Question 1:

AHSS include all martensitic and multiphase steels having a minimum specified tensile strength of at
least 440 MPa. Those steels with very high minimum specified tensile strength are sometimes referred
to as Ultra High Strength Steels (UHSS)

It should be noted that the suggested ‘New Generation AHSS’ grade steels do not exactly fit into the
usual trend in which a trade-off between strength and deformation capacity is manifested as a “banana”
shape of the positions of different classes of steels.

AHSS have revealed far more superior properties as compared to the other types. Among those
properties: Much higher strength levels (well over 1000MPa – strength values over 2000MPa being
mentioned in the literature), crush worthiness which translates into very high deformation capacities
accompanied by rapidly increasing strength during impact and therefore energy absorption, and finally,
in some classes of AHSSs, in addition to the ultra-high strength levels (well over 1000MPa), lower density
values (with high aluminum and manganese containing compositions as low as 6.4 g/cm3) as opposed to
the conventional density of steels (7.8 g/cm3). Some of those superior properties of these new
generation AHSSs are related to formation of some novel nano-sized particles in steel due to their novel
compositions. Overall properties are all together related to the novel chemical compositions of those
steels, as well as their carefully controlled thermomechanical treatments.

Steels of today offer even more superior properties. new generation advanced high strength steels
(AHSS) can easily give strength values well over 1000 MPa as well as deformation capacities which are
over 50%. This feature itself creates an engineering design opportunity for weight saving simply due to
the very high strength levels. However, a class within the family of new generation AHSS, namely light
steels, further expand this possibility for weight saving by offering considerably lower density figures,
e.g., as low as 6.4g/cm3, as compared to the conventional density of steels (7.8g/cm3). The growing
demand for fuel economy, vehicle safety and light-weighting are the driving forces behind the
application of AHSSs.

Tailoring of the properties of new generation AHSS requires designing the microstructure at the micro
and nano level. Chemical composition and thermo-mechanical processing are important routes to
determine the properties of the micro and nano-sized microstructural constituents and therefore the
properties of AHSSs [1]. The extraordinary properties of these modern steels rely on the adjustment of
stacking fault energy (SFE) through local composition control at micro level. Retained austenite size,
distribution and most importantly its composition become the key concepts. Furthermore, a new
carbide type, -carbide, as a nanoparticle strengthening agent becomes a player in these new light
steels. These fundamental properties can only be adjusted via strict control of the thermomechanical
treatment parameters [2]. Consequently, various responses from each austenitic region, from twinning
to transformation to martensite can be expected, bringing in a wide spectrum of final properties. It
should be pointed out that elemental partitioning is a fundamental concept in AHSSs.

Although the final properties strictly depend on the local compositional changes due to partitioning
between the present phases, this very concept is no independent of the initial steel composition. Thus,
selecting an economical steel composition become an issue as well. The current research also focuses on
adjustment of the necessary instability level of the retained austenite constituent of these steels, as well
as its size and distribution, via compositional alterations in the steel’s chemistry. Another outcome of
this effort is the alterations incurred in the stability and morphology of the nano-sized strengthening
agent, -carbides, together with the possible nano-sized precipitates of the micro-alloying elements, i.e.
Ti, Nb, V.

QUASTION 2:

What is the purpose of alloying aluminum?

Aluminum alloys are widely used in engineering structures and components where light weight or
corrosion resistance is required. 

If we increased the quality and developed the 8xxx aluminum Alloys that will affect 8xxx aluminum
features and properties positively and in that case, we will get much useful and better alloy for aircraft
components and other stuff.

8xxx aluminum alloys are one of the most widely used aluminum conductor alloys, which were
firstly developed to replace AA1350 conductor alloys for the overhead electrical transmission
(Ref 4). For conductor alloys, it is necessary to satisfy the requirements for electrical
conductivity (EC), strength and creep resistance (Ref 5, 6). Fe is added in this alloy as the main
alloying element to improve microstructural stability and mechanical properties (Ref 7, 8).
Because of the low solubility of Fe in Al (Ref 9), most of Fe combines with both aluminum and
silicon to form secondary intermetallic particles during casting, such as Al3Fe, AlmFe, Al6Fe and
a-AlFeSi.

- 8xxx series aluminum alloys offer a combination of properties similar to 1xxx series
alloys but with:
1- Higher conductivity, strength, and hardness
2- Better formability
3- Improved stiffness
- Mainly 8xxx series alloys use in electrical, aerospace, packaging, and fins for heat
exchangers applications
 - Modern industry expects aluminum products with new, unusual, and well-defined
functional properties.
- 8xxx series alloys registered in Aluminum Association during last 20 years may be used
as an alternative.
- 8xxx series alloys have very good thermal and electrical conductivity and perfect
technological formability.
- Fundamental alloy additives of 8xxx series are Fe, Si, Mn, Li, Mg, Cu and Zn.
- Aluminum alloying with these additives makes it possible to obtain materials with
different mechanical and electrical properties.
- Al‐Fe‐Si and Al‐Fe‐Mn‐Si aluminum alloys (8xxx series) are employed in HVAC&R
(heating, ventilating, air conditioning and refrigerating) for use in cooling systems and
air ventilated units.
- These alloys are extensively used for fin stocks in heat exchangers making possible to
reduce thickness of fins. These leads to a decrease of the weight of the heat exchangers
and to an improvement of their performance.
- AA8xxx fin stocks are often exposed to different aggressive environments and might
undergo corrosion.
- AA8xxx aluminum alloys in this sector is the possibility of galvanic coupling between the
aluminum fins and copper tubes. This might lead to severe galvanic corrosion in the
region of the fin collars where there is direct contact between aluminum fin and the
copper tube.

Question 3:

The lightest structural metal is magnesium. Magnesium and its early commercial alloys (such as the AZ
or AM series) have a number of flaws that tend to exhibit themselves in certain combinations.
Magnesium avoids this requirement due to twinning, which occurs at the same time as the basal slip at
ambient temperature, and hence exhibits some plastic deformation potential, albeit restricted.
The other Mg slip planes, namely the prismatic and pyramidal planes, work in a sequential manner,
becoming active at temperatures over 225°C. Solid Stacking fault energy is determined at the
fundamental level by the free electron density distribution, which changes with each alloying element as
their contribution to free electron density and/or the lattice distortion they induce differs.
Although a change in stacking order has no effect on the atoms' coordination number at and across the
fault plane, it does modify the bond angles. As a result, the fault plane, SF, is a more energetic site than
planes in the conventional stacking sequence, as well as a plane where the free electron density
distribution in any direction from one atom to any of its neighbors atoms has changed.
An SF and its energy, as we will see later, are profoundly tied to atomic-level thermodynamics as well as
its atomic stacking configuration. When different metals, alloys of a particular metal-base, or multiple
planes of the same crystal are investigated, SFE is a relative word that can be used to compare them.
Despite the existence of a generalized SFE (GSFE, g surface) definition, each crystallographic plane has its
own unique SFE value.
The relaxation of the lattice perpendicular to the SF, as well as the lattice plane bordering the SF on both
sides, should be considered while calculating generalized SFEs. When evaluating the SFE of different
planes, the magnitude of this relaxation varies. Furthermore, GSFE values calculated using the
assumption of a random solid solution may contain an error source [e.g., if SRO exists]. As a result,
comparing the individual SFE values of planes that are functional in slip or twinning becomes more
informative.
It is important to note that in a low-symmetry system as HCP Mg, the SFE of particular crystal planes
becomes more distinct and must be taken into account separately. GSFE values, on the other hand, are
more suited to interpretations based on Peierls–Nabarro forces. The ramifications of SFE can be better
understood using charts based on ab initio calculations that show "energy change with respect to the
unfaulted atomic stacking" vs. "displacement along a fault vector."
Over the whole travel of the fault vector, these figures demonstrate an increase followed by a reduction.
Because alloying element selection influences all other strengthening processes, solution strengthening
may be considered the most significant issue before examining the efficacy of the other strengthening
mechanisms.
The majority of the literature focuses on substitutional alloying element additions, which covers
everything from dilute systems to precipitate-forming compositions. As can be seen, the development of
alloys has progressed to the point where assessing and adjusting dislocation characteristics, as well as
phase stability in other systems (e.g., new generation steels), in relation to SFE has become critical. In
this sense, ab initio approaches hold a lot of promise for forecasting SFE changes for certain crystal
planes and, as a result, all of the changes that affect an alloy.
As a results we can say Stacking fault energy changes due to addition of solute atoms into a host system
are not straightforward to understand. On the other hand, Miedema’s model leads to a better
understanding of the free electron density distribution and the consequent SFE changes presented by
the ab initio calculations. The fundamental terms of the atomic-level thermodynamic expression given
by Miedema, that is, nWS (density of electrons at the boundary of the two atomic cells, Wigner–Seitz
cells) and Φ∗ (the difference in chemical potential for electrons or equivalently the difference in
electronegativity, or difference between the work functions), have been shown to be related to SFE in
binary systems.