Vapor-Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS)

Cycle: - Reversed Carnot Cycle

Reason of Use: - Eliminating the problem of reversed Carnot Cycle

Vapor-compression refrigeration (Latent Heat Pump) is one of the many refrigeration cycles and
is the most widely used method for air-conditioning of buildings and automobiles. It is also used in
domestic and commercial refrigerators, large-scale warehouses for chilled or frozen storageof foods
and meats, refrigerated trucks and railroad cars, and a host of other commercial and industrial
services. Oil refineries, petrochemical and chemical processing plants, and natural gas processing
plants are among the many types of industrial plants that often utilize large vapor- compression
refrigeration systems.
Vapor compression refrigeration system has the following components at its basic parts.

1. Compressor: The function of the compressor is to compress the input refrigerant of low pressure
and low temperature. As a result the pressure and the temperature of the refrigerant increases.
Generally reciprocating compressors are used in a refrigeration system. An external motor is used
to drive the compressor.

2. Condenser: The condenser is a coil of tubes, which are made of copper. This is used to condense
the refrigerant which is in the form of vapor. And convert into liquid.

3. Expansion Valve: this is otherwise called throttle valve. This valve is used to control the flow
rate of refrigerant and also to reduce the pressure of the refrigerant.

4. Evaporator: This is the part in which the cooling takes place. This is kept in the space where
cooling is required. It is a coil of tubes made up of copper.
Working Principle:

The refrigerant, which is at low pressure and low temperature flows into the compressor. In the
compressor the refrigerant is compressed and converted into a high pressure and high temperature
refrigerant.
This high pressure and high temperature refrigerant in vapor form then passes through the condenser
where it is condensed into high pressure liquid refrigerant. The high pressure liquid refrigerant thus
produced passes through the expansion valve.
In the expansion valve the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant drops and it partly evaporates.
It is the allowed to flow into the evaporator at a controlled rate.
In the evaporator, the partly liquid and vapor refrigerant is mostly evaporated and converted into
a low pressure vapor. During this process, the refrigerant absorbs its latent heat of vaporization from
the material that is to be cooled. Thus the body is cooled in the evaporator.
 Tutorial Exercise

Fluid Line Gas Line

Standard vapour compression refrigeration cycle on a T-S and P-h chart

Important Formulas for solving Numerical Problems

Requirement of Analysis of VCR System

(a) Load in Tonne of refrigerant (Mass of Refrigerant / s )

(b) Temperature at which the refrigeration takes place
(c) Atmospheric temperature (Temperature of Sink)

Evaporator

Refrigeration effect: qe = h1 - h4, h1 = hg @ Pe

Refrigeration capacity: R.C = 𝑚̇ (h1 - h4)

Compressor
(i) Compressor Suction Volume = V = Mr νs1 = (ηv)suction * N * (π/4 * D2 * L)
Where νs1 = Specific Volume of Refrigerant at Suction condition of compressor
(ii) Compressor Discharge Volume= Mr νsuper = (ηv) discharge * N * (π/4 * D2 * L)
(iii) Compressor Displacement = νs * N = (π/4 * D2 * L) N
Where, N = rotational speed in revolution per second.
D = Bore of the cylinder.
L = stroke length.
Work of compressor: w = (h2 – h1)
Power input to the compressor: P = 𝑚̇ (h2 – h1)
If Vapor is superheated at the end of Compressor (At Constant pressure)
S2 – S2’ = Cp ln (T2 / T2’) and h2 – h2’ = Cp (T2 - T2’)

Where T2 = Tsup (compressor discharge temperature)& T2’ = Tg @ Pc and h2’= hg @ Pc

Condenser

Heat transfer rate: Qc = 𝑚̇ (h2 – h3), h3 = hf @ Pc

Mass of Cooling water required in Condenser
Mc Cp ∆T = 𝑚̇ (h2 – h3)
Mc = {𝑚̇ (h2 – h3)} / (Cp ∆T)

Evaporator
h3 = h4

Coefficient of Performance
COP = R E / Wcomp
= { (h1 – h4)} / {(h2 – h1)}

Performance index (PI) = (COP) Ref. Cycle / (COP)carnot

(COP)carnot = (Tlow) / {Thigh – Tlow}
= (Tevp) / {Tcond – Tevp}

Assumptions:-
(1) No Pressure loss in condenser, Evaporator, connecting Pipe and
Compressor valves.
(2) No Heat Transfer to or from the system at any point (Except in the
condenser and evaporator).
(3) Compressor is isentropic (S = Constant)
(4) Transfer of efficiency from Motor to compressor should be 100%
(Practically it is not possible)
COP from P-H & T-S Charts(Refrigerant at different condition)

(1) Vapour is Dry and Saturated at end of Compressor

(2) Vapour is wet at the end of Compressor

(3) Superheated compressor (Wet Compressor is dangerous )

(4) Vapour is dry at the suction of compressor

(5) Vapour is superheated at suction of compressor

(6) Superheated at suction of compressor and liquid is subcooled before

throttling (expansion)
Problem 1:- What is the reason of higher COP of VCR system while COP of Air Refrigeration
system is less?
Answer: - COP of VCR system is very high from COP of Air Refrigeration system and it is near
to COP of CARNOT Cycle
(COP)VCR >>>> (COP)Air Refrigeration System
Because
(1) Absorption of heat in evaporator and Rejection of heat in condenser are in the form of Latent
Heat. This heat transfer are carried out by maintain the temperature difference as less as possible
(in the Evaporator and condenser) and it is just like as Carnot Cycle
(2) The irreversibility near the Sink (Atmosphere) and Source (Evaporator & condenser) is
largely reduced so COP will improve.
(3) In compressor compression process is isentropic.
(4) Only irreversibility exists in the throttle (Expansion) Process.
 Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System (VARS):
The major drawback of VCR System is that it requires a compressor to compress large volume of
refrigerant vapour which requires large mechanical power for its operation.
The compressor in the VCR system consumes lot of energy. To avoid this, the vapor absorption
refrigeration system has been developed. In this system, the compression process of vapor
compression cycle is eliminated. Instead of that the three following process are introduced (Simple
Absorption System).

➢ Ammonia vapor is absorbed into water (Absorber)

➢ This mixture is pumped into a high pressure cycle (Pump)
➢ This solution is heated to produce ammonia vapor (Generator)

Absorbent = Water (H2O) Refrigerant = NH3 (R717)

Construction:
The vapor absorption refrigeration system has the following components.

Generator: the generator receives the strong solution of aqua-ammonia from the absorber and heats
it. Because of this heating, the aqua-ammonia solution gets separated into ammonia vapor at high
pressure and hot weak ammonia solution which contains mostly water. It is used to produce the
Pressure difference while VCR System uses a compressor.

Condenser: The condenser converts the high pressure ammonia vapor received from the generator
into high pressure ammonia liquid. This condensation is done by means of circulating cool water.

Expansion valve: This valve is otherwise called the throttling valve since the expansion, which
takes place here, is throttling. While passing through this valve, the liquid ammonia gets expanded
and gets converted into low pressure and low temperature ammonia.

Evaporator: The evaporator is otherwise known as cold chamber. Here the refrigerant absorbs the
heat from the material which is to be cooled and gets evaporated. It has many coils made of copper.

Absorber: The absorber receives the low pressure ammonia vapor from the evaporator and the weak
ammonia solution from the generator and mixes them well to form a strong solution of aqua-
ammonia.
Working Principle:

The working fluid in vapor absorption refrigeration system is normally ammonia. The ammonia
vapor and water are mixed to form a strong solution of aqua-ammonia in the absorber. This aqua-
ammonia solution is then pumped into the generator. In the generator, this solution is heated.
Because of heating, ammonia gets evaporated at high pressure and leaves behind the weak ammonia
solution, which mostly contains water.
The high pressure ammonia vapor produced by the generator is condensed in the condenser and
it becomes ammonia liquid, which is at high pressure. This high pressure liquid ammonia is
allowed to pass through the expansion valve or throttling valve where it expands and becomes a low
pressure and low temperature ammonia which mostly contains liquid ammonia and a little
vapor ammonia.
Ammonia at low pressure and low temperature then passes through the evaporator where it absorbs
the heat from the material which is to be cooled and gets evaporated.
The evaporator is where the real cooling takes place. Because of the heat absorbed by ammonia, it
gets evaporated and becomes low pressure ammonia vapor. The low pressure ammonia vapor is
then sent into the absorber and the cycle is repeated.

Applications of Refrigeration:

• In manufacturing ice
• For Preserving perishable food materials
• For Cooling water
• For preserving of blood, tissues and medicines
Comparison between VCRS and VARS:

Vapor Compression Refrigeration System Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System

1 It is more noise and wear and tear The system is comparatively quieter.
because of more moving parts

2 Mechanical energy is utilized by means Heat energy is utilized

of compressor
3 Refilling of refrigerant is easy Refilling of refrigerant is difficult

4 During partial loading conditions the
performance is poor
5 The liquid refrigerant accumulated in
The cylinder may damage the cylinder.
So preventive measures are needed
The performance is not affected even at
the partial loading
Liquid refrigerants do not affect the
Performance of the system. They do not
Produce any bad effect.

For the Energy balance:-

Qg + Qe + Wp = Qc + Qa

COP = QE / (Qg + Wp)

Other Vapour absorbent Refrigeration System

(a) Practical NH3 absorption System (Absorbent – H2O)

(b) Lithium Bromide absorption Refrigeration System ( Refrigerant - H2O)

 Air Refrigeration System (ARS):
Working Fluid: - Air

(1) Closed Cycle (2) Open Cycle

(1) Closed Cycle – High COP

(a) Air comes in the sink (at lower temperature than sink temperature) and absorb the
heat in the sink. P1 > Patm
(b) Its temperature is increased above the atmosphere temperature by compressing
it in a compressor.
(c) Then air is Cooled in the Heat Exchanger by heat transfer upto atmosphere
temperature
(d) And at last it expanded in the Expander lowering its temperature and again
enters into the sink (refrigerator) for absorbing the heat

Notes:
1. Air refrigeration system is a single phase system but if refrigerant is Vapour then it
is Two Phase system
2. It is based on Reversed Carnot Cycle
3. If carnot cycle consist of all reversible processes then it is called Reversible carnot
cycle

Air Standard Cycle analysis

Air cycle refrigeration system analysis is simplified if one makes the following assumptions:

(i.) The working fluid is a fixed mass of air that behaves as an ideal gas
(ii.) The cycle is assumed to be a closed loop cycle with all inlet and exhaust processes of open
loop cycles being replaced by heat transfer processes to or from the environment
(iii.) All the processes within the cycle are reversible, i.e., the cycle is internally reversible
(iv.) The specific heat of air remains constant throughout the cycle

An analysis with the above assumptions is called as cold Air Standard Cycle (ASC) analysis. This
analysis yields reasonably accurate results for most of the cycles and processes encountered in air cycle
refrigeration systems. However, the analysis fails when one considers a cycle consisting of a throttling
process, as the temperature drop during throttling is zero for an ideal gas, whereas the actual cycles
depend exclusively on the real gas behavior to produce refrigeration during throttling.

Reversed Carnot cycle employing a gas

Reversed Carnot cycle is an ideal refrigeration cycle for constant temperature external heat source and
heat sinks. Figure shows the schematic of a reversed Carnot refrigeration system using a gas as the
working fluid along with the cycle diagram on T-s and P-v coordinates. As shown, the cycle consists
of the following four processes:

Process 1-2: Reversible, adiabatic compression in a compressor

Process 2-3: Reversible, isothermal heat rejection in a compressor
Process 3-4: Reversible, adiabatic expansion in a turbine
Process 4-1: Reversible, isothermal heat absorption in a turbine
Ideal reverse Brayton cycle (Joule Cycle)
(Bell Coleman Air Refrigerator)
This is an important cycle frequently employed in gas cycle refrigeration systems. This may be thought
of as a modification of reversed Carnot cycle, as the two isothermal processes of Carnot cycle are
replaced by two isobaric heat transfer processes. This cycle is also called as Joule or Bell-Coleman cycle.
Figure shows the schematic of a closed, reverse Brayton cycle and also the cycle on T-s diagram.As
shown in the figure, the ideal cycle consists of the following four processes:

Process 1-2: Reversible, adiabatic compression in a compressor

Process 2-3: Reversible, isobaric heat rejection in a heat exchanger
Process 3-4: Reversible, adiabatic expansion in a turbine
Process 4-1: Reversible, isobaric heat absorption in a heat exchanger

Process 1-2: Gas at low pressure is compressed isentropically from state 1 to state 2. Applying steady
flow energy equation and neglecting changes in kinetic and potential energy

Process 2-3: Hot and high pressure gas flows through a heat exchanger and rejects heat sensibly and
isobarically to a heat sink. The enthalpy and temperature of the gas drop during the process due to
heat exchange, no work transfer takes place and the entropy of the gas decreases

Process 3-4: High pressure gas from the heat exchanger flows through a turbine, undergoes isentropic
expansion and delivers network output. The temperature of the gas drops during the process from
T to T .
3 4

Process 4-1: Cold and low pressure gas from turbine flows through the low temperature heat exchanger
and extracts heat sensibly and isobarically from a heat source, providing a useful refrigeration effect.
The enthalpy and temperature of the gas rise during the process due to heat exchange, no work
transfer takes place and the entropy of the gas increases
 Aircraft cooling systems
In an aircraft, cooling systems are required to keep the cabin temperatures at a comfortable level. Even
though the outside temperatures are very low at high altitudes, still cooling of cabin is required due to:

(i.) Large internal heat generation due to occupants, equipment etc.

(ii.) Heat generation due to skin friction caused by the fast moving aircraft
(iii.) At high altitudes, the outside pressure will be sub-atmospheric. When air at this low pressure
is compressed and supplied to the cabin at pressures close to atmospheric, the temperature
increases significantly. For example, when outside air at a pressure of 0.2 bar and
temperature of 223 K (at 10000 m altitude) is compressed to 1 bar, its temperature increases
to about 353 K. If the cabin is maintained at 0.8 bar, the temperature will be about 332 K.
This effect is called as ram effect. This effect adds heat to the cabin, which needs to be taken
out by the cooling system.
(iv.) Solar radiation

For low speed aircraft flying at low altitudes, cooling system may not be required, however, for high
speed aircraft flying at high altitudes, a cooling system is a must.
Even though the COP of air cycle refrigeration is very low compared to vapour compression
refrigeration systems, it is still found to be most suitable for aircraft refrigeration systems as:

(i.) Air is cheap, safe, non-toxic and non-flammable. Leakage of air is not a problem
(ii.) Cold air can directly be used for cooling thus eliminating the low temperature heat exchanger
(open systems) leading to lower weight
(iii.) The aircraft engine already consists of a high speed turbo-compressor, hence separate
compressor for cooling system is not required. This reduces the weight per kW cooling
considerably. Typically, less than 50% of an equivalent vapour compression system
(iv.) Design of the complete system is much simpler due to low pressures. Maintenance required
is also less.
 1 Simple aircraft refrigeration cycle:

Figure shows the schematic of a simple aircraft refrigeration system and the operating cycle on T-s
diagram. This is an open system. As shown in the T-s diagram, the outside low pressure and low
temperature air (state 1) is compressed due to ram effect to ram pressure (state 2). During this process
its temperature increases from 1 to 2. This air is compressed in the main compressor to state 3, and is
cooled to state 4 in the air cooler (Heat Exchanger). Its pressure is reduced to cabin pressure in the
turbine (state 5), as a result its temperature drops from 4 to 5. The cold air at state 5 is supplied to the
cabin. It picks up heat as it flows through the cabin providing useful cooling effect. The power output
of the turbine is used to drive the fan, which maintains the required air flow over the air cooler. This
simple system is good for ground cooling (when the aircraft is not moving) as fan can continue to
maintain airflow over the air cooler

2 Bootstrap System

Figure shows the schematic of a bootstrap system, which is a modification of the simple system. As
shown in the figure, this system consists of two heat exchangers (air cooler and after cooler), instead
of one air cooler of the simple system. It also incorporates a secondary compressor, which is drivenby
the turbine of the cooling system. This system is suitable for high speed aircraft, where in the velocity
of the aircraft provides the necessary airflow for the heat exchangers, as a result a separate fan is not
required. As shown in the cycle diagram, ambient air state 1 is pressurized to state 2 due to the ram
effect. This air is further compressed to state 3 in the main compressor. The air is then cooledto state
4 in the air cooler (Heat Exchanger 1). The heat rejected in the air cooler is absorbed by the ram air at
state 2. The air from the air cooler is further compressed from state 4 to state 5 in the secondary
compressor. It is then cooled to state 6 in the after cooler (Heat Exchanger 2), expanded
to cabin pressure in the cooling turbine and is supplied to the cabin at a low temperature T . Since
7
the system does not consist of a separate fan for driving the air through the heat exchangers, it is not
suitable for ground cooling. However, in general ground cooling is normally done by an external air
conditioning system as it is not efficient to run the aircraft engine just to provide cooling when it is
grounded.
Other modifications over the simple system are: regenerative system and reduced ambient system.

In a regenerative system, a part of the cold air from the cooling turbine is used for precooling the air
entering the turbine. As a result much lower temperatures are obtained at the exit of the cooling
turbine, however, this is at the expense of additional weight and design complexity. The cooling turbine
drives a fan similar to the simple system. The regenerative system is good for both ground cooling as
well as high speed aircrafts.

The reduced ambient system is well-suited for supersonic aircrafts and rockets.
 Basic steam jet refrigeration system

Steam jet refrigeration system and T-s and h-s diagrams of its cycle
(B –boiler; E –evaporator; NZ –nozzle; MC –mixing chamber; Df – diffuser; Co –condenser; RV –
expansion valve; P –pump; RO –refrigeration object )

◆ The basic steam jet refrigeration system, seen in Fig. consists of the following
components:
◆ an evaporator;
◆ a refrigerated object;
◆ a boiler;
◆ a nozzle, a mixing chamber;
◆ a diffuser;
◆ a condenser;
◆ an expansion valve;
◆ Pumps.

◆ In the steam jet system the vapor power cycle (1-2-3-3'-4-1) and the refrigeration cycle
(6-7-8-3-9-6) are realized simultaneously.
◆ This can be explained by the progressive, independent observation that the state of the
 motive steam and refrigerant vapor changes.
◆ Motive steam is expanded in the nozzle from point 1 to point 5, but after mixing with
refrigerant vapor it is compressed from 5 to 2, or in the mixture from a to b.
◆ The motive steam in the cycle's expansion process generates work i = h1 - h2 converted
from the part of the heat q added to the working body.
◆ This work is transmitted in the mixing chamber to the refrigerant vapor, which is
compressed from 6 to 7 in the diffuser, so i = h = h7-h6.
◆ The resulting change of the mixture in the diffuser for both stream of motive steam and
refrigerant vapor is from point a to point b.
◆ The specific absorbed heat in the evaporator is qe= h6 – h9 = h6 - h3.
◆ The limitations of the water steam jet-pump cycle are that cooling temperatures can only
be above the freezing point of water and utilize high grade heat energy to power the jet-
pump cycle.
◆ These limitations can be solved by choosing some proper fluids as refrigerants.
◆ In some cases the steam jet refrigeration system can utilize low grade heat energy to
power the jet-pump cycle, at temperatures ranging upwards from 60°C.
◆ This energy is available from a plate solar collector, waste steam, exhaust from
automobiles and flue gases.
◆ In these cases the cost of the heat supply is negligible and, therefore, the operating costs
can be significantly lower than for conventional vapor compression systems.