ENTHALPY OF A CHEMICAL REACTION

THERMOCHEMICAL EQUATIONS

A chemical equation that shows the value and direction of heat involved in a reaction is
specifically called thermochemical equation. It also indicates the physical state of the
reactants and products involved in the reaction.
The amount of heat absorbed or released by a chemical reaction at constant
atmospheric pressure is called enthalpy (H). It is a form of chemical energy. The difference
between the enthalpy of the products and the reactants is called the enthalpy of a reaction (ΔH).
ΔH = Hproducts – Hreactants

An exothermic reaction at constant pressure has a negative change in enthalpy (-ΔH), while an
endothermic reaction at constant pressure has a positive change in enthalpy (+ΔH).

For an exothermic reaction, the heat content of reactants is

greater than the heat content of the products since heat is
released. The value of ΔH < 0.

For an endothermic reaction, the heat content of the products is

greater than the heat content of the reactants because heat is
absorbed. The value of ΔH > 0.

TAKE NOTE:
The change in enthalpy (ΔH) is a state function, which refers to a
quantity whose value depends on the current state of the system and not on what has
previously occurred. For example, the temperature of a sample of water is 25°C. This
temperature does not depend on its previous temperature. Its current value is 25°C. Thus, ΔH
being a state function depends on the state of each reactant and product. To explain further, the
value of ΔH for a reaction depends only on the conditions defining the state of the reactants and
products and not on the path it takes from reactants to products.

The heat released or absorbed when a reaction takes place is an important and integral part of
the reaction, and could be indicated in the chemical equation. An equation which shows the
heat involved is called a thermochemical equation.
Consider the exothermic combustion of methane (CH4) into carbon dioxide and water.
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) ---> CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) ΔH = -890.4 kJ

The thermochemical equation means that 890.4 kJ of heat is released when one mole of
gaseous methane and two moles of oxygen gas combust to form one mole of gaseous carbon
dioxide and two moles of liquid water.

TRY THIS!
Write the thermochemical equation described in this problem:
When one mole of nitrogen gas (N2) reacts with one mole of oxygen gas (O2), two moles of
nitric oxide (NO) are formed. In the process, 180.5 kJ of heat are required.
 Enthalpy is also an extensive property. Its magnitude is proportional to the amount of
reactants and products in the reaction. For example, if the amount of reactants and products in
a thermochemical equation is multiplied by 2, the value of the enthalpy is also multiplied by 2. If
multiplied by ½, the enthalpy is also reduced to half.

original equation:CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) ---> CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) ΔH = -890.4 kJ
multiplied by 2: 2CH4 (g) + 4O2 (g) ---> 2CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l) ΔH = -1780.8 kJ
multiplied by ½: ½CH4 (g) + O2 (g) ---> ½ CO2 (g) + H2O (l) ΔH = -445.2 kJ

The standard molar enthalpy of formation (ΔH°f) of a compound is the change in

enthalpy when the compound is formed from its elements under standard conditions (1 atm,
25°C). For this reason, the enthalpy of formation for an element in its stable form is zero under
the same standard conditions.
The standard enthalpy of a reaction (ΔH°rxn) can thus be calculated by subtracting
the sum (Ʃ) of the enthalpies of formation of the products and the sum of the enthalpies of
formation of the reactants.
Consider the hypothetical equation,
aA + bB ---> cC + dD
where a, b, c, and d are the respective coefficients of substances A, B, C, D in the
balanced chemical equation. The sum of the enthalpies of formation of the products is
calculated as:
ƩΔH°f (products) = c ΔH°f (C) + d ΔH°f (D)
and for the reactants:
ƩΔH°f (reactants) = a ΔH°f (C) + b ΔH°f (D)
Then, the standard molar enthalpy of the hypothetical reaction is calculated as:
ƩΔH°rxn = ƩΔH°f (products) - ƩΔH°f (reactants)
Consider the combustion of ethanol (C5H5OH) to produce carbon dioxide and water:
C5H5OH (l) + 3O2 (g) ---> 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (g)

The standard molar enthalpies of each of the reactants and products can be obtained from table
1-1. The standard enthalpy of the reaction is therefore:
ƩΔH°rxn = [2ΔH°f (CO2, g) + 3 ΔH°f (H2O, g)] – [ΔH°f (C5H5OH, l) + 3ΔH°f (O2, g)]
= [2 (-393.5 kJ) + 3 (-241.8 kJ)] - [(-277.7 kJ) + 3(0)]
= -1,234.7 kJ

Table 1-1
ΔH°f of Some Common Substances
Specific Heat ΔH°f Specific Heat ΔH°f
Substance Substance
(kJ/mol) (kJ/mol)
C (graphite) 0 H2O (l) -285.8
CO (g) -110.5 N2 (g) 0
CO2 (g) -393.5 NaCl (s) -411.2
C2H5OH (l) -277.7 NH3 (g) -46.3
CaCO3 (s) -1206.9 NO (g) 90.29
CaO -635.6 NO2 (g) 33.85
Fe2O3 (s) -824.2 N2O (g) 81.56
H2O (g) -241.8 O2 (g) 0
 If a reaction is an overall process that can be attained through a series of steps of
reactions, then the enthalpy of this overall reaction can be calculated from the thermochemical
equations defining the reactions leading to it.

This approach can be summarized by Hess’s law, which states that the enthalpy of a
sum of a series of reactions is equal to the sum of the enthalpies of those two reactions. In such
cases, the following rules must be considered:

Rule 1: Enthalpy is an extensive property/state function; it depends on the amount of reactants

and products.
Rule 2: The ΔH for a forward reaction is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to its reverse
reaction.
Rule 3: The ΔH for a reaction is the same whether it occurs in one step or in a series of steps.

Let’s take this example,

we can burn carbon directly to carbon dioxide:
C (s) + O2 (g) ---> CO2 (g) ΔH = -393.509 kJ
or we can do it in two steps: carbon-to carbon monoxide, then carbon monoxide to carbon
dioxide,

Cancel CO because it appears on both sides of the equation.

From this example, the overall change is the net result of a series of steps, and the net value of
ΔH for the overall reaction is just the sum of all the enthalpy changes of the different steps.
Note that in the above reaction the heats of the reaction of the individual steps involved are
added algebraically to obtain the overall heat of reaction.

Sample Problems:
1. A. Using the standard molar enthalpies of formation given, calculate the standard enthalpy of
reaction for the combustion of propane (C3H8) into carbon dioxide and water.

C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) ---> 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (g)

Substance C3H8 (g) O2 (g) CO2 (g) H2O (g)

ΔH°f (kJ/mol) -104.0 0 -393.5 -241.8

Solution:
ƩΔH°rxn = [3ΔH°f (CO2, g) + 4 ΔH°f (H2O, g)] – [ΔH°f (C3H8, g) + 5ΔH°f (O2, g)]
= [3 (-393.5 kJ) + 4 (-241.8 kJ)] – [(- 104.0kJ) + 5(0)]
= -2,043.7 kJ

B. The thermochemical equation for the incomplete combustion of carbon into carbon monoxide
is represented as
2C (s) + O2 (g) ---> 2CO (g)
Compute for the ΔH of the reaction if the overall process above can occur in two steps whose
thermochemical equations are given below:
(1) C (s) + O2 (g) ---> CO2 (g) ΔH = -393.5 kJ
(2) 2CO (g) + O2 (g) ---> 2CO2 (g) ΔH= -566.0 kJ

Solution:
The ΔH for the overall reaction can be obtained by applying Hess’s Law. First, equation
(1) needs to be multiplied by 2 since C(s) in the overall equation has a coefficient of 2. Rule 1
must be observed in doing so.
[C (s) + O2 (g) ---> CO2 (g) ΔH = -393.5 kJ] x 2
2C (s) + 2O2 (g) ---> 2CO2 (g) ΔH = -787.0 kJ
Second, equation (2) must be reversed since carbon monoxide is in the products side of
the desired chemical equation. As such, Rule 2 must be applied.
2CO2 (g) ---> 2CO (g) + O2 (g) ΔH = 566.0 kJ

By Hess’s law, the ΔH of the overall reaction can be calculated from the ΔH of the two
(manipulated) reactions leading to it. In summary,

2. Given the following thermochemical equations:

(1) 4NH3 (g) + 3O2 (g) ---> 2N2 (g) + 6H2O (l) ΔH = -1531 kJ
(2) N2O (g) + H2 (g) ---> N2 (g) + H2O (l) ΔH = -367.4 kJ
(3) H2 (g) + ½ O2 (g) ---> H2O (l) ΔH = -285.9 kJ
Find the value of ΔH for the reaction:
2NH3 (g) + 3N2O (g) ---> 4N2 (g) + 3H2O (l)
Solution:
Since the desired equation has 2 mol of NH3 (g) on the left, we divide equation (1) by 2 and ΔH
value by 2:
[4NH3 (g) + 3O2 (g) ---> 2N2 (g) + 6H2O (l) ΔH = -1531 kJ] ÷ 2
We multiply equation (2) and the corresponding ΔH value by 3 so that the coefficient of N2O (g)
in the final equation will be 3:
[N2O (g) + H2 (g) ---> N2 (g) + H2O (l) ΔH = -367.4 kJ] x 3
To eliminate the 3H2 (g) added to the left in the last step, we reverse equation (3) and multiply it
by 3; the corresponding ΔH value is multiplied by 3 and its sign changed:
[H2 (g) + ½ O2 (g) ---> H2O (l) ΔH = -285.9 kJ] x 3, then reverse
Following the steps above, the result will be:

The equations
and ΔH values are added. Terms common to both sides of the final equation are cancelled.
3. Calculate the heat of formation of methane CH4. The equation involved is:
C (s) + 2H2 (g) ---> CH4 (g).
The thermochemical equations for the combustion of these species are:
(1) CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g ---> CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) ΔH = -890.4 kJ
(2) 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) ---> 2H2O (l) ΔH = -571.5 kJ
(3) C (s) + O2 (g) ---> CO2 (g) ΔH = -393.7 kJ
Solution:
Note that in the desired chemical equation CH4 is on the product side, this we need to reverse
equation (1). When we do so we also have to reverse the sign of ΔH.
CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) ---> CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) ΔH = 890.4 kJ

We do not need to do anything with equations (2) and (3) since C (s) and H2 (g) are on the
reactant side. In the desired equation, they are also on the reactants side. So we add the three
equations, cancelling terms that appear on both sides:

GENERALIZATION
Enthalpy is the amount of heat absorbed or released by a chemical reaction at a
constant pressure. The standard enthalpy of a reaction can be calculated as the difference
between the sum of the standard molar enthalpies’ formation of the products and the reactants.
It can also be obtained from the different thermochemical equations that define the overall
reaction by applying Hess’s Law.
To summarize how to calculate for the ΔH of a specific reaction:
1.Look for the chemical formulas that appear only once among the equations, and place it in the
right place just as in the desired equation.
2.Note the number of moles of each reactant and products in the desired equation.
3.Manipulate the equations with known ΔH values so that the number of moles of reactants and
products are on the correct sides as in the desired equation. Do not forget to:
a. Change the sign of ΔH when the equation is reversed.
b. Multiply/ divide the number of moles and ΔH by the same factor.
4. Add the manipulated equations, canceling terms that are common to both sides of the
equation to obtain the desired equation. Algebraically add the ΔH values to get the final ΔH, or
change in enthalpy of the desired equation.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS!!
1. Write the balanced equation for the production of the brown nitrogen dioxide (NO2) gas from
the nitrogen and oxygen gases: N2 (g) + O2 (g) ---> NO2 (g). Calculate the enthalpy of the
reaction if the process occurs in the sequence of reactions given below:
N2 (g) + O2 (g) ---> 2NO (g) ΔH = 180 kJ
2NO2 (g) --->2NO (g) + O2 (g) ΔH = 112 kJ
 RATE OF REACTION , AND RATE LAW FOR A REACTION
RATE OF REACTION
Chemical Kinetics is the study of the rate of chemical reactions, including the
mechanism by which a chemical reaction occurs and the different factors that affect it.

Many chemical reactions occur spontaneously at a fast rate. The combustion of gasoline
with oxygen is easily initiated under favorable conditions. The reaction between vinegar and
baking soda happens instantly with accompanying bubble formation. Some reactions, however,
take time to happen. The rusting of iron does not happen instantaneously. The green patina
(film) on copper that gives the metal its antique look takes time to form.

Rate of a reaction can be defined as the change in the concentration of a reactant or product
per change in time. The concentration of a reactant or product is represented in square brackets
[ ]. For a hypothetical chemical equation
aA + bB ---> cC + dD
where a, b, c, and d are the respective coefficients of substances A, B, C, and D in the balanced
chemical equation.
The rate of a reaction can be expressed as

By convention, a negative sign is attached on the change in the concentration of the reactants,
which underscores the fact that the concentration of the reactants decreases as the reaction
proceeds. This convention maintains the positive sign for the rate.
Consider the balanced equation for the decomposition of the colorless gas dinitrogen
pentoxide (N2O5) into the brown nitrogen dioxide gas and oxygen gas.
2 N2O5 (g) ---> 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
The rate of this reaction may be expressed in terms of the change in concentration of
N2O5, NO2, or O2 as

The rate expression shows the relative speed at which the concentration of one species
changes with respect to that of another species. In the example, the rate expression indicates
that the formation of NO2 is twice as fast as the decomposition of N2O5 and four times as fast
as the formation of O2.

Sample Problem:
1. Hydrogen peroxide (agua oxygenada, H2O2) is a colorless liquid used as disinfectant and
bleach. At high temperatures, it decomposes easily into water and oxygen.
2H2O2 (aq) ---> 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)
Write the equation for the rate of reaction based on the concentration of the reactants and
products.
Solution:
RATE LAW FOR A REACTION
To have an idea how to answer the question above, take note that the rate of reaction
depends on the concentration of the reactants. Hence, the rate law is an important concept for
this matter.
The rate law is a mathematical expression that shows how the rate of reaction depends
on the concentration of the reactants. Considering a general equation
aA + bB ---> products
The rate law for this reaction is expressed as
rate = k [A]x[B]y
where k is the rate constant (dependent on temperature), and the power of x or y is the order of
the reaction with respect to the reactants. The rate of a reaction is expressed in molar per
second (M/s). The unit of the rate constant varies depending on the rate law expression.
The order of the reaction dictates how the rate responds to variations in the
concentration of the reactant. Reactions have therefore different orders as classified below:

Order of a Reaction
A zero-order reaction (x = 0) has a constant rate that is equal to its rate constant regardless of
the changes in the concentration of the reactant.
rate = k [A]0 = k
The first-order reaction (x = 1), the rate doubles when the concentration of a reactant is doubled.
A quadruple increase in reactant concentration means an increase in four times the original rate.
In general, the rate increases in the same order as the concentration of the reactant.
rate = k [A]1 = k [A]
For the second-order reaction (x = 2), increasing the reactant concentration to twice as much
quadruples the original reaction rate. A triple increase in concentration means a ninefold in
increase in reaction rate.
rate = k [A]2
*Note: The expression for the rate law generally bears no necessary relation to the
stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced equation for the reaction, and must be determined
experimentally.

Now the question is, how do we determine the order of the reaction given the initial rates of the
substances in several experiment trials? A step-by-step procedure is stated below as well as
examples on how to determine the order, the rate law and the rate constant of reactions.
Determining the Order of a Reaction: Method of Initial Rates
The rate law for a reaction can be experimentally determined through the method of
initial rates. The technique determines how rate is affected by concentration by comparing the
initial rates of a reaction at different initial concentrations of reactants. To illustrate this, consider
the hypothetical reaction
A + B ---> C
Obtained from three separate experiments, the following data table shows the initial
concentrations of reactants A and B and their reaction rates.
Initial [A] Initial [B] Initial Rate of Reaction
Experiment
(M) (M) (M/s)
I 0.012 0.0034 1.4 x 10-3
II 0.024 0.0034 2.8 x 10-3
III 0.012 0.0068 5.6 x 10-3
 To determine the order of the reaction (x) with respect to reactant A, one must choose
two experiments wherein the concentrations of reactant B are the same. This underscores the
principle that the initial rate of the reaction will not be affected by reactant B and will change only
with respect to reactant A.
In the given example, experiments I and II are the suitable choices. As observed, the
initial rate increased two times as the concentration of A was doubled. As explained earlier, this
type of relationship indicates a first-order reaction with respect to reactant A.
Mathematically, the order can be determined using two rate laws:

Since reactant B should

have the same
concentration, the equation
summarizes into

The same method is applied to determine the order with respect to reactant B. In experiments I
and III, the initial concentrations of reactant A are the sane and thus will not contribute to the
change in the initial reaction rate. From the data, the initial rate increased four times as the
concentration of reactant B was doubled. Setting up the ratio of the two rate equations and
solving for x,

The rate law for the hypothetical reaction A + B ---> C is therefore written as

rate = k [A][B]2
Note that the reaction is third-order overall reaction. The rate constant (k) can be calculated
from the rate law of any of the experiment runs. Using experiment I, k is calculated as
rate = k [A]I [B]I2

k= rate1 = 1.4 x 10-3 M/s

[A]I [B]I2 (0.012 M) (0.0034 M)2
= 1.0 x 104 M-2 s-1

Here is a quick guide for the units in each overall reaction order:

Sample Problem 1:
Chloroform (CHCl3) is a known anesthetic. It is aldo used to produce the refrigerant carbon
tetrachloride (CCl4) according to the reaction
CHCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g) ---> CCl4 (g) + HCl (g)
Several experiments obtained the following data:
Initial [CHCl3] Initial [Cl2] Initial Rate of Reaction
Experiment
(M) (M) (M/s)
I 0.0011 0.014 2.60 x 10-4
II 0.0011 0.028 5.20 x 10-4
III 0.0022 0.028 2.08 x 10-3
IV 0.0022 0.014 1.04 x 10-3

Write the rate law expression for the reaction. Calculate the rate constant.
Solution:
To determine the order of the reaction with respect to CHCl3, experiments II and III will be used
since the concentration of Cl2 is constant in these two runs. Based on the results, as the
concentration of CHCl3 is doubled, the rate increases four times. This indicates that the rate is
second-order with respect to CHCl3. To show the mathematical solution,
To find the order with respect to Cl2, take experiments I and II with similar concentrations of
CHCl3. When the concentration of Cl2 is doubled, the rate also doubles, indicating that the rate
is first-order with respect to Cl2. Thus, the rate law expression for the reaction can be written as
rate = k [CHCl3]2 [Cl2]
The reaction is third-order overall. Using the data from experiment I, the rate constant is
k= rate
[CHCl3]2 [Cl2]
= 1.5 x 104 M-2 s-1

Alternatively, experiments I and IV can also be used to determine the order with respect to
CHCl3, and experiments III and IV for the rate order with respect to Cl2. Both methods should
give the same results.
In case you forgot your logarithm rules, here is your guide:

Try this! Given the experimental data, find the rate law expression and the rate constant for the
reaction:
F2 (g) + ClO2 (g) ---> FClO2 (g)
Initial [F2] Initial [ClO2] Initial Rate of Reaction
Experiment
(M) (M) (M/s)
1 0.10 0.010 0.0012
2 0.10 0.040 0.0048
 3 0.20 0.010 0.0024

Here are the answers. Find out how:

rate = k [F2] [ClO2]
k = 1.2 M-1 s-1

GENERALIZATION
The rate of a reaction is the change in the concentration of a reactant or a product with
change in time. The rate of this reaction may be expressed in terms of the change in
concentration of N2O5, NO2, or O2 as

The rate law expresses how reaction rate varies with the concentration of the reactants. The
order of the reaction indicates the magnitude by which the rate changes with change in
concentration. The rate law for the hypothetical reaction A + B ---> C is therefore written as
rate = k [A][B]2
To determine the rate law from the experimental data, the procedures are as follows:
4. Identify two experiments in which the concentration of one reactant changed while the other
concentration of the other reactant (s) did not change;
5. Determine how the reaction rate changed in relation to the change in reactant concentration;
and
6. Repeat the process using another set of data in which the concentration of the first reactant
did not change while the concentration of the other one changed.

ENTROPY
ENTROPY
Entropy is a measure of molecular randomness. A solid with a rigid structure has low
entropy. Gases whose molecules are in constant ransom motion in various directions are
described to have high entropy. So, entropy focuses on how order a certain molecule is. Just
like the idea of Sagario (2020) as she states that “In everyday tasks, aiming for an order is what
we strive since having things in order allow us to achieve our objectives.” Generally,
randomness of molecules increases the value of its entropy.
Like enthalpy, entropy is a state function; it only depends on the initial and final states of
a system. It does not take into consideration how the final state was attained.

A positive ∆S indicates an increase in randomness of a system; a negative ∆S indicates a

decrease in randomness.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ENTROPY

A change in temperature can result in change in entropy. Just like in life, we need to
learn to adapt to any change and know what causes that change in our plans in life. Raising the
temperature of a system increases the average kinetic energy and the freedom of motion of the
particles in the system; thus, increasing the entropy of the system. Conversely, lowering the
temperature of the system will lead to a decrease in entropy. This implies that if the temperature
is reduced indefinitely, a system will reach a condition with zero entropy. This is what the third
law of thermodynamics states—that a perfectly ordered pure crystalline solid at zero Kelvin will
have zero entropy.
Chemical reactions that produce higher number of product particles than that of reactant
particles are usually spontaneous. The increase in the number of particles consequently lead to
more disorder in the system and thus its increased entropy.
Consider the spontaneous decomposition of calcium carbonate (CaC03). For every mole
of CaCO3 used, two moles of products are produced.

Chemical reactions with fewer product particles than the reactants are are described to have
negative entropy and are thus non-spontaneous. Such is the case for ammonia (NH3)
production.

The change in entropy, however, is affected not only by temperature and number of particles.
The graph of entropy versus temperature (figure 5-2) shows a slow and steady increase in
entropy of a solid substance. At this solid phase range, the vibrational energy of the particles
steadily increases. Once the melting point of the substance is reached, its entropy suddenly
shoots up. At this condition, the liquid particles are more free to move than in the solid phase.
Aside from vibrational motion, the liquid particles can have rotational and translational (i.e.,
different directions) movements at this stage. When all solid particles are liquefied, the entropy
of the system returns to a steadily increasing pattern. Once the boiling point of the. Substance is
reached, entropy abruptly increases. At
this state, the gas particles are much
more free to move.

This general trend is observed for all substances: a

steady increase in entropy as the temperature is raised
for a particular phase, then an abrupt increase once the
temperature for phase changes is released.

Sample Problems:
A. Predict the sign of the change in entropy for the following processes:
Freezing water
Answer: Entropy change will be negative
2.Heating liquid water to its boiling point
 Answer: Entropy change will be positive
B. Predict which substance in each pair has the higher entropy and justify your answer.
1.1 mol of NH3(g) or 1 mol of He(g), both at 25°C
Answer: Both substances are gases at 25°C, but one consists of He atoms and the other
consists of NH3 molecules. With four atoms instead of one, the NH3 molecules have
more motions available, leading to a greater number of microstates. Hence, we predict
that the NH3 sample will have the higher entropy.

STANDARD MOLAR ENTROPY

The standard molar entropy (S˚) of a substance is the entropy of one mole of a
substance at the standard condition (1 atm and 25 ˚C). Note that unlike enthalpy, the standard
molar entropy of substances in their elemental form is not zero; those of pure substances are
always positive values (S˚ ≥ 0).
As a state function, the standard entropy of reaction ( ∆S˚) can be calculated from the
difference between the standard molar entropies of the products and the reactants involved in
the reaction

For the general reaction

aA + bB → cC + dD
where a, b, c and d are the coefficient of the substances in the balanced equation, the standard
entropy of the reaction is calculated as:

Sample Problem 1
Consider the decomposition of calcium carbonate, the mineral found in limestone.
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Substance CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) CO2 (g)
S˚ (J/ mol.K) 92.9 39.8 213.6

The ∆S is the obtained from the S˚ values of the reactants and products.
∆S˚ = [ S˚ (CaO) + S˚ (CO2)] – [S˚ (CaCO3)]
∆S ˚= [ (1mol) (39.8 J/mol. K) + (1mol) (213.6 J/mol. K) – [(1 mol) (92.9 J/mol. K)
∆S˚ = (39.8 J/ K + 213.6 J/K) − 92.9 J/ K
∆S˚ = 160.5 J/K
The decomposition of CaCO3, gives a positive ∆S˚ , which means that the system is in a
more random state under standard conditions than when CaCO3 is formed (reverse reaction).
Sample Problem 2
Calculate ΔS° for the following reaction.
H2(g) + I2(s) → 2HI(g)
Substance H2(g) I2(s) HI(g)
 S˚ (J/ mol.K) 130.6 116.7 206.3
Using the equation for the standard entropy of reaction, solve for the ∆S˚
∆S˚ = [ S˚ (HI)]– [S˚ (H2) + [S˚ (I2)]
∆S˚ = [ (2mol) (206.3J/mol.K) ] – [ (1mol) (130.6 J/mol.K) + (1mol) (116.7 J/mol.K) ]
∆S˚ = [ 412.6 J/K] – [ 247.3 J/K ]
ΔS° = +165.3 J/K

Sample Problem 3
The Haber process for the industrial synthesis of ammonia is another process that involves
gaseous species.
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g)
Substance N2 (g) H2(g) NH3 (g)
S˚ (J/ mol.K) 191.5 130.6 192.3

The ∆S˚ is obtained using the following equation

∆S˚= [ 2S˚ (NH3)]– [S˚ (N2) – [3S˚ (H2)]
∆S˚= [ (2mol) (192.3 J/mol.K) ] – [ (1mol) (191.5 J/mol.K) + (3 mol) (130.6 J/mol.K) ]
∆S˚ = [ 384.6 J/K] – [ 583.3 J/K ]
∆S˚ = -198.7 J/K

Your turn! Try this.

1.Calculate ∆S˚ for the reaction.
SO2(s) + NO2(g) —> SO3(g) + NO(g)
Given: S°(J/mol.K): 310.0 205.0 215.3 204.5

GENERALIZATION
Entropy is a thermodynamic quantity that is a measure of how spread out or dispersed
the energy of a system is among the different possible ways that system can contain energy. It
is a quantity that is generally used to describe the course of a process, that is, whether it is a
spontaneous process and has a probability of occurring in a defined direction, or a non-
spontaneous process and will not proceed in the defined direction, but in the reverse direction.
At high enough temperature, the spontaneous change is from Solid Liquid Gas; gas is
more random than liquid and liquid is more random than solid. There is an increase in entropy
(S) of the system by going from solid to liquid to gas.
Entropy is a state function; it only depends on the initial and final states of a system. It
does not take into consideration how the final state was attained. A positive ∆S indicates an
increase in randomness of a system; a negative ∆S indicates a decrease in randomness.
The standard entropy of reaction ΔS° is given by the difference in standard entropies
between the products and the reactants. The standard entropy values of compounds have been
measured in J/K mol. To calculate the ΔS° (which is the ΔSsys), the values may be found in the
Thermodynamic Data Table. Thermodynamic tables have absolute entropy of substances at
25°C and 1atm. Remember, the greater the value of ΔS then the greater is the increase in the
randomness of the system.
 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Why is it that when you leave an ice cube at room temperature, it begins to melt? Why do we
get older and never younger? And why is it that whenever rooms are cleaned, they become
messy again in the future? Certain things happen in one direction and not the other way around.
In science we call these examples as the "arrow of time".

The thermodynamic arrow of time (entropy) is the measurement of disorder within a

system. Denoted as ΔS, the change of entropy suggests that time itself is asymmetric with
respect to order of an isolated system, meaning: a system will become more disordered, as time
increases.

The laws of thermodynamics describe the relationships between thermal energy, or heat,
and other forms of energy, and how energy affects matter. The First Law of Thermodynamics
states that energy cannot be created or destroyed; the total quantity of energy in the universe
stays the same. The Second Law of Thermodynamics is about the quality of energy. It states
that as energy is transferred or transformed, more and more of it is wasted. The Second Law
also states that there is a natural tendency of any isolated system to degenerate into a more
disordered state.

The second law of thermodynamics explains the relationship between entropy changes
and spontaneity of a process. The changes in this law of thermodynamics are relatable to life
such that we need to learn to adapt to any change and know what causes that change in our
plans in life. In relation to this chemistry concept, it states that for any spontaneous process,
there is a net increase in the total entropy of the system and its surroundings. This net entropy
change of the process is represented as ΔSuniv.
Δsuniv = [ Δssys + ΔSsurr] > 0

Thus, even if Δssys is negative, the process can be spontaneous if Δssurr is positive and has a
greater magnitude than Δssys. If the system is a chemical reaction, Δssys is simple ΔS˚ of the
reaction calculated from the S˚ values of the reactants and products. Calculating the ΔSsurr,
however, requires recalling the first law of thermodynamics, which states that energy is
exchanged between the system and its surroundings in the form of heat and work. The entropy
change in the surroundings is directly proportional to the enthalpy changes of the reaction and
inversely proportional to the absolute temperature (in Kelvin) of the surroundings. In
mathematical expression,

Sample Problem 1: Compute for the total entropy change (ΔSuniv) in the oxidation of metallin
ion into ferric oxide (Fe2O3) under standard conditions. Determine the spontaneity of the
process at these conditions.
4 Fe + 3O2 ---> 2 Fe2O3
Solution:
First, ΔS˚ of the reaction is obtained from the S˚ values of the reactants and products.
Substance Fe O2 Fe2O3
S˚ (J/ mol.K) 27.3 205.0 87.4

The
ΔH˚rnx is calculated from the standard molar enthalpies of formation (ΔH˚f) of the reactants can
products. Since ΔH˚f for elemental substances is zero and that for Fe2O3 is – 824.2 kJ/mol.

* Notice that the

change in entropy of the reaction is negative, but the entropy change in the surroundings is
large enough such that the total entropy of the process is positive. This indicates that the
oxidation of iron is a spontaneous process at standard conditions.

Sample Problem 2: Calculate the entropy change in the surroundings of the reaction shown
below at 25 ˚C and 1 atm. ( ΔH= - 566 kJ)
2CO + O2 ---> 2CO2
Note:
* Convert the given kJ into J = -566 kJ ≈ -566000 J
* Temperature= 25 ˚C + 273 = 298 K

Sample Problem 3: Calculate the total entropy change for the decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide (H202) at 25˚C. Is the reaction spontaneous or not?
2 H2O2 ---> 2 H2O + O2
Substance H2O2 H2O O2
S˚ (J/ mol.K) 109.6 69.9 205.0
ΔH˚f (kJ/mol) -187.8 -285.8 0
Your turn! Try this.
7.Applying the procedure for calculating the ΔSsys and ΔSsurr to the synthesis of ammonia: Is
the reaction spontaneous at 25C?
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) —> 2 NH3 (g) ΔH°rxn = - 92.6 kJ/mol
S°(J/K· mol): 192 131 193

GENERALIZATION
The Second Law of Thermodynamics deals with entropy. It tells whether a process or
chemical reaction can occur. The connection between entropy and the spontaneity of a reaction
is expressed by the second law of thermodynamics.
It states that: “The entropy of the universe increases in a spontaneous process and
remains unchanged in an equilibrium process.”
Because the universe is made up of the system and the surroundings, the entropy
change in the universe (Δsuniv) for any process is the sum of the entropy changes in the
system (ΔSsys) and in the surroundings (ΔSsur).
ΔSuniv = ΔSsys + ΔSsur > 0 Process is spontaneous
ΔSuniv = ΔSsys + ΔSsur = 0 Process tends not to occur; equilibrium is attained
ΔSuniv = ΔSsys + ΔSsur < 0 Reverse process occurs spontaneously

Formula:
3. Δsuniv = [ Δssys + ΔSsurr]
4. Δssurr = - ΔH˚rnx / T
 REVERSIBLE CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT
Many chemical reactions do not go to completion. Instead they reach a state of chemical
equilibrium where there is no change in the concentrations of reactants and products. Chemical
equilibrium is established when a single reaction occurs in which reactants are converted to
products, and these products are converted back to reactants by the reverse process at an
equal rate.
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
An example in our atmosphere is the equilibrium between nitrogen dioxide, NO2, and
dinitrogen tetroxide, N2O4. Most of the NO2 in the atmosphere comes from automobiles. It also
forms from the breakdown of N2O4 in an equilibrium reaction. While NO2 is being formed from
N2O4, N2O4 is being formed from NO2 by the reverse process:

The NO2 is a brown gas, while the N2O4 is colorless. The brown color of smog is
partially due to the presence of NO2. Without the equilibrium that exists between NO2 and
N2O4, the smog would appear significantly darker. In this section, we'll look at factors that
influence both reaction rates and the equilibrium in reactions such as these.
Although it may seem that nothing is happening in a reaction container where a state of
equilibrium has been reached, this is not the case. When a reaction reaches equilibrium, the
forward reaction continues
to
occur,
but the
reverse
reaction also occurs at the same rate:

This state of equilibrium, where the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate, is
represented using an equilibrium arrow

When any chemical reaction reaches the equilibrium state, the rates of the forward and reverse
reactions are equal; there is no net change in the concentrations of reactants and products.
Reactions that reach a state of equilibrium are reversible reactions. A true equilibrium exists in a
closed system, where neither reactants nor products can enter or leave.
 The conversion of N2O4 to NO2 is a reversible reaction and reaches a state of chemical
equilibrium. (A and B) These show the system before equilibrium. (C and D) These show the
system after equilibrium. At equilibrium, the numbers of N2O4 and NO2 molecules do not
change. However, N2O4 is still being converted to NO2, while NO2 is converted back to N2O4
at an equal rate.
When a reaction reaches equilibrium, amounts of reactants and products may be about
equal. More often, however, one or the other predominates: either a large amount of reactants
and small amount of products, or a small amount of reactants and a large amount of products.
When the concentration of reactants at equilibrium is large relative to the concentration of
products, we say the equilibrium favors reactants. When the concentration of products at
equilibrium is large relative to the concentration of reactants, we say the equilibrium favors
products. When describing an equilibrium system in this way, we are describing the position of
equilibrium.

THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT

Experimental results from countless reactions have shown that, given sufficient time, the
concentrations of reactants and products no longer change. This apparent cessation of
chemical change occurs because all reactions are reversible and reach a state of equilibrium.
Let's examine a chemical system at the macroscopic and molecular levels to see how
equilibrium arises and then consider some quantitative aspects of the process:
8.A macroscopic view of equilibrium. The system we'll consider is the reversible gaseous
reaction
between
colorless
dinitrogen
tetroxide and brown nitrogen dioxide:

As soon as we introduce some liquid N2O4 (bp = 21 ˚C) into a sealed container kept at 200˚C, it
vaporizes, and the gas begins to turn pale brown. As time passes, the brown darkens, until,
after less than 30 seconds, the color stops changing. The first three photos show the color
change, and the last photo shows no further change.

2. A molecular view of equilibrium. On the molecular level, as shown in the blowup circles, a
dynamic scene unfolds. The N2O4 molecules fly wildly throughout the container, a few splitting
into two NO2 molecules. As time passes, more N2O4 molecules decompose and the
concentration of NO2 rises. As the number of N2O4 molecules decreases, N2O4 decomposition
slows down. At the same time, increasing numbers of NO2 molecules collide and combine, and
re-formation of N2O4 speeds up. Eventually, the system reaches equilibrium: N2O4 molecules
are decomposing into NO2. molecules just as fast as NO2 molecules are combining into N2O4
Thus, at equilibrium, reactant and product concentrations are constant because a change in one
direction is balanced by a change in the other as the forward and reverse rates become equal:

Reaching equilibrium on the macroscopic and molecular levels.

A, The reaction mixture consists mostly of colorless B, As N2O4 a decomposes to NO2, the
mixture becomes pale brown. C, At equilibrium, the color and the concentrations of NO2 and
N2O4 no longer changes D, The reaction continues in both directions at equal rates, so the
concentrations (and color) remain constant.

3. A quantitative view of equilibrium a constant ratio of constants. Let's see how reactant and
product concentrations affect this process. At a particular temperature, when the system
reaches equilibrium, we have

In this reaction system, both forward and reverse reactions are elementary steps, so we can
write their rate laws directly from the balanced equation:

where k(fwd) and k(rev) are the forward and reverse rate constants, respectively, and the
subscript "eq" refers to concentrations at equilibrium. By rearranging, we set the ratio of the rate
constants equal to the ratio of the concentration terms:

The ratio of constants creates a new constant

called the equilibrium constant (K):

4. K as a measure of reaction extent. The magnitude of K is an indication of how far a reaction

proceeds toward product at a given temperature. Different reactions, even at the same
temperature, have a wide range of concentrations at equilibrium—from almost all reactant to
almost all product—so they have a wide range of equilibrium constants. Here are three
examples of different magnitudes of K:
●Small K (A). If a reaction yields little product before reaching equilibrium, it has a small K; if K
is very small, we may say there is "no reaction." For example, there is "no reaction" between
nitrogen and oxygen at 1000 K:*
●Large K (B). Conversely, if a reaction reaches equilibrium with little reactant remaining, it has a
large K; if K is very large. we say the reaction "goes to completion." The oxidation of carbon
monoxide "goes to completion" at 1000 K:

*To distinguish them in print, the equilibrium constant is represented by a capital italic K,
whereas the temperature unit, the kelvin is a capital roman K. Also, since the kelvin is a unit, it
always follows a number.
●Intermediate K (Figure 17.2C). When significant amounts of both reactant and product are
present at equilibrium, K has an intermediate value, as when bromine monochloride breaks
down to its elements at K:

How can we describe

a state of equilibrium mathematically in terms of the relative concentrations of reactants and
products? Let's look at different sets of equilibrium concentrations for a specific reaction to see if
we can determine the relationship between them that will give the same value for all sets of
equilibrium concentrations. We will consider the following reversible reaction:

Table 12.1 shows the concentrations of reactants and products at equilibrium that result when
the reaction is run three times, each time starting with different amounts of reactants and
products. The table also shows the results of three different ways to describe the relative
amounts of reactants and products. Which expression in Table 12.1 gives relatively constant
values for the three experiments?
From Table 12.1 we can see that the expression in the last column gives values that are
extremely close in all cases (0.200, 0.201, and 0.199). From these three trials we could
calculate an average constant of 0.200. The expression that gives a constant in Table 12.1 is
the product concentrations multiplied together and divided by the reactant concentration
squared. Why is the reactant concentration, [HI], squared? Does it have anything to do with the
coefficient 2 in front of HI in the balanced equation? Yes, it does. Chemists have studied a
variety of reactions under many conditions. They have found that an expression like that in the
last column of Table 12.1 gives a constant (the equilibrium constant, Keq) for any reaction under
conditions of constant temperature. In general, for a reaction with the general form
where [A], [B], [C], and [D] are the molar concentrations of the reactants and products at
equilibrium, and the exponents a, b, c, and d are the values of the coefficients in the balanced
equation. The value of the equilibrium constant Keq can be determined when equilibrium
concentrations of reactants and products are known. The value of the equilibrium constant for a
specific reaction is always the same at a specified temperature. If the temperature of the
reaction system changes, the value of the equilibrium constant changes.
Let's write the equilibrium constant expression for the formation of ammonia from its elements.
The balanced equation is

Remember that when no coefficient appears in the balanced equation, the coefficient is
understood to be 1. We normally leave the exponent 1 out of the equilibrium constant
expression:

Suppose we combine N2 and H2 gases in a reaction container at 400 K Figure 12.16 shows the
relative concentrations before the reaction occurs and after the reaction has reached equilibrium.
From Figure 12.16 we can see that the equilibrium concentrations of reactants and product are
as follows:

To calculate the value of the equilibrium constant at 400 K, we substitute these equilibrium
concentrations into the equilibrium constant expression:
The value of the equilibrium constant tells us about the position of the equilibrium. When its
value is much greater than 1, there are more products than reactants at equilibrium, and we say
that the position of equilibrium lies to the right. We can see from Figure 12.16 that the
equilibrium concentration of the NH3 product is greater than either one of the reactant
equilibrium concentrations. If the value of the equilibrium constant is much less than 1, there are
more reactants than products at equilibrium, and we say that the position of the equilibrium lies
to the left. If the value of the equilibrium constant is about 1, similar amounts of reactants and
products exist at equilibrium. The meaning of the value of the equilibrium constant Keq is
summarized in Table 12.2. Given concentrations and a balanced equation, you should be able
to determine the value of Keq and the position of the equilibrium.
 ICE tables are composed of the concentrations of molecules in solution in different
stages of a reaction, and are usually used to calculate the K, or equilibrium constant expression,
of a reaction (in some instances, K may be given, and one or more of the concentrations in the
table will be the unknown to be solved for). ICE tables automatically set up and organize the
variables and constants needed when calculating the unknown.
ICE is a simple acronym for the titles of the first column of the table.
• I stands for initial concentration. This row contains the initial concentrations of products and
reactants.
• C stands for the change in concentration. This is the concentration change required for the
reaction to reach equilibrium. It is the difference between the equilibrium and initial rows. The
concentrations in this row are, unlike the other rows, expressed with either an appropriate
positive (+) or negative (-) sign and a variable; this is because this row represents an increase
or decrease (or no change) in concentration.
• E is for the concentration when the reaction is at equilibrium. This is the summation of the
initial and change rows. Once this row is completed, its contents can be plugged into the
equilibrium constant equation to solve for Kc.
The procedure for filling out an ICE table is best illustrated through example

Example 1
Use an ICE table to determine KcKc for the following balanced general reaction:
2X(g) ⇌ 3Y(g)+4Z(g)
where the capital letters represent the products and reactants.
• This equation will be placed horizontally above the table, with each product and reactant
having a separate column.
A sample consisting of 0.500 mol of x is placed into a system with a volume of 0.750
liters.

• This statement implies that there are no initial amounts of Y and Z. For the I row of the Y and Z
columns, 0.000 mol will be entered.
• Notice that the initial composition is given in moles. The amounts can either be converted to
concentrations before putting them into the ICE table or after the equilibrium amounts have
been calculated. This example uses moles for the ICE table, and calculates concentrations later.
At equilibrium, the amount of sample x is known to be 0.350 mol.
• For the equilibrium row of X, 0.350 mol will be entered.
Desired Unknown
Kc=?
Solution
The equilibrium constant expression is expressed as products over reactants, each raised to the
power of their respective stoichiometric coefficients:

The equilibrium concentrations of Y and Z

are unknown, but they can be calculated using the ICE table
STEP 1: Fill in the given
amounts

This is the first step in setting up the ICE table. As mentioned above, the ICE mnemonic is
vertical and the equation heads the table horizontally, giving the rows and columns of the table,
respectively. The numerical amounts were given. Any amount not directly given is unknown.

STEP 2: Fill in the amount

of change for each
compound
Notice that the equilibrium in this equation is shifted to the right, meaning that some amount of
reactant will be taken away and some amount of product will be added (for the Change row).

The change in amount (xx) can be calculated using algebra:

Equilibrium Amount = Initial Amount + Change in Amount
Solving for the Change in the amount of 2x gives:
0.350mol−0.500mol=−0.150mol
The change in reactants and the balanced equation of the reaction is known, so the
change in products can be calculated. The stoichiometric coefficients indicate that for every 2
mol of x reacted, 3 mol of Y and 4 mol of Z are produced. The relationship is as follows:

Try obtaining the change in Z with this method (the answer is already in the ICE table).
STEP 3: Solve for the equilibrium amounts

If the initial amounts of Y

and/or Z were nonzero, then they would be added together with the change in amounts to
determine equilibrium amounts. However, because there was no initial amount for the two
products, the equilibrium amount
is simply equal to the change:

Use
the
same
meth
od to
find
the
equili
brium amount of Z. Convert the equilibrium amounts to
concentrations. Recall that the volume of the system is
0.750 liters.

Use the concentration values to solve the Kc equation:

GENERALIZATION
Kinetics and equilibrium are distinct aspects of a reaction system, and the rate and extent of a
reaction are not necessarily related. When the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same
rate, concentrations no longer change and the system has reached equilibrium. The equilibrium
constant (K) is a number equal to a particular ratio of product to reactant concentrations at a
certain temperature: K is small if a high concentration of reactant(s) is present at equilibrium,
and it is large if a high concentration of product(s) is present at equilibrium.

ACIDS AND BASES

Centuries ago, substances were first classified as acids and bases by their observable
properties. Like the acids in sour candy or lemons, all acids have a sour taste. They are also
corrosive to most metals, so people learned a long time ago not to store fruit juices or vinegar in
metal containers. In contrast to acids, bases taste bitter and have a slippery feel. Acids and
bases change the color of some dyes. For example, bases turn red litmus dye to blue. Acids
change it back to red. When acids and bases react in neutralization reactions, their acidic and
basic properties disappear.

Acid and Base Definitions

In the late 1800s a Swedish doctoral student named Svante Arrhenius proposed a
definition of acids and bases based on his experiments with electrolytes. Because aqueous
solutions of acids and bases conduct electricity, Arrhenius knew that the compounds were
forming positive and negative ions in solution. Arrhenius proposed that acids and bases produce
specific types of ions that other compounds do not. In the Arrhenius model of acids and bases,
an acid in aqueous solution produces hydrogen ions, H+, and a base produces hydroxide ions,
OH- . For example, hydrochloric acid ionizes in water to form H+ (aq) and Cl-(aq):
H2O
HCl (g) ---> H+(aq) + Cl- (aq)
The base sodium hydroxide dissociates when it dissolves in water to form sodium ions and
hydroxide ions:
H2O
NaOH (s) ---> Na+(aq) + OH- (aq)
The Arrhenius model explains how acids and bases neutralize each other. In a neutralization
reaction of HCI and NaOH, for example, the H from the HCI combines with the OH- from NaOH
to produce water:
H+(aq) + OH- (aq) ---> H2O (l)
Although his model does not adequately describe acids and bases as we know them today,
Arrhenius earned the 1903 Nobel Prize in Chemistry because he insisted that the H+(aq) and
OH- (aq) ions are important in acid-base behavior. Because of the simplicity of its definition, the
model is still used when only a brief explanation of acid-base behavior is needed.

The Arrhenius definition of acids and bases is limited by some fundamental problems.
The hydrogen ion, H+, essentially a proton with an extremely small radius, has a very
concentrated positive charge. As a result, free H+ ions are unlikely to exist in aqueous solution.
Instead, they are associated with surrounding water molecules. Chemists today normally
represent the aqueous H+ ion as H3O+ (aq), the hydronium ion (Figure 13.4). Another limitation
to the Arrhenius model is that it assumes all bases contain OH- ions, but some do not. Many
other ionic compounds, commonly called salts, have basic properties, such as the ability to
neutralize acids. Examples of salts that are bases are metal oxides, carbonates, and fluorides.
Some molecular compounds that no group, such as ammonia, NH3, also have basic properties.
 Figure 13.4 The aqueous H+ ion is strongly associated with
water molecules, most commonly surrounded by 4 molecules, as
shown here, giving formula of H9O4+ (aq). Chemists however, generallly
represent aqueous H+ as the hydronium ion, H3O+ (aq).

In 1923 J. N. Brønsted, a Danish chemist, and T. M. Lowry, a

British chemist, independently proposed a new theory to deal with the
limitations of the Arrhenius model. The Brønsted-Lowry theory defines
an acid as any substance that can donate an H+ ion to another substance; it defines a base as
any substance that can accept an H+ ion from another substance. These definitions include all
the Arrhenius acids and bases plus some ions in salts and some molecular compounds such as
ammonia. According to the Brønsted-Lowry theory, when HCI gas dissolves in water, it donates
an H+ to H2O to form hydronium ions and chloride ions:
HCl (g) + H2O (l) ---> H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Note that 1-120 acts as a Brønsted-Lowry base by accepting the H+ from HCI. Ammonia
dissolved in water acts as a Brønsted-Lowry base by the following equation:
NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) <---> NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

In this case, water acts as an acid by donating the H+ to the NH3 molecule. Note that OH- (aq)
ions form, but the —OH group is not present as part of the base initially. Hydroxide ions form as
a result of the Brønsted-Lowry acid-base reaction between NH; and H2O. There are many
organic amines (compounds that contain the —NH2 group) that act as bases in water. An
example is methylamine, CH2NH2:
CH3NH2 (aq) + H2O (l) <---> CH3NH3 (aq) + OH- (aq)
Brønsted-Lowry bases also include anions, such as the carbonate ion, CO3 2- which is found in
the compound Na2CO3 used to alter the pH of swimming pool water. When added to water,
Na2C03 first dissociates completely into its ions:
H 2O
Na2CO3 (s) ---> 2Na+ (aq) + CO32- (aq)

The CO32- ion acts as a base in water by accepting an H+ from H2O:

CO32- (aq) + H2O (l) <---> HCO3- (aq) + OH- (aq)
Brønsted-Lowry acid-base reactions do not always involve water as the acid or base.
Sometimes another substance in the water is better able to give or receive an H+ ion. In the
following reaction, hydrofluoric acid donates an H+ to the carbonate ion base to form fluoride ion
and bicarbonate ion:
HF (aq) + CO32- (aq) <---> F- (aq) + HCO3-(aq)
acid base
Example 13.1: Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
For each reaction, identify Brønsted-Lowry acid-base reactants.

Solution:
The name of HNO3, nitric acid, tells us that it is an acid. However, we can also identify it as an
acid because it donates an H+ to water as shown in the equation. Water accepts H+ from HNO3
to form H3O+(aq), so H2O is the base.
The sulfate ion, (SO4)2-, does not have any hydrogens to donate, so it cannot be the acid.
Instead, it is the base because it accepts H+ to form HSO4-(aq). Water donates the H+, forming
OH-(aq), so H2O is the acid in this reaction.
Methylamine, CH3NH2, acts as a base in water because it accepts an H+ forming
CH3NH3+(aq), Carbonic acid, H2CO3, donates the H+, forming HCO3-(aq), so H2CO3 is the
acid in this reaction.
Consider this 13.1
If reaction (c) runs in reverse, which would be Brønsted-Lowry base?
Practice Problem 13.1
For each reaction, identify the
Brønsted-Lowry acid and base
reactants.

CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIRS

When an acid donates an H+ to a base, the two products differ from the reactants by
one H+ ion. The product that forms as a result of gaining an H+ ion is called the conjugate acid
of the base from which it forms. The product that forms as a result of losing an H+ ion is called
the conjugate base of the acid from which it forms. Consider the reaction of hydrogen chloride
gas with water:

In water, the acid, HCI, reacts to form its conjugate base, Cl-(aq). The base, H2O, reacts
to form its conjugate acid, H3O+(aq). The acid reactant and the conjugate base product are a
conjugate acid-base pair. Likewise, the base reactant and the conjugate acid product are a
conjugate acid-base pair. Conjugate acid-base pairs always differ by one H+ ion. The conjugate
acid of a substance has one more H the conjugate base of a substance has one less H+ . The
conjugate base of an acid is what is left after the acid donates an H+ to another substance. The
conjugate base, then, has one less H atom in its formula and a decrease in charge of 1. Given
that a substance reacts as an acid or a base, you should be able to identify its conjugate.

Example 13.2 Conjugate Acids and Bases

Identify the conjugate base for each acid and explain its charge.
a. HOCl
b. H2PO4-
c. H2O
Solution:
The conjugate base of HOCI is OCI-. It has one less H atom than the acid and a charge of 1—,
one less than the zero charge on HOCI.
The conjugate base of H2PO4- is HPO42-, which has one less H atom than the acid and a
charge of 2—, one less than the 1— charge on H2PO
The conjugate base of H2O is OH-, which has one less H atom than H2O and a charge of 1—,
one less than the zero charge on H2O.
Consider this 13.2
If the H2PO4- ion acts a base, what is its conjugate acid?
Practice Problem 13.2
Identify the conjugate acid for each base.
a. F-
b. HCO3-
c. H2O

STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS AND BASES

Jake uses a solution of HCI to lower the pH of pool water that is too basic. One reason that he
uses HCI is that it is a strong electrolyte that ionizes completely in Solution. Some acids and
bases are strong electrolytes, and others are weak electrolytes. An acid or base that is a strong
electrolyte and completely ionizes or dissociates in water is a strong acid or a strong base. An
acid or a base that is a weak electrolyte and only partially ionizes in water is a weak acid or a
weak base.

TABLE 13.1 COMMON

STRONG ACIDS

Strong Acids
Strong acids ionize completely when dissolved in water. When the strong acid HCI
ionizes in water, the resulting solution consists of only H O , Cl-, and H20. It contains essentially
no un-ionized HCI. Table 13.1 lists the common strong acids.
Some of the strong acids listed in Table 13.1 should be familiar to you. Hydrochloric acid,
HCI, is the acid in your stomach that aids in digestion. It is also the acid that pool maintenance
people like Jake use to wash the plaster of swimming pools. Sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is the acid in
most car batteries, and it occurs in acid rain. Nitric acid, HNO3, also occurs in acid rain.
Strong Bases
Strong bases dissociate completely when dissolved in water. The strong base sodium hydroxide,
NaOH, dissociates completely in water to form Na (aq) and OH (aq). Essentially no
undissociated NaOH(aq) remains. Most of the common strong bases are the ionic hydroxides of
the group IA (l) and IIA (2) metals. Table 13.2 lists the common strong bases. Commercial oven
and drain cleaners contain the strong base sodium hydroxide, NaOH. Sodium hydroxide is also
used in processing paper and in canning olives. Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, sometimes called
slaked lime, forms when lime, CaO, mixes with water. Calcium oxide is sometimes used to
reduce the acidity levels in garden soil. Magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2, is a strong base used
as an antacid, it is relatively insoluble in water.
Common Strong Bases
Weak Acids
How do we know if an acid is a weak acid? Any acid that is not a strong acid is a weak
acid. A weak acid does not ionize completely when dissolved in water. An equilibrium forms
between a weak acid and its conjugate base, so both the reactants and the products are
present in solution. Examples of weak acids are citric acid malic acid, and acetic acid. They are
commonly found in fruits and other foods. Table 13.3 lists some weak acids and where they
commonly occur.
When a weak acid dissolves in water, usually fewer than 10% of the molecules transfer
an H+ to the water, leaving the conjugate base. The rest remain in the molecular form. The
equilibrium lies far to the left. We use equilibrium arrows (when writing an equation to describe
the ionization of a weak acid such as acetic acid, CH3CO2H, in water:

Common Weak Acids

Other weak acids that

ionize in water are cations that are the conjugate acids of weak bases. Ammonium ion, NH4+, is
an example of a weak acid. It is found in the compound ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3, which
Olivia uses to fertilize her plants. How does NH4NO3 act as an acid? Consider what happens
when NH4NO3 dissolves in water. Like any other soluble ionic compound, it dissociates to its
aqueous cations and anions:
H2O
NH4NO3 (s) ---> NH4+ (aq) + NO3-(aq)
Nitrate ion, NO3-, is the conjugate base of a very strong acid, so it does not behave as a base
with water. The NH4+(aq), however, reacts with water as a weak acid and donates an H+ ion to
water:
NH4+ (aq) + H2O (l) <---> NH3 (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

Weak Bases
A weak base does not completely ionize when dissolved in water. An equilibrium forms
between a weak base and its conjugate acid. Ammonia is a common weak base. Most common
weak bases are organic compounds that contain the amine group (—NH2), such as
methylamine, CH3NH2. Methylamine is a weak base, so we show its ionization in water with
equilibrium arrows:
CH3NH2 (aq) + H2O (l) ,---> CH3NH3+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Other weak bases that ionize in water are anions that are the conjugate bases of weak
acids. Hypochlorite ion, OCI-, is an example of a weak base. It is found in the compound
calcium hypochlorite, Ca(OCl)2, that Jake uses to superchlorinate the water in swimming pools.
How does Ca(OCl)2 act as a base? Consider what happens when Ca(OCl)2 dissolves in water.
Like any other soluble ionic compound dissolved in water, it dissociates to its aqueous cations
and anions:

The anions that are the conjugate bases of weak acids are typically obtained from ionic
compounds that contain the anion. For example, the hypochlorite ion used in pool sanitation can
come from a variety of compounds, including Ca(OCl) Some pool products contain sodium
hypochlorite, NaOCl, instead. Identifying ionic compounds that behave as weak bases is
relatively straightforward once you identify the anion. If the anion is the conjugate base of a
weak acid, it will typically behave as a base when added to water. For example, sodium acetate,
NaCH3CO2, is a soluble ionic compound that dissociates to give Na+ (aq) and CH3CO2-(aq)
ions. Consulting Table 13.3, we see that acetic acid is a weak acid with the formula CH3CO2H
The acetate ion, CH3CO2-, is the conjugate base of acetic acid, so we can predict that an ionic
compound containing the acetate ion behaves as a weak base. On the other hand, if the anion
is the conjugate base of a strong acid, it will not react as a base with water. For example, NaCl
contains the conjugate base, Cl-, of the strong acid HCI. Conjugate bases of strong acids do not
react with water, so NaCl will not behave as a base.
Table 13.4 lists some common weak bases and where they are found. For those that are
ionic compounds,
identify the anion that
acts as a base when
the compound
dissolves in water.

Water as Both Acid and Base

Water can act as both a Brønsted acid and a base. Between two water molecules, one can give
off a proton, leaving the hydroxide ion; and the other can accept this proton to become a
hydronium ion. This reaction is referred to as the self-ionization (or autoimization) of water. It
occurs because of the amphiprotic nature of water; that is, it can act as both a proton donor and
an acceptor. The ions exist in equilibrium with the water molecules.
The equilibrium constant of the reaction is called the ionization constant of water (Kw) which has
a constant value of 1.0 X 10^-14 M at 25 0C. The Kw allows for the calculation of either the
hydronium or hydroxide ion concentration when the other value is given. For example, if [H3O+]
is 6.2 X 10^-5 M then [OH-] is calculated simply as

The equilibrium constant of the reaction is called the ionization constant of water (Kw) which has
a constant value of 1.0 X 10^-14 M at 25 0C. The Kw allows for the calculation of either the
hydronium or hydroxide ion concentration when the other value is given. For example, if [H3O+]
is 6.2 X 10^-5 M
then [OH-] is
calculated simply
as

In a neutral solution, the hydronium and hydroxide ion concentrations are equal, and can
therefore be calculated by taking
the square root of Kw.

With [H3O+] [OH-] the equation is manipulated to get the concentrations of the ions.

When there is more [H3O+] than [OH-] the solution is described to be acidic. When [OH-]
greater than [H3O+], it is basic.

MEASURING ACIDITY WITH pH

In 1909, Danish chemist SØren Peter Lauritz SØrensen introduced the pH scale as a
way of expressing the concentration of H+ in dilute solutions. pH, an abbreviation for power of
hydrogen, indicates the acidity or basicity of a solution. The "p" refers to the power or exponent
of the H concentration. The pH of a solution is mathematically defined as the logarithm of the
reciprocal of the H+ molar
concentration.
 At this point, take note that [H+] also refers to
[H3O+], and that they have the same value.

Since a neutral solution has [H+] = 1.0×10^-7 , its pH can be calculated using the pH formula.

Acidic solutions have pH < 7 because [H+] is always greater than as implied by the negative
logarithm. Alkaline solutions have pH > 7 because [H+] is less than 1.0 X 10^-7. For alkaline
solutions, it is more convenient to use the term pOH, which is based on [OH-].

The relationship between pH and POH can be derived from the equilibrium expression of the
autoionization of
water.

Therefore, the sum of pH and POH for a solution will always be equal to 14 because the product
of [H3O+] and [HO- is 1.0x10^-14.

GENERALIZATION
Acids and bases have been
used as laboratory chemicals for centuries, as well as in the home. Common household acids
include acetic acid (CH3COOH, vinegar), citric acid (H3C6H507, in citrus fruits), and phosphoric
acid (H3P04, a flavoring in carbonated beverages). Sodium hydroxide (NaOH, drain cleaner)
and ammonia (NH3, glass cleaner), are household bases. And acid—base chemistry occurs
throughout the environment and organisms.
You may have noticed that some acids (e.g., acetic and citric) have a sour taste. In fact,
sourness was a defining property in the 17th century: an acid was any substance that had a
sour taste; reacted with active metals, such as aluminum and zinc, to produce hydrogen gas;
and turned certain organic compounds specific colors. Similarly, a base (like the amines in fish)
was any substance that had a bitter taste and turned the same organic compounds different
colors, Moreover, it was known that when an acid and a base react, each cancels the properties
of the other in a process called neutralization. Although these early definitions described
distinctive properties, they gave way to others based on molecular behavior.
 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
A type of chemical change where electron transfer occurs is classified as an oxidation-
reduction(redox) process. The ability of the electrons to be transferred from one species to
another is dependent on the species’ reduction or oxidation potential. Flourine, being the most
nonmetallic element, has the greatest tendency to undergo reduction or to gain electrons during
a redox process. On the other hand, metallic elements possess great tendency our potential to
lose electrons or undergo oxidation.
A redox process involves the coupled reactions of oxidation and reduction. Oxidation
involves the loss of electrons by the substance being oxidized. The substance that oxidizes it's
called the oxidizing agent and causes itself to be reduced during the process. Reduction
involves the gain of electrons by the reduced substance. The substance that reduces is called
reducing agent and in turn causes itself to be oxidized.
Redox reactions can be balanced in two ways: by the change in oxidation state method
or by the ion-electron method.
The following steps are involved in balancing redox reactions by the change in oxidation state
method:
9. Write the skeleton equation.
10. Assign oxidation states to all elements using the following rules:
a) The oxidation state of all elements in the free, uncombined state is zero.
Examples: Cl in Cl2, H in H2, O in O2, Mg as Mg metal.
b) The oxidation state of H in compounds is +1 except in hydrides where it is -1.
Examples: H is +1 in HCI, NaOH, CH3COOH; H is -1 in NaH, MgH2.
c) The oxidation state of O in compounds is -2, except in peroxides where it is -1 and when
combined with F where it is +2.
Examples: O is –2 in NaOH, H2O, HNO3; -1 in H2O2, Na2O2; +2 in OF2
d) The oxidation state of a representative element is equal to its valence.
Examples: Na is +1 in NaOH, Mg is +2 in MgO, Cl is -1 in HCI, S is –2 in H2S

e) The sum of the oxidation states in a radical is equal to its charge.

Example: Mn is +7 in the permanganate ion, (MnO4)-1. The oxidation state of O is -2.
The sum of oxidation states for 4 O atoms is (4 X-2) or -8. The algebraic sum of all oxidation
states in the permanganate radical must be equal to -1. It follows that the oxidation state of Mn
must be +7.
Example: Cr is +6 in the dichromate, (Cr2O7)-2 ion. O is -2, therefore, the sum of
oxidation states for 7 O atoms is –14. Since the charge of the radical is -2, it follows by
difference that the sum of oxidation state for 2 Cr atoms must be +12. Since there are 2 Cr
atoms, the oxidation state of a single Cr atom must be +6.
f) The sum of oxidation states in a compound is zero.
Examples: S is +6 in sulfuric acid, H2SO4. 2 H atoms give 2(+1) or +2, 4 O atoms give
4(-2) or -8 which give a total of -6 for H and O. Since the sum of oxidation states must be zero,
the oxidation state of S must be +6.

Determine the element/s which shows an increase or decrease in oxidation state. The
oxidizing agent shows a decrease in oxidation state while the reducing agent shows an increase
in oxidation state. One unit decrease in oxidation state means a gain of one electron while one
unit increase in oxidation state means the loss of one electron.

5.Determine the number of electrons gained or lost per molecule or unit from the change in
oxidation state.
2. Balance the number of electrons gained and electrons lost.
2. Balance the number of atoms of the element oxidized or reduced.
7. Balance the rest of the equation by inspection, balancing H and O last if they are not the
element oxidized or reduced.

Try This!
1. Assign oxidation states to the underlined element.
a) Cl2 c) Na2S e) NaN3
b) K2O2 d) Na2S2O3 f) CH4

2.Determine whether the underlined element is oxidized or reduced in the given partial reaction.
a) H2O2 ----> O2 c) FeSO4 ----> Fe2(SO4)3
b) KBrO3 ----> Kbr d) Na2C2O4 ----> CO2
Sample Problem 1:
Balance the following redox reaction by the oxidation state change method and determine the
oxidizing and reducing agents.
Solution:
1. Assign the oxidation states to all elements.
0+1–1 +3-1 0
Al + HCl ----> AlCl3 + H2
2. Determine which elements showed an increase or decrease in oxidation state. Determine the
number of electrons lost or electrons gained per molecule or unit.

3. Balance the number of electrons loss or gained.

4. Balance the element oxidized or reduced.

Sample Problem 2:
Balance the following reaction by change in oxidation state method and identify the oxidizing
and reducing agents.
KMnO4 + Na2C2O4 + H2SO4 ----> K2SO4 + MnSO4 + Na2SO4 + CO2 + H2O
Solution:
1. Assign oxidation states to all elements.
+1+7-2 +1+3-2 +1+6-2 +1+6-2 +2+6-2 +1+6-2 +4-2 +1-2
KMnO4 + Na2C2O4 + H2SO4 ----> K2SO4 + MnSO4 + Na2SO4 + CO2 + H2O
2. Determine which element showed an increase or decrease in oxidation state and determine
the number of electrons lost and electrons gained per molecule or unit.

3. Balance the number of electrons lost and electrons gained and balance the elements oxidize
or reduced.

4.Balance the rest of the equation by inspection.

Balancing Redox Reactions Using Half-Reaction Method

Another method for balancing redox reactions uses half-reactions. Recall that a half-
reaction is either the oxidation or reduction that occurs, treated separately. The half-reaction
method works better than the oxidation-number method when the substances in the reaction are
in aqueous solution. The aqueous solution is typically either acidic or basic, so hydrogen ions or
hydroxide ions are present.
In general, the half-reactions are first balanced by atoms separately. Electrons are
included in the half-reactions. These are then balanced so that the number of electrons lost is
equal to the number of electrons gained. Finally, the two half-reactions are added back together.
The example is the oxidation of Fe2+ ions to Fe3+ ions by dichromate (Cr2O2−7) in acidic
solution. The dichromate ions are reduced to Cr3− ions.

Step 1: Write the unbalanced ionic equation.

Fe2+ + Cr2O2−7 → Fe3+ + Cr3+
Notice that the equation is far from balanced, as there are no oxygen atoms on the right
side. This will be resolved by the balancing method.

Step 2: Write separate half-reactions for the oxidation and the reduction processes. Determine
the oxidation numbers first, if necessary.
Oxidation: Fe2+→ Fe3+
Reduction: Cr2 + 6O2−7→ Cr3+
Step 3: Balance the atoms in the half-reactions other than hydrogen and oxygen. In the
oxidation half-reaction above, the iron atoms are already balanced. The reduction half-reaction
needs to be balanced with the chromium atoms.
 Cr2O2−7 → 2Cr3+
Step 4: Balance oxygen atoms by adding water molecules to the appropriate side of the
equation. For the reduction half-reaction above, seven H2O molecules will be added to the
product side.
Cr2O2−7 → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
Now the hydrogen atoms need to be balanced. In an acidic medium, add hydrogen ions to
balance. In this example, fourteen H+ ions will be added to the reactant side.

Step 5: Balance the charges by adding electrons to each half-reaction. For the oxidation half-
reaction, the electrons will need to be added to the product side. For the reduction half-reaction,
the electrons will be added to the reactant side. By adding one electron to the product side of
the oxidation half-reaction, there is a 2+ total charge on both sides.
Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e−
There is a total charge of 12+ on the reactant side of the reduction half-reaction (14−2).
The product side has a total charge of 6+ due to the two chromium ions (2×3). To balance the
charge, six electrons need to be added to the reactant side.
6e− + 14H+ + Cr2O2−7 → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
Now equalize the electrons by multiplying everything in one or both equations by a
coefficient. In this example, the oxidation half-reaction will be multiplied by six.
6Fe2+ → 6Fe3+ + 6e−
Step 6: Add the two half-reactions together. The electrons must cancel. Balance any remaining
substances by inspection. If necessary, cancel out H2O or H+ that appear on both sides.
How do batteries or cells work? Commercial sales use electrochemistry to generate the
current that we derive from them. They derive chemical energy from the reactions that occur in
the cells and in turn convert the chemical energy to electrical energy. This part describes some
cells that are commonly used. Which of these cells have you used?

Step 7: Check the balancing. In the above equation, there are 14H, 6Fe, 2Cr, and 7O on both
sides. The net charge is 24+ on both sides. The equation is balanced.
Note: You can use any of the methods depending on your convenience.
Reminder:In balancing redox reactions in acidic solution, you can add H+ ions and H2O
molecule while for basic solutions, you can add OH- ions and H2O molecule.

The Leclanche Dry Cell

This is the most common cell use in flashlights, radios, some calculators, and the like. It
is one of the first modern electrical batteries that was invented by the French electrical engineer
Georges Leclanche. The zink casing acts as the anode and a graphite rod is the cathode. The
following reactions are responsible for the electrical energy derived from this cell.
Anode: Zn(s) ----> Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
Cathode: 2NH4+(aq) + 2MnO2(s) + 2e- ----> Mn2O3 + 2NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
Zn2+(aq) + 2NH3(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) ----> Zn(NH3)2Cl2(s)
Overall reaction:
2MnO2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) + Zn(s) ----> Zn(NH3)2Cl2(s) + H2O(l) + Mn2O3(s), εcell=
1.5V

Mercury and Silver Button Battery

Mercury is used to inhibit corrosion that can lead to gas buildup which in turn can cause
bulging and leakage or can adversely affect battery performance. Chemistries off miniature
battery differ in design, voltage capacity, shelf life, and other characteristics. zinc air batteries
are mostly used in hearing aids and ear implants, and also found in pagers. Silver oxide
batteries are most frequently used in watches, clocks, calculators, games, and cameras.

Fuel Cells
These cells convert the energy of a fuel to electrical energy and are used for portable
power generation, stationary power generation, and power for transportation.
Lead Storage Battery
This is the battery used in cars and trucks. A typical 12-V battery consists of six cells
connected in series to give a total potential of 12 V in the form of several Pb plates dipped in
H2SO4 solution. When the battery discharges, it generates electrical energy as a galvanic cell.
When it recharges, it uses electrical energy as an electrolytic cell where the half-cell reactions
and the overall reaction is reversed.
CORROSION
You can look around you and you will see a lot of metallic structures that are damaged
by corrosion. The term corrosion refers to the process of deterioration of metals. Although this
process is usually described in terms of the metal iron, it is not limited to iron but can happen to
any metal that has lower reduction potential than that of hydrogen.
If the function of sales is a positive application of electrochemistry, corrosion is the
application of electrochemistry with negative effect. The electrochemical nature of corrosion can
be deduced from the nature of the four major components necessary for corrosion to occur,
namely:
1. a metal anode where corrosion will take place;
2. a cathode where no corrosion will take place;
3. an electrolyte which can be soil, water, moisture, etc.; and
4. an electrical connection between the metal anode and the cathode.
Corrosion of steel occurs when the major component of steel, iron at the surface of a
steel component undergoes a number of simple changes. to prevent corrosion of iron, the metal
can be coated with a substance that cannot be oxidized like a coat of paint or with a metal that
is easier to oxidize than iron. This is the basis of galvanization of iron where the iron is coated
with zinc metal to protect the iron from corrosion.

Which metal can provide cathodic protection to iron, Al or Ni?

ELECTROLYSIS
Electrolysis is the process by which ionic substances are broken down into simpler
substances when an electric current is passed through them. for electrolysis to work, the ions
must be free to move. Ions are free to move when an ionic substance is dissolved in water or
when melted. It is a technique that uses a direct current (DC) in a non-spontaneous chemical
reaction.
Commercially, electrolysis is important as a step in the separation of elements from
naturally occurring sources such as ores using an electrolytic cell (a cell consisting of an
electrolyte, its container, and two electrodes, in which the electrochemical reaction between the
electrodes and the electrolyte produces an electric current). The voltage that is needed for
electrolysis to occur is called the decomposition potential.

GENERALIZATION
Oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously. Oxidation occurs when electrons are lost;
reduction occurs when electrons are gained. The element that loses electrons during a reaction
is oxidized and is called the reducing agent; it undergoes an increase in oxidation state. the
element that gains electrons during a reaction is reduced and is called the oxidizing agent; it
undergoes a decrease in oxidation state. A redox Reaction can be balanced by the change in
oxidation state method.
Electrochemistry deals with interconversion of electrical and chemical energy.
Spontaneous reactions occur in galvanic cells. Galvanic cells are a source of energy. Oxidation
occurs at the anode; reduction occurs at the cathode. Electrochemical reactions produce the
current obtained from cells and batteries. Corrosion is the destruction of a metal surface through
an electrochemical reaction. Electrolysis involves a non-spontaneous reaction and therefore
requires the application of electrical energy.

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