Review of Recent Research on Kanji Processing, Learning, and Instruction

Author(s): Yoshiko Mori

Source: Japanese Language and Literature , October 2014, Vol. 48, No. 2, Special Section:
New Perspectives on the Japanese Writing System and Reading Japanese as L1 and L2
(October 2014), pp. 403-430
Published by: American Association of Teachers of Japanese

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24394416

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Review of Recent Research on Kanji Processing, Learning,
and Instruction

Yoshiko Mori

ABSTRACT

This review aims to identify major issues and current trends in resear
on kanji learning and instruction with respect to Japanese as a second langu
(L2) by reviewing over 90 empirical studies on logographic languages that w
published between 2000 and 2013. In order to identify abilities and skills that
Japanese language students need to acquire, the first part of this article revi
character processing abilities among first language (LI) logographic (mo
Chinese and Japanese) readers. The second part examines issues and problem
in L2 kanji learning and instruction, including the role of LI orthograp
knowledge in L2 kanji learning, L2 Japanese learners' kanji learning abil
and perceptions, kanji learning strategies, and pedagogical practices. The rev
of these topics illustrates a broad picture of current trends in research on
kanji learning and instruction as well as directions for future research.

1.Review of Recent Research on Kanji Processing and

Learning
The past two decades have seen an increase in the number of stud
investigating learning to read in logographic languages. Questio
addressed in those studies include whether or not the same orthograph
processing principles apply across different writing systems. Cr
linguistic comparisons can be made from two different perspectives: t
comparative study of literacy development and orthographic processi
abilities among first language (LI) monolingual readers, and the study
word processing abilities within multilingual readers including those w
possess relatively high, balanced proficiencies in multiple languages, a
well as second and/or foreign language (L2) readers whose L2 is s
under development (Francis 2010). Although these two approach
Japanese Language and Literature 48 (2014) 403-430
© Yoshiko Mori

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404 Japanese Language and Literature

address different types of readers, research in a single

relevant to L2 or bilingual reading, as cognitive structures und
reading are the foundation of subsequent literacy dev
Conversely, the study of L2 and/or bilingual reading contrib
better understanding of reading in general.
The Japanese writing system is unique in that two distinc
orthographytwo types of syllabary {hiragana and kataka
logography or morphograpiiy {kanji)—concurrently appear
Japanese. While each kana letter is associated with a certain s
mora (Otake et al.1993), but not with a meaning, the basic un
is a morpheme that represents a certain meaning as well
(Joyce 2011). In addition, each script has its own lexical
hiragana is mainly used for Japanese-originated words an
function words, katakana for non-Chinese loan words and on
and kanji for Sino-Japanese words, many of which are conte
Consequently, learning to read in Japanese, whether as
involves the acquisition of different orthographic processing
and learning different types of orthography is associated
learning of different types of words (Mori 2012). In parti
kanji words constitute a crucial part of Japanese written vocab
acquisition of efficient kanji processing skills, which involves
phonetic, and semantic analyses of characters, is vital in flue
not only for LI readers (Higuchi et al 2003) but also for
(Mori 2003a). As a result, a substantial body of published
learning to read in Japanese specifically addresses kanji proce
learning.
In light of the importance of kanji knowledge in learning to read
Japanese, this article aims at identifying major issues and the direction of
recent research in L2 kanji learning and instruction by reviewing
empirical studies on both LI and L2 logographic languages that were
published between 2000 and 2013. In order to clarify abilities and skills
that L2 Japanese students need to acquire, the first part of this article
reviews character processing and learning among LI logographic (mostly
Chinese and Japanese) readers including both mature and young readers.
Upon identification of issues in LI kanji processing and learning, the
second part of the review examines issues and problems in L2 kanji
learning and instruction as well as implications for future research. In
this article, L2 readers refer to multilingual readers of any age and
language background including balanced bilinguals and second or
foreign language readers with limited L2 proficiency.

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 Yoshiko Mori 405

Topics to be discussed in
questions: (a) What are the
for LI readers? What asp
investigated? (b) What are
instruction? How is L2 kan
What is the role of LI orth
learning? Do L2 Japanes
backgrounds learn L2 kanji
do L2 Japanese students us
from instructional interve
kanji learning?

2. Issues in Kanji Wor

among LI Logographic Readers
As in Chinese, kanji words involve two levels of internal structure. One
level involves the compositionality of single-character words consisting
of sets of less complex elements. Over 85% of commonly used kanji in
modern Japanese (jdyd-kanji) are composite characters, and 60% of joyo
-kanji are categorized as semantic-phonetic composite characters (keisei
moji·，Miyashita 2004)，each of which consists of two parts: a semantic
component, or radical, that is associated with a certain meaning, and a
phonetic element that provides, at least partially, information about
sound. The other level of internal structure pertains to the compositional
structure of kanji compounds consisting of two or more characters
(jukugo). Two-character words exhibit a wide range of morphological
structures in terms of the semantic and syntactic properties of the
component characters (Joyce 2011). Most compounds, however, have a
single pronunciation, while single characters in isolation usually evoke at
least two or more sounds, known as on- and A:w«-readings. Most studies
address either single-character words or kanji compounds, both of which
are referred to as kanji words in this article.
Since kanji characters have both semantic and phonetic values, one
sensible question would be whether or not orthographic representations
can be directly associated with meaning without phonological mediation.
Unlike phonetically transparent kana，which have relatively strict one-to
one correspondence between grapheme and moraic sound, phonetic
information in kanji is neither completely transparent nor reliable as a
guide to the pronunciation of the character. Given the different degrees
of phonological transparency among different writing systems, the

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406 Japanese Language and Literature

orthographic depth hypothesis (e.g., Katz and Frost 1992) propos

the occurrence of sound activation depends on the phonetic trans
of graphemes. This hypothesis predicts that the proce
phonologically opaque (deep) kanji characters is associated wit
processing time and more errors than phonetically transparent
scripts. Ellis et al. (2004)，who examined the word processing ab
native Japanese-, English-, Greek-, and Albanian-speaking
between the ages of 6 and 15, demonstrated that hiragana was rea
accurately than kanji and alphabets of increasing orthograph
(Albanian, Greek, and English), and that orthographic depth ind
differential effects on phonological retrievals.
The universal phonological principle offers the even stronger
that phonological activation is an automatic process that cannot
suppressed in any language. Pollatsek, Tan, and Rayner (200
example, demonstrated that phonetically regular Chinese characte
named faster than phonetically irregular characters, suggest
phonological decoding occurs early in the process of cha
identification. Similarly, Morita and Matsuda (2000) found that
phonological similarity in two-kanji compounds (e.g.,簡単 /kantan/ ‘easy’
and 感嘆 /kantan/ 'admiration', p. 490) caused experienced readers more
confusion than the semantic similarity (e.g.,簡単 /kantan/ ‘easy，and 平
易 /heii/ 'easy', p. 490)，and that phonological interference was observed
only under the asynchrony condition that occurs after the shortest amount
of stimulus, supporting the view that sound activation occurs at the very
initial stage of compound recognition. Saito et al. (2008), however,
found that, while the overall effects of phonological similarity were
observed for retention of serially ordered kanji characters (e.g., the
sequence of 舌 /shita/ ‘tongue’，宮 /miya/ ‘shrine’，and 岩 /iwa/ ‘rock’，as
opposed to that of 仮 /kari/ ‘temporary’，坂 /saka/ ‘slope’，and 板 /ita/
‘board’，p. 11)，these phonological effects disappeared in the articulatory
suppression condition, suggesting spontaneous use of visual codes in
immediate serial recall. Likewise, Morita, and Tamaoka (2002) found
that readers activated phonological information of two-character
compounds when reading for comprehension but not for simple
proofreading, suggesting that kanji word recognition spontaneously
induces both visual and phonological activations.
The recent advancement in neuroscience technology, wnich
enables us to locate brain regions activated during word recognition,
illuminates both commonalities and variations in neural networks for

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 Yoshiko Mori 407

phonological activation ac
analyses on neuroimaging
languages (Bolger et al. 20
instance, found strikingly
region in the brain know
2000)，suggesting that th
analysis of any word. At th
bilateral activation within
dominant activation induced
character processing is cog
of sound-based orthograp
2009, Coderre et al 2008, P
2005, Tham et al 2005, Th
example, found that the Str
activation in brain regions d
Character reading involves
the characters' square conf
of a string of kana or alpha
of brain regions in both
Imada et al (2000) asked n
correctly as possible, wheth
the left side of a character,
on the right side, presente
constitute a single real char
positions, hen was always p
had to mentally constr
Neuromagnetic responses
responsible for accuracy
studies, the bilateral occipi
the bilateral occipkopariet
areas surrounding the left s
the subjects were construct
To demonstrate the use
Morita and Tamaoka (20
pseudo-compounds (e.g.,矛約
more errors than orthogra
約 for 予約).When such
presented in the context o
errors than when the sam

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408 Japanese Language and Literature

suggesting that contextual information reduces the inhibitory

visual similarity. Tamaoka and Kiyama (2013) observed the
effect of visual complexity only for low-frequency characters
high-frequency kanji, suggesting that the frequency of char
significant effect on use of visual code during kanji recognitio
Ogawa and Saito (2006) investigated the facilitative effe
types of neighbors for two-character compounds: rear-neigh
share the same fnmt-kanji and vary in the VQar-kanji (e.g., for th
院，病気，and 病室 are rear-neighbors), and front-neighbors
the same rQ3,r-kanji and vary in the front-kanji (e.g.,入院 an
front-neighbors of 病院）.Orthographically and semantic
neighbors of higher frequency that were recalled prior to
compounds interfered with the recognition of the target word
and 認識 for the target word 認可)，whereas lower frequency c
showed facilitative effects on compound recognition (e.g.,戦略
for侵略).
LI reading research has established that children's phonological
awareness，which is sensitivity to the sound structure of words, and
morphological awareness, which is sensitivity to internal word structures,
plays a vital role in young readers' literacy development. In this line of
research, a number of studies have investigated Chinese children's
phonetic awareness, which is sensitivity to the structure and function of
character components that provide a clue to pronunciation (Chow,
McBridge-Chang, and Burgess 2005; Shu, Anderson, and Wu 2000; Siok
and Fletcher 2001), as well as morphological awareness (Cheng et al.
2011;Ku and Anderson 2001，2003; Packard et al. 2006; Wu et al. 2009;
Yeung et al 2011). While the nature of the phonological and
morphological awareness that predicts success in reading is contingent
upon the characteristics of the writing system (Siok and Fletcher 2001),
sensitivity to the regularity of character structures and the ortho-phonetic
and ortho-semantic regularity of word elements plays an important role
in learning to read Chinese. Shu et al. (2000)，for example, demonstrated
that character familiarity and character regularity strongly influenced
children's ability to represent the pronunciation of semantic-phonetic
composite characters. Likewise, Yeung et al. (2011) found that
knowledge of the position, function, and semantic category of radicals
among children in first through fifth grades was strongly correlated with
word reading and sentence comprehension. For Japanese elementary
school children, Higuchi et al (2003) demonstrated that kanji processing

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 Yoshiko Mori 409

abilities, together with i

accounted for a large portion
comprehension.
Knowledge of semantic co
educated guesses when they
orthographic skills and morp
to distinguish meanings am
morphemes, contribute a la
reading, word spelling, and
processing abilities (Yeung e
demonstrated the ability to
interpreting new words wh
information (Ku and Ander
isolation (Shu et al 2006). I
fourth, and sixth grades dem
readers in recognizing the m
interpreting low-frequency
elements, and judging the w
Anderson 2003)，suggesting
to better reading, and vice ve
Omori and Yamamoto (20
developmental disabilities
particularly in kanji readin
characters through stimulus
were sequentially presented w
pictures. They argue that th
key to successful kanji lear
children exhibit deficits in au
linguistic processing, suggest
as important to reading deve
itis to learning to read in an
Enhanced instruction on th
of Chinese words leads to
characters among Chinese-sp
well as in raising morpholo
children (Wu et al 2009).
radical awareness, sensitivity
as a basic element in kanji
which was often emphasize

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410 Japanese Language and Literature

minor role in kanji knowledge as a whole. Thus, fostering compos

awareness should be a priority in kanji instruction for LI children

3. L2 Kanji Recognition and Production

Compared to LI,L2 character recognition is associated with an inc
cognitive demand for orthographic, semantic, and phonological r
and verbal working memory (Buchweitz et al. 2009; Liu, Perfe
Wang 2006; Liu, Wang, and Perfetti 2007; Perfetti et al. 2007;
Perfetti, and Liu 2003). Buchweitz et al. (2009), for exam
demonstrated differential brain responses to different writing s
and L2 reading comprehension that was associated with more effo
phonological rehearsal. Brain activation patterns for L2 processing
vary depending on LI and L2 typological differences (Jeong et al
and L2 proficiency (Lee et al 2003, Meschyan and Hernandez
Jeong et al. (2007), for instance, investigated the locations of the
LI processing-induced cortical activations while performing se
comprehension tasks in L2 English and L2 Japanese among Chines
Korean native speakers. Activation during L2 English se
comprehension relative to that of LI was greater for the Korean
than for the Chinese group, whereas activation during L2 J
comprehension relative to LI was greater for Chinese than Korean
asymmetry suggests that L2 Japanese processing requires more eff
Chinese than for the Korean counterparts.
The acquisition of efficient L2 orthographic, semantic, and ph
processing skills seems to occur at different times, and the
network is gradually reconstructed to accommodate the demand o
logographic writing system in the course of L2 learning. En
speaking L2 Chinese students, for instance, demonstrated orthogr
knowledge of characters (e.g., strokes, radical structures, etc.) by t
of the first semester, but their lexical access (i.e., the retrie
semantic and phonological information) was still slow and ineffic
the second term (Liu et al. 2006, Liu et al. 2007, Wang, Perfetti, a
2003). The lag between visual (orthographic) analysis and lexica
observed in L2 Chinese students was comparable to the chara
processing pattern of native Chinese speakers, suggesting that alph
readers develop a neural network that accommodates the demand
Chinese writing system. Interestingly, competent Chinese-E
bilingual students did not show the alphabetic (left hemis
dominant) pattern in order to process L2 English, suggesting that a

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 Yoshiko Mori 411

system developed for readin

(Perfetti et al. 2007).
L2 learners also exhibit a
production skills, and the ac
comes later than recognition
students of L2 Japanese
orthographic and semantic f
improve their character dec
college students were still no
and semantic representatio
while writing the character,
which a character is stuck o
accurately (Chikamatsu
Tamaoka (2002) observed a
writing errors made by Eng
errors which were partially
knowledge of composition
recognition and production
was analogous to the writing
seventh graders frequently m
Japanese college students m
computer writing, however,
make phonetically related er
ability for phonetic input fo
Matsumoto-Start 2003).

4_ The Role of LI Orth

Processing and Learnin
A number of studies have shown that L2 learners with different LI
orthographic backgrounds exhibit different degrees of intra-word
awareness, such as awareness of internal structure of composite words,
which has a significant impact on L2 lexical processing (See Akamatsu
2002, 2003; Harada and Koda 2008; Koda 2000, 2007; Wang, Koda, and
Perfetti 2003). L2 learners from a phonographic (i.e., a language that
employs a sound-based orthography一English, for example) LI
background demonstrate more phonological reliance and less visual
reliance in L2 word recognition than those from a logographic (i.e., a
language that uses a morpheme-based orthography一Chinese, for
example) LI background. Matsumoto (2013), for example, compared the

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412 Japanese Language and Literature

lexical judgment and reading skills of three groups of

college students (i.e., beginning-level students whose LI
was alphabetic, beginning-level students from a LI l
[Chinese] language, and intermediate-level students with
background). The Chinese group, who had sufficient
knowledge, outperformed the other two groups on the lexi
task. The poor performance of the LI alphabetic groups was
to their limited visual recognition strategies for L2 kanji d
the two LI alphabetic groups of different proficiency le
different reading strategies that were attributable to differe
exposure to the L2.
While LI orthographic knowledge plays a significant
word recognition, L2 orthographic processing strate
reconstructed as learners gain greater L2 proficiency. Chika
demonstrated that higher-proficiency English-speaking
learners showed more visual reliance (i.e., L2 orthograph
and less phonological reliance (i.e., LI strategies) in L2 h
katakana word recognition than their lower-proficiency cou
Likewise, Toyoda and McNamara (2011) found that L
recognition skills approximated those of LI readers with
proficiency. Hansen, Umeda, and McKinney (2002) also
English-speaking missionary returnees from Japan or Korea
L2 knowledge learned more new and forgotten items tha
lower L2 proficiency, suggesting that L2 learners' strategies
relearn words accommodated the demand of L2 words in the
L2 learning.
If efficient lower-level processing frees L2 readers' cognitive
capacity for higher-level processing, then Chinese students, who have
already acquired good working character knowledge in LI, should be
able to read L2 Japanese texts better than their non-Chinese counterparts.
Machida (2001), however, found that Chinese and non-Chinese
intermediate L2 Japanese learners showed no significant difference in
their text-approaching strategies, and that the non-Chinese group even
outscored the Chinese group in reading comprehension tasks, even
though the Chinese group outperformed in kanji comprehension tasks
both with and without context. These unexpected findings suggest that
LI character knowledge does not necessarily guarantee skilled L2
reading unless readers pay attention to other sources of information in a
text.

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 Yoshiko Mori 413

Kato (2005b) found that in

L2 kanji words, Chinese-b
semantic knowledge more h
they could use both types o
similarity between Japan
directly proportional to the
LI orthographic and phon
semantic information. Furt
language (JHL), who used
relatively high conversation
Chinese- or non-Chinese-b
comprehension tasks, sho
always lead to better read
that JHL learners' weakn
proficiency but their inabil
information of which was o
Early exposure to L2, h
children's development of
and Anderson 2010; Navas
as to orthographic or sema
2011). Kuo and Anderson
linguistic systems acceler
awareness because exposure
contexts should facilitate t
as well as the developmen
segments from syllables and
from Chinese-English bilin
bilingual children would
subsyllabic units and detect
more efficiently than their
al. (2005) demonstrated th
matching skills in Chinese,
phonetic system used to
characters), and Chinese to
phonological awareness in
each writing system, howev
orthographic system, sugg
joint function of shared ph
skills. Likewise, Chinese-En

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414 Japanese Language and Literature

sensitivity to the semantic transparency of English compoun

to the lexicality of translated compounds in Chinese, indepe
semantic transparency of English compounds and their
proficiency (Cheng et al. 2011).

5. L2 Kanji Learning Strategies and Instruction

Kanji learning is considered one of the most challenging aspects of L2
Japanese learning (Gamage 2003, Grainger 2005, Mori 2002, Mori and
Shimizu 2007, Shimizu and Green 2002). Some students feel helpless
learning by themselves and express their desire to receive strategy
instruction in order to learn kanji effectively (Mori and Shimizu 2007).
The challenge in kanji learning includes the large number of characters,
the visual complexity and similarity, the difficulty in retention, the
multiple readings of a single character and the phonetic opaqueness, the
semantic semitransparency of word components, and the polysemous
nature of kanji words (Toyoda 2007). As a result, topics in L2 kanji
research include memory and retrieval (Chikamatsu 2005), radical or
compositional awareness (Kubota and Toyoda 2001; Mori, Sato, and
Shimizu 2007; Toyoda 2000; Yamashita and Maru 2000), the role of
morphological and contextual information in interpreting novel kanji
words (Kondo-Brown 2006a, Mori 2002 2003b, Mori et al. 2007)，the
transferability of LI knowledge among learners with Chinese character
backgrounds (Kato 2005a, Sawabe and Yasui 2008), the role of teacher
feedback in learning to write kanji characters (Kubota 2003), and learner
or teacher perceptions about the nature of kanji learning (Gamage 2003,
Grainger 2005, Mori 2002, Mori and Shimizu 2007, Shimizu and Green
2002).
Kanji knowledge is a multifaceted notion. Students need to gain
various types of knowledge even for a single kanji character or word,
including meaning(s), sound(s)，orthographic features, compositional
structures, stroke order, semantic or phonetic congruence with context,
grammatical function, and prototypical or nonprototypical usage. It is
also important to note that all readers, even native proficient readers,
possess only partial knowledge in each dimension, and such knowledge
is gradually expanded and deepened through multiple exposures (Mori
2003a, 2012). Therefore, L2 students should be able to use various
learning strategies, depending on learning goals and the aspects of kanji
knowledge they would like to enrich (Mori et al 2007).
L2 Japanese learners and educators reflect upon their own kanji
learning and instruction from various perspectives and show different

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 Yoshiko Mori 415

views on the effectiveness o

(2007), for instance, identified
from over 300 L2 Japanese s
analysis, rote memorization
methods, metacognitive strate
(2002) also identified three m
often used in kanji instructi
educators' survey responses:
strategies. Both studies demon
value of kanji and positive att
were associated with the use of
Morphological or compone
internal structure of charac
complex parts: semantic comp
about word meaning, and phon
information about sound. L2 J
to use their knowledge of the
elements while learning new
and Toyoda 2001; Mori 2002
Yamashita and Maru 2000), a
structures of characters at a r
Koda, and Perfetti 2003). To
information from word comp
learners are generally better a
information. Semantic inform
not always directly related to
misinterpretations (Mori 2002
2006). Hence, students should
information in learning new k
are able to combine informati
clues in an additive way, nea
single source and did not check
of information (Mori 2002, 2
instruction on the effective us
functions of units of charac
syntactic and discourse info
overcome their difficulties.
Chinese-English bilingual fift
morphological structures of C

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416 Japanese Language and Literature

the knowledge to comparable types in English. Reverse transfer

English to Chinese was found only for high-proficiency ch
suggesting that lower proficiency students do need language
instruction.
The phonetic structures of kanji should also receive instru
attention, as research shows that sound plays an important role
word recognition and working memory during reading, an
phonological retrieval of L2 kanji is a cognitively demanding ski
requires time and practice to acquire. The majority of characters
phonological properties, as over 60% of joyo-kanji comprises s
phonetic composite characters consisting of semantic and p
elements (Miyashita 2004). Furthermore, the acquiskion of ef
accurate kanji naming skills becomes increasingly important in a
studies, not only for reading comprehension but also for phonet
for kana-to-kanji conversion in computer writing (Matsumoto-Sta
Chikamatsu 2003). Based on the findings of their studies on
readers with limited literacy skills, Chan et al. (2006) recommen
character instruction address at least three components of readin
cognitive skills: learning the orthographic (positional, seman
phonological) regularities of characters, enhancing phon
processing skills, and training the rapid naming of characters. Sin
et al. saw positive preliminary results, L2 Japanese students m
benefit from training in these skills.
Rote learning strategies, including repeated writing, tracking
copying, are perceived as the most effective kanji learning strat
both L2 Japanese students (Mori and Shimizu 2007) and edu
(Shimizu and Green 2002). Gamage (2003) observed that L2 J
learners from alphabetic backgrounds more frequently used
writing strategies to memorize kanji than learners with
background. As Winke (2013) demonstrated that rote me
contributed most to Chinese language learning aptitude, the imp
of repeated practice cannot be overemphasized for the acquis
automatic, efficient lower-level processing skills (e.g., character
recognition). While some practitioners question the effective
repeated character writing for L2 Japanese or Chinese learne
alphabetic language backgrounds (Allen 2008), guided rote le
strategies could help novice learners overcome frustration an
neural pathways to the procedural memory (Nesbitt 2009).
(2012) found that informal five-week-long, out-of-class activitie

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 Yoshiko Mori 417

(kanji and katakana) gym

proficiencies could practice
had a positive impact on L2
also on non-native and na
postgraduate assistants who
et al. (2011) demonstrated t
enforce character handwrit
read L2 Chinese. They argue
of visual-spatial informa
sensory-motor memory tha
strengthened the phonology
Context-based strategies r
context in contrast to learn
use contextual informatio
documented in the past thr
Vocabulary of Reading in
characters or words in
cognitively more demandin
explicit cognitive operations
sound and meaning of Ch
information, however, only
does not necessarily provid
meaning of unknown wor
clues should thus be compen
contexts combined with rea
sources of information.
Association methods, o
strategies using personal en
items to be learned. Mnemo
and phonological resemblan
either formally preestablis
and Hooper 2004). Kuwaba
presenting "associative pict
shape of a target kanji char
effective in paired-assoc
equivalents (e.g.,巣-nest) f
imagery than in using "stan
Verhaeghen et al. (2006
spontaneously assimilated c

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418 Japanese Language and Literature

word into a single presentation by building effortful imagery

the presentation order of character-word combinations, the
value of the word, and the presentation time had differentia
character recognition memory. Lastly, mnemonic strategy
seems to have a positive impact on student perceptions, as su
significant gain in course performance and test passing
Japanese learners who were experiencing difficulties with c
(Manalo, Mizutani, and Trafford 2004).
Metacognitive strategies are used to become aware of
learning process, and metacognitive strategies applied to kan
include clear understanding of a given task, selection of sui
learning strategies, coordination of one's own learning in an
manner, monitoring progress, and self-direction in the dev
kanji knowledge. The sense of helplessness, which was ide
discrete strategy factor in Mori and Shimizu (2007)，stands
end of metacognitive strategies. Students who feel lost witho
effective kanji learning strategies (Gamage 2003, Noguch
benefit from metacognitive instruction that familiarize
various learning strategies.
Most importantly, L2 Japanese students must learn to us
strategies flexibly, depending on the nature of learning
integrate multiple sources of information effectively so as
better understanding of a new word than from a single
(Mori 2002, 2012). Unfortunately, however, L2 Japanese
consider metacognitive strategies least effective and rote m
most effective, which suggests that many students do not m
own strategy use and fail to use multiple sources of inform
and Shimizu 2007). Incidentally, L2 Japanese educators al
rote learning the most effective teaching strategy (Shimizu
2002). This perceptual similarity may reflect the impac
beliefs or the way that kanji is taught on the formulatio
perceptions. Dewey (2004) has also reported a teacher in
student attitudes related to script choice in the Japanes
Alternatively, students may have independently come to th
that rote memorization works best for them simply because
know how to use other strategies effectively.
While there is nothing wrong with the use of rote me
strategies, the lack of self-monitoring and the lack of f
strategy use is a matter of concern. Since belief in the effe

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 Yoshiko Mori 419

metacognitive strategies pr
structures of novel kanji w
metacognitive awareness of
of becoming strategic kanji
more closely related to per
proficiency (Kondo-Brown
a significant role in cultivat
that gaining confidence in k
kanji knowledge.

6. Concluding Remark
In an attempt to identify m
L2 kanji learning and ins
current empirical studies
guided by four major ques
learning and processing fo
different from that of L
knowledge with regard to L
Japanese students use to le
illuminates how L2 kanji r
from experimental research
unique features of the Japan
in L2 Japanese for learners
Experimental studies e
processing suggest that pho
word recognition, as in the
young children's phonetic
character components pr
important role in learning
finding that character proc
more effortful phonologica
orthographies has informed
the phonological aspect
underestimated. Cross-lingu
systems have demonstrated
L2s are associated with diff
that L2 kanji instruction
orthographic backgrounds,
from kanji instruction for

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420 Japanese Language and Literature

has shown that, as L2 proficiency advances, the neural

gradually reconstructed to accommodate the demand of the
writing system, supporting the notion that multiple ex
extensive reading should lead to desirable outcomes.
Research also suggests that L2 kanji instruction should
least three components of reading-related cognitive or m
skills: the learning of the orthographic, semantic, and p
regularities of characters, training in the rapid naming of
compounds, and kanji learning strategies. Recognizing famil
in a novel character, for example, makes it easier for the lea
it down to reasonable parts. Knowledge of radicals or c
characters enables the learner to infer the sense of an unfa
word, if not the exact meaning of the word, and knowl
phonetic structure of characters helps the learner to ide
providing sound information in a new character. Training i
naming of characters or compounds reduces L2 readers' c
during reading comprehension, as well as enhances phonetic
kana-to-kanji conversion in computer writing. Learning
various kanji learning strategies is expected to enhance
ability to handle unfamiliar kanji words.
The instruction of kanji presents unique challenges in L2
teaching, but it provides educators with an opportunity
knowledge and skills that L2 Japanese learners should ac
reflect upon their own instructional strategies. The perceptu
observed among L2 Japanese teachers and students sugge
teachers believe about kanji teaching significantly influe
perceptions about and attitudes toward kanji learning.
educators, therefore, must continue to learn from research f
related theories while contributing to the advancement o
theories and research methodologies by providing a new
Furthermore, while the effectiveness of kanji instruction n
validated by systematic assessment, only a limited numb
systematically evaluate testing or assessment instruments o
themselves. It is important to establish collaboration between
educators, and test developers, and more importantly, to trai
to be able to apply research findings to their practice an
action research investigating their own classroom. Lastly, th
L2 kanji studies remain focused on college-level L2 Japan
This skewed coverage should be adjusted; L2 kanji researc

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 Yoshiko Mori 421

should aspire to examine a br

backgrounds who learn and u
expansion of the scope should
on L2 kanji learning in particu

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