Signal Space

Signal Space
General M-ary Modulation

Govind Sharma

Department of Electrical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

G. Sharma EE321A
 Signal Space

General M-ary Modulation

In PAM a single pulse shape g(t) is used for all symbols. We
generalize this by choosing a pulse shape from a set of M
possibilities {g0 (t), g2 (t), . . . , gM−1 (t)}. For ease of notation
symbol set is {0, 1, . . . , M − 1} and gi (t) is pulse shape in
passband. Transmitted signal is given by
∞
X
s(t) = gak (t − kT )
k=−∞
√ n o
= 2Re e j2πfc t s̃(t)
∞
X
s̃(t) = g̃ak (t − kT )
k=−∞
√ n o
gi (t) = 2Re e j2πfc t g̃i (t)

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 Signal Space

Signal Space
Let {s1 (t), s2 (t), . . . , sM (t)} be M signals. Signal space S is defined
as
S = span{s1 (t), s2 (t), . . . , sM (t)}
Let H be linear space of all finite energy signals with inner product
defined on it. We are often interested in finding an element of S
that best matches a given element of H. For x ∈ H there is a
unique element x̂ ∈ S that is closest to x satisfying

kx − x̂ k = min kx − y k
y ∈S

The projection theorem says that x̂ ∈ S is projection of x onto S

and must satisfy orthogonality condition

(x − x̂ ) ⊥ y , for all y ∈ S

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 Signal Space

Projection onto Signal Space

A set of functions {φ1 (t), φ2 (t), . . .} is said to be orthonormal if

Z ∞ (
1, i = k
hφi (t), φk (t)i = φi (t)φ∗k (t)dt = δik =
−∞ 6 k
0, i =

Let {φ1 (t), φ2 (t), . . . φN (t)} be orthonormal basis of S, then

N
X
x̂ = αi φi (t)
i=1

where αi = hx (t), φi (t)i.

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 Signal Space

Gram-Schmidt Orthonormalization Procedure

Let {s1 (t), s2 (t), . . . , sM (t)} be given. We execute the following

steps to get {φ1 (t), φ2 (t), . . . φN (t)}
Initialize: i = 1, k = 1
Step 1: If si (t) = 0 then i ← i + 1,
Step 2: fi (t) = si (t)
fi (t)
Step 3: φk (t) = kfi (t)k
Step 4: i ← i + 1.
Step 5: If i = M + 1, STOP
Pk
Step 4: fi (t) = si (t) − l=1 hsi (t), φl (t)iφl (t)
Step 5: If fi (t) = 0 go to step 4
Step 6: k ← k + 1 go to step 3

G. Sharma EE321A
 Signal Space

Geometry of Signal Space

Once we find orthonormal basis {φ1 (t), φ2 (t), . . . φN (t)} for the
signal space S, the k-th signal sk (t) can be written as
N
X
sk (t) = sk,i φi (t), where sk,i = hsk (t), φi (t)i
i=1

Hence with each signal sk (t), we can associate a vector

→
−
sk = [sk,1 , sk,2 , . . . , sk,N ]T

which uniquely specifies the signal. Inner product also can be

calculated using co-ordinates
These are complex numbers.
Z ∞ N
si (t)sk∗ (t)dt = ∗
= h→
−
si , →
−
X
hsi (t), sk (t)i = si,m sk,m sk i
−∞ m=1

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 Signal Space

Projection Receiver

Let S = span{h̃0 (t), h̃1 (t), . . . , h̃M−1 (t)}, and let r̂ (t) denote the
projection of r̃ (t) onto S. The projection error r̃ (t) − r̂ (t) is
orthogonal to everything in S, including r̂ (t) − h̃i (t). The
minimum distance receiver minimizes the following cost function
Z ∞
J= |r̃ (t) − h̃i (t)|2 dt
−∞
Z ∞
= |r̃ (t) − r̂ (t) + r̂ (t) − h̃i (t)|2 dt
−∞
Z ∞ Z ∞
= |r̃ (t) − r̂ (t)|2 dt + |r̂ (t) − h̃i (t)|2 dt
−∞ −∞

First term is independent of the candidate decision h̃i (t) so need

not be calculated.
G. Sharma EE321A
 Signal Space

Projection Receiver

Let {φ̃1 (t), φ̃2 (t), . . . φ̃N (t)} be orthonormal basis of receive pulse
space S. Let
→
−
hi = [hi,1 , hi,2 , . . . , hi,N ]T
where Z ∞
hi,k = h̃i (t)φ̃∗k (t)dt = hh̃i (t), φ̃k (t)i
−∞

Let →
−r = [r1 , r2 , . . . , rN ]T be projection vector for r̃ (t) onto S where
ri = hr̃ (t), φ̃i (t)i. Then
→
−
J = k→
−
r − hi k2

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 Signal Space

Projection Receiver

φ̃∗1 (−t)
This is a down converter. It gives
us the low pass equivalent.
φ̃∗2 (−t)
Dis-
r (t) r̃ (t) tance
u(f ) × .. â
. calcu-
√ .. lation
2e j2πfc t .
t=kT
φ̃∗N (−t)

G. Sharma EE321A