., 2000, 1000, 667, and 500 m per flight respectively.

The characteristic curves are also overlaid with an indication, depicted by broken lines, of the
anticipated troughing limits based on ST5000 having a troughing limit at Wb = 1.0 m, and
ST10000 having a troughing limit at Wb = 1.6 m for trough angle 35°.
Figure 14 demonstrates a viable solution using 2400 ST8000 steel cord belt conveyors with
(4 × 500 m) @ 10000 t/h. Figure 14 also demonstrates that further development of conveyor
belts beyond ST10000 will offer a solution with 3 × 667 m, 2400 ST12500 @ 10000 t/h.
Figure 15 demonstrates that developing synthetic fiber cords for high lift conveyor belts
will offer a solution with 2 × 1000 m, 2400 DS16000 @ 10000 t/h.

CONCLUSION
This analysis demonstrates that significant benefits are available in further developing steel
cord belt designs for underground mass mining operations. Where a friction hoisting system
can address the ‘beyond super’ duty using 4 hoists (2 × 1000 m) @ (2 × 5,000 t/h), a belt con-
veying system can address the same duty using:

77 4 × 500 m, 2400 ST8000 @ 10000 t/h

77 3 × 667 m, 2400 ST12500 @ 10000 t/h by further developing current steel cord belt
designs
77 2 × 1000 m, 2400 DS16000 @ 10000 t/h by developing high lift synthetic fiber cord
belt conveyors.
 THE POWER OF STEEL IN HARD ROCK HAULAGE 363

Figure 14.  Belt conveyor—lift (H_) vs. flow rate (Im_) for ST4000 to ST16000

Figure 15.  Belt conveyor—lift (H_) vs. flow rate (Im_) for DS4000 to DS16000

The benefits of a conveying system over a multi-flight hoisting system are in the elimination of
buffering and batching facilities in the transfer from one flight to the next.
The benefits of a conveying system with fewer flights are in the reduced numbers of drive
and transfer stations.

NOMENCLATURE
Cc carry cover thickness
Cp pulley cover thickness
ed conveyor edge distance
g gravitational acceleration
Im mass flow rate
364 INCLINE TRANSPORT: HOIST, CONVEYOR, AND TRUCK

Kf strength coefficient
Km mass coefficient
kN belt strength/width ratio
Lf free length
rc skip mass/payload ratio
Rr strength grade
δ conveyor slope
D diameter b belt
F strength c cord
FS factor of safety hr head rope
G gap lump conveyor burden lump
H lift min minimum
m mass P payload
m’ linear mass R conveyor rollers
N number r rope
P pitch s splice
T belt tension S skip
v velocity tr tail rope
W width tu take-up

aaaa BBccccnst5 ddxee belt carcass description

aaaa belt width (Wb) in mm
BB ST for steel cord belts, DS for synthetic cord belts
cccc strength/width ratio (kN) in kN/m
nst5 5 step splice
dd carry cover thickness (Cc) in mm
ee pulley cover thickness (Cp) in mm

aa 8xK26WS-ESIWRC-1960 rope description

aa 8xK26WS-ESSFC
aa rope diameter (Dr) in mm
8xK26WS 8 compacted 26 wire Warrington-Seale strands
ESIWRC solid polymer + independent wire rope core
ESSFC solid polymer + synthetic fiber core
1960 strength grade (Rr) in MPa
 THE POWER OF STEEL IN HARD ROCK HAULAGE 365

REFERENCES
Brown, E.T. (2003) Block caving geomechanics—the international caving study, Julius
Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre, Brisbane.
DIN22101:2011-12 (2011) Continuous conveyors—belt conveyors for loose bulk materials—
Basis for calculation and dimensioning. Berlin: DIN.
DIN 22129:1991-4 (1991) Steel Cord Conveyor Belts for Underground Coal Mining, Belt
Joints—Dimensions and Requirements. Berlin: DIN.
Ridge, I.M.L., O’Hear, N., Verreet, R., Grabandt, O., Das, C. A. (2007) High strength fibre cored
steel wire rope for deep hoisting applications. Proceedings of the OIPEEC Conference.
Johannesburg: OIPEEC.