I

1443

THE RADIAL TEWPERATURE DISt'RIBUTION AND EFFECTIVE RADIAL THERMAL

COMXKJTIVITY IN BARE SOLID AND -ED OONW<;WRS

V. T. Morgan, Senior Member

CSIRO Division of Applied Physics
Lindfield, Australia 2070

Abstract - The radial temperature distribution in 1 d dT Qo(l+noT)

monometallic and bimetallic, solid and stranded circular -
- 0
cylindrical conductors is calculated for uniform -r dr
_ ['dr] +

circumferential temperature, uniform current density and

uniform radial thermal conductivity. A new analysis is
presented for the radial heat flow in concentric-lay
stranded conductors. Parallel heat paths are formed by
the asperities and the air gaps at the contacts between
crossing wires, and the air voids between wires in
adjacent layers. Most of the heat is transferred by
conduction through the air gaps and the air voids: there
is negligible heat transfer by radiation and convection.
It is shown that the temperature difference between
layers depends on the number of contacts per unit length
and the area of each contact. The latter depends on the
radial force, and hence on the tension. The calculated
effective radial thermal conductivity for a 6113.5 mm
AAC conductor falls within the range of experimental
values. Tests were performed on pairs of crossing 3.5
mm hard-drawn aluminum wires to determine the
relationships between the radial force per contact, the
crossing angle. the apparent area of contact and the
loading duration.
INTRODUCTION
where r is the radius, Qo is the heat input per unit
volume at 0°C and Q O is the temperature coefficient of
resistivity at 0°C. Qo is given by
Qo = I2WAL = Izpo/AbA (2)
where po is the resistivity at O'C, I is the total
current, R is the total resistance, A is the spatial
cross-sectional area, including any voids, and Ab is the
cross-sectional area of the conducting material.
(a) Monometallic Conductor
The boundary conditions for the problem postulated
in (1) are:
T finite. r = 0
dT/dr = 0, r = 0
-krdT/dr = f(Ts,Ta. Psol). r = r (3)

As economic and environmentalist pressures prompt where f(Ts,Ta,Psol)is a complex function of the surface
the fuller utilisation of overhead transmission lines, temperature Ts, the ambient temperature T and the solar
there is growing interest in the radial temperature
distribution within the conductors. The radial heat gain per unit length Psol [ll].
temperature gradient within a solid cylindrical The solution to (1) to ( 3 ) can be expressed in
conductor is usually negligible, but that within a terms of the surface temperature as follows [12-141:
stranded conductor may be significant. Measurements on
tensioned stranded conductors carrying current under
both indoor (including wind tunnels) [l-91 and outdoor
[5,6,8-101conditions indicate that the difference in
temperature between the centre of the conductor and the
surface is roughly 10 per cent of the mean temperature 1
rise of the conductor above ambient. where b = (QoQo/kr)' (5)
The significance of this radial temperature and Jo signifies the Bessel function of the first kind
distribution is that, whereas the rate of cooling of the and order zero. A t the centre of the conductor (r=O),
conductor by radiation and convection depends on the the temperature is T and Jo(br) = 1. hence the radial
surface temperature, the Joule heat input with uniform temperature difference is given by:
current density varies with the mean temperature, and
the sag, creep and annealing of the conductor are
influenced by the distribution of temperature within the
conductor.

The Heat Equation The total internal Joule heat P per unit length is
obtained from
If we assume uniform circumferential temperature T ,
uniform current density J and uniform radial thermal S

conductivity kr, the steady state heat equation f o r an P = 2nJ2po r(l+aoT)dr (7)
infinite circular cylindrical conductor is 0
hence.

The mean temperature T of the conductor is given by

av
r

Tav =
l
3
s o
1
2arTdr
S

I ~ - -
1
144.4

Substituting for T from (4) into (9). and integrating,

hence, B = Qr12/2kr (21)

Substituting for B from (21) into (19), and taking

the temperature at the outer surface,

Substituting for (l+aoTs) from (10) into (8).

P = m: J2po(l+aoTav) (11)
Q
hence A = Tz + -(rz2-2r121nr2)
NOW Jo(brs) = 1 - aoJ2pors2/4kr+ a 0 ~ J ~ p 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ / 6 ~ ~ ~ *r
- . . . (12)
Substituting for A from (23) into (19).
Terms after the second term on the right-hand side
of (12) are usually negligible in comparison with the
first two terms, hence

kr N a0J~p0r~~/4[1-Jo(br~)] (13)
The radial temperature difference i s thus

Substituting f o r Jo(brs) from (6) into ( 1 3 ) . Q r2

- [r22-r12-2r121n-]rl
T ~ - T= ~
4kr

Since Q = P/r(r22-r12), the radial thermal conductivity

can be derived from (25),
Substituting for J2por from (11) into (14). P 2r12 r2
k =- (26)
r 4a(TI-T2) [I - m l n ~ ]
--N

- 4a(Tc-Ts) l+aoTav [l+QoTc I ( 15) (c) Bimetallic Conductor

The bimetallic conductor, shown in Fig. 1 , consists

For moderate temperatures, l+aoTc
P having radius r l , current density J 1 , resistivity p 1 and
N
-
- 4Wc-Ts)
(b) Hollow Monometallic Conductor
Let the inner and outer radii be rl and r2.
respectively. It is assumed that the inner surface is
adiabatic. It can be shown [14] that the power loss per
unit length can be expressed as
_U l+aoTav. hence of a homogeneous circular cylinder of one material
(16)
thermal conductivity k rl , tightly enclosed within a
hollow circular cylinder of a second material having the
properties 1-2. Jz. p z and kr2 , respectively. With
direct current, the total current I divides according to
the resistances of the two sections, assuming good
electrical contact between them:
1 1 = IR~/(RI + R2) (27)

P = rJ2po(r22-rI2)( l+aoTav) (17) and Iz = IRI/(RI + Rz) (28)

The resistances RI and R2 are mean values and are

and the radial thermal conductivity can be found from temperature dependent. With alternating current, the
current distribution i s not uniform, due to skin and
kr = P/2rb{A1[rzJl(brz) - rlJl(brl)] proximity effects and, with steel cored conductors,
+ BI CrzY1 (br2 1 - rlyl (br1111 (18) ferromagnetic effects [14]. The boundary conditions are

1 1 T finite, 0 5 r 5 r2
where AI = [ ( T I + z ) Y o ( b r z ) - (Tz+ z)Yo(br1)1
dT/dr = 0. r = 0
1 1
BI = CUz+ --)Jo(brl) - (TI+z)Jo(brz)l
Qo TI = Tz. r = t-1

T I and T2 are the temperatures of the inner and outer kldTl/dr = k2dTz/dr, r = rl
surfaces, respectively. J 1 denotes a Bessel function of
the first kind and first order, and YO and Y1 denote -kzdTz/dr = f(T2.Ta,Psol). r = r2
Bessel functions of the second kind and having zero and
first orders, respectively. Q(r,T) = Ql(r,T), O < r < r l
If i t is assumed that heat is generated uniformly
within the conductor, i.e. Q i s uniform, then eqn. (1) Q(r,T) = QZ(r,T), rl<r<rz (29)
can be integrated twice to derive the temperature T.
The subscript r for the radial thermal conductivity has
T = A + Blnr - Qr2/4kr (19) been omitted to avoid confusion.
Assuming constant radial thermal conductivities,
Since the inner surface is assumed to be adiabatic, uniform current densities, uniform and linearly
temperature-dependent resistivities and
circumferentially uniform temperatures [14,15], the
dT B Qrl internal heating terms simplify to
= - - - - -0
(G)rl rl 2kr
QI(TI = 1 12 P 0 I (1' 0' ITI)/AIAbl (30)
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I

1445

where the outer surface temperature Tr2 is obtained from

(33) with r=rz.
1
T r 2 = C3Jo(b2rz) + C4Yo(bzrz) - 02 (43)

The nature of the cooling function is discussed in [14]

and [15]. Differentiating (33). we obtain for r=rz,

dT2
(drIrz = -b2CC3Ji(b2rz) + C4Yl(bZr2)1 (44)

Substituting for (dTz/dr) r2 from (44) into (42),

Fig. 1. Bimetallic conductor.

Qz (T) = 122P02 (I+aO2Tz )/A2Ab2 (31)

It is seen from (40). (41) and (45) that the three
The solution to eqn. (1) is now equations contain three unknown constants C I , C3 and C4.
If the surface function f(T .Ta.Psol) is non-linear,
rz
the set of equations has to be solved numerically. On
the other hand if the function i s linear. we can write

1
Tz = CsJo(b2r) + CdYo(bzr) - -, rl<r<r2 (33)
00 2 where ht is the total heat transfer coefficient
where bz = 12poao/kAAb (34)
(d) Steel-Cored Conductor
Differentiating (32), we obtain
A steel-cored conductor, such as ACSR. is a special
dTl/dr = -blCIJl(blr) - blCzYl(b1r) case of the bimetallic conductor, because the higher
(35) resistivity and smaller cross-sectional area of the
Since dTl/dr = 0 when r = 0, (35) becomes steel result in the steel core carrying only a small
fraction (1-2%) of the total current. If i t is assumed
CI JI( 0 ) + C2Yi ( 0 ) = 0 that the inner current I1 = 0 . then bl = 0 , and
(36) Jo(blr) = Jo(0) = 1 , hence (37) becomes
But Jt(0) = 0 and Yl(0) equals infinity, hence Cz = 0.
At r=r1. Tl=T hence from (32),
rl* (47)

(37) Equation (47) demonstrates that the core is

isothermal if I1 = 0. The calculated temperature
distribution in the steel core of a Drake conductor
carrying about 2% of the total current was shown to be
almost uniform, see F i g . 3 of reference [15]. At r=rl.
we have, by differentiation of (47) and (33).
1
(dTl/dr) = 0 (48)
'
r
1 + rl
i.e. C1 = (3%)
Jo (bi ri 1 and (dTz/dr) = -bz[C3Jl(bzrl) + C4Yl(bzrl)l (49)
rl
Substituting for C1 from (38b) into (37),
Also kl(dTl/dr) = kz(dT~/dr)
r1 r2

(39) and Tl(r1) = T2(r1), hence

This is the solution for an isolated monometallic b2k2CC3J1(b2ri 1 + c4Y1(b2ri 11 = 0 (50)

cylinder, see ( 4 ) . At r=rI. kldTl/dr = kzdTz/dr, hence, 1
differentiating (32) and ( 3 3 ) . with C2=0,
and C1 - -
-- C3Jo(bzr1) + C4Yo(bzr1) (51)
00 1
kl bl
b2C3Jl(bzrl)+ bC4Yi(bri) = PiJi(biri) (40) At r = r 2 ,

f(Tr2.Ta.Psol) = kzbzCC3Jl(bzrz) C4Yl(bzrZ)] (52)

Also, TI),^ = (T2)r2, hence, from (32) and (33).
+

The set of equations (50). (51) and (52) can be

1 1 solved for the three unknown constants C1, C3 and C4.
CIJo(blrl) - = C3Jo(bzr1) + C4Yo(b2r1) - (41) As in the general case, if the cooling function at the

_- 7
I
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1446
nuter surface is non-linear, a numerical solution is area and d is the diameter of each wire. The total
necessary, but if the function is linear, as in (46). tension TI' in the first layer of six wires is then
then an algebraic solution can be obtained. found from

So far, i t has been assumed that the radial thermal where @ I is the angle of lay of the wires in the first
conductivity is constant and known. This is the case layer, see Fig. 2. It is seen that
for a solid circular cylindrical conductor, but i t i s
not the case for a stranded cylindrical conductor, -1
COS@, = S I [ S ~+~ (TDI)~] ' (58)
because the radial heat flow occurs across a combination
of wire-to-wire contacts and air voids. The effective where S I is the lay length (pitch) of the wires in the
radial thermal conductivity of stranded conductors has first layer, and D l is the mean diameter of the circle
been derived from measurements of the radial temperature formed by the wires in that layer. Hence, the component
difference and the power input per unit length. Values of TI' in the direction of the axis of the conductor is
in the range 0.89t o 6.98Wm-1K-1 have been obtained for TI'cos@1. The total tension in the direction of the
monometallic conductors [3,4.6,7,16] and 0.52 to 6.98 conductor axis is, thus [20-223,
Wm-1K-L for ACSR conductors [3,6.7,15-173. Morgan [l]
proposed a mean value of 4 Wm-IK-1 based on his
experimental results, but later [11] revised this value
to 2 Wm-lK-1.
Several authors have attempted to analyse the
radial thermal conductivity of stranded conductors.
Foss e t a l . [6] assumed alternate annular layers of
metal and air, with thermal conductivities k and ka,
respectively. The volume fraction f of air voids
within the conductors was give as (213-11)/(213+11) for
triangular voids and 1-(~/4) for square voids. The
effective radial conductivity was then derived in the
form

1-f -1 Sn
k
r
=
: [- +]- : k ka
' fv (53)

Fig. 2. Angle of lay of wires in a layer of a stranded

If f is the ratio of triangular voids to total voids, circular cylindrical conductor.

kr = f tk t + (1-ft)ks (54) II
4 dzf(1 + 6 ~ 0 ~ 3 1 j l+ 12c0s3@z + 18cos3@3 . . . )
TI = -
where kt and k are the thermal conductivities of the
triangular and square voids respectively. II N
Collins [18] proposed a matrix of the conducting = 3 dZf(1 + n=1 6ncos3Dn) (59)
wires within the air space, and used the analysis of
Springer and Tsai [19]. The assumptions made were: (i)
the composites are macroscopically homogeneous: (ii) where N is the total number of layers of wires. From
both the wire and the air are homogeneous and isotropic: (56) and (59). -1
and (iii) there is zero contact resistance at the N
interface between the wire and the air. The solution of To' = T'[l + n=1 6nc0s~@~] (60)
the problem requires a numerical technique. An
approximate closed-form solution was obtained by and
- 1
replacing the composite with an idealised thermodynamic N
mode 1. Tnl = 6nTlcos2pn[l + 6nc0s~@~] (611
For circular cylinders in a square array in the n=1
matrix, the effective thermal conductivity k is given The total radial force per unit length Frn due to
bY the tension Tnl in layer n is given by
214 4
tan-! -1)'+14
I(1-0,
(5.5) Frn = Tnl sin2pn/nd

k Hence, the total radial force per unit length on the

where 0
= 72fv/T,and 7 = 2(2 - 1). Collins calculated wires in the layer n is given by
km
the value k = 1.5 Wm-IK-1 for several sizes of ACSR. - N
F = Fri
The foregoing analyses do not take account of the
fact that the flow of heat between wires in a stranded rn i=n+l
conductor takes place across micro-contacts and air in The number qn of contacts per unit length between
parallel. Consider a monometallic stranded circular
cylindrical conductor with the total axial tension TI. wires in layers n and n+l is obtained from
The tension To' in the centre (king) wire is given by

(64)

where f is the tensile stress, A0 is the cross-sectional

I

except that 9 0 1 = 6(l/sl). where m is the number of
wires in layer n, and s ~ and
+ ~s are the lay lengths of
the wires in layers n+l and n, respectively. The radial
force per contact in layer n is found from (63) and
(64)3
Hence, the apparent area of each contact in layer n can
be expressed in the form
where f is the compressive yield stress. Values for f
Y Y
for various materials are given in Table 1.
For small crossing angles, the apparent area of
contact between adjacent 3.5" diameter hard-drawn
aluminum wires is formed by intersecting arcs, see Fig.
3 . The long axis is at an angle (0, + Dn+,)/2 to the
axis of the wires. For larger crossing angles, say >20
deg., the contact area is elliptical, with the semi-axes
a and b: the area i s equal to rab. When the wires cross
at right angles, the contact area is circular. The
measured apparent areas for various radial forces and
crossing angles are presented in Table 2.
The true area of contact At depends on the density
and the mean area of the asperities on the contacting
surfaces C23.241. The surfaces touch at the tips of the
asperities. see Fig. 4, which deform elastically or
plastically under the high local pressure. As the
asperities deform, their area of contact increases, and
new asperities are brought into contact, until
eventually the total area in contact is just sufficient
to support the load without exceeding the yield stress
of the material of each surface in contact.
Heat Transfer across the Contact between Wires
The conduction of heat across the interface takes
place through the contacts between asperities and
through the intervening fluid, usually air. The
transfer of heat by radiation i s negligible for
temperatures <200"C. The conduction across the
asperities is reduced by the constrictions in the heat
paths: Mikic [25] assumed Gaussian distributions for the
profile heights and the slopes of the surfaces, and
plastic deformation. He derived the relationship
hmcon =
for the conduction heat transfer coefficient, where p
4 contact, this gap is approximately 1 pm, so that there
is the mean pressure over the apparent area of the
contact, and is found from
Pq = Frqn/A t
and khm is the harmonic mean of the bulk thermal
conductivities kl and k? of the two materials
contact, and is given by
Tan 8 is the mean slope of the asperities, U is the
r.m.s. height of the asperities. and H is the
microhardness of the softer material. The microhardness
is approximately equal to 3 fy [as]. where f is the
Y cooler faces. There are two or more possible methods.
yield stress, see Table 1. When the two materials are
similar, the microhardness is approximately 2.3 f [27].
Y the void by the maximum width, is given by
I
1447
Fig. 3. Apparent area of contact of crossing aluminum
wires of diameter 3.5 mm. Radial force of
1961 N, load duration of 1 hour.
Yovanovich [28] derived 3 similar expression to (67),
except that the coefficient was given as 1.25 instead of
1.13, and the exponent was given as 0.95 instead of
0.94.
If the mean pressure over the true area of contact
during plastic deformation is assumed to equal the
microhardness of the softer material,
iQ='
P A
A
q
where At is the actual tot31 contact area of the
asperities and A is the apparent total area of the
9
contact. The fraction A /A is found from
t q
At/Aq = (1/2)erfc[Y/(d2)u] (71)
where Y is the separation distance between the mean
lines of the two surfaces in contact. For aluminum
surfaces in contact. and with plastic deformation,
typical values are: tang = 0.05.U = 1 0 - 6 m, kl = k2 =
226 Wm-1K-1. and p /H = 1 0 - 3 . hence from ( 6 7 ) , h E 2
q con
x 104 Wm-2K-1.
The heat conduction through the fluid (air) is
given by
"gcon = kg/6
where h is the conductive heat transfer coefficient,
gcon
kv is the thermal conductivity of the fluid and 6 is the
effective thickness of the gap. In the case of the
is no convective heat transfer [29].
Heat Transfer across the Voids between Wires
Heat can 31SO be transferred by conduction,
convection and radiation across the interstices in a
stranded conductor. These take the form of long helical
in enclosures having walls consisting of convex circular
arcs. In the symmetric cases, see Fig. 5, the
enclosures form triangular or rectangular
parallelepipeds with two adjacent faces having the
temperature T and one o r two opposite faces having the
temperature T
n+l'
To calculate the conductive or convective heat
transfer across the enclosures (voids) i t is necessary
to calculate the effective spacing between warmer and
The mean spacing La,. determined by dividing the area of
-7 I
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I

1448

given by

hvcon = Nu.k /L
g

It is seen from the example given in the Appendix that

the convective heat transfer across the air void is
usually negligible.
The radiative heat flux across the void is obtained
from

- (Tn+1+274)4]
IR = t~~[(T~+273)~ (81)
Fig. 4. The real contact between two touching
surfaces, showing constrictions in the paths where t is the effective emissivity and uB is the
of the conductive heat flux. Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 1 0 - 8 Wm-zK-*). The
effective emissivity is given by

E = t n En+l/['n+l + - tn+l)An/An+ll (82)

where t and are the emissivities of the two

surfaces, and An and An+1 are the areas of the two
surfaces. When tn = tn+l = c and An = An+l.
1
t = €1/(2 - E l ) (83)

Because (T -Tn+l) is usually < 3 " C and the configuration

factor for radiation from one surface to the other is
approximately unity, the radiative heat transfer across
the air voids is negligible.

Radial Temuerature Gradient and Thermal Conductivity

The temperature difference between layers n and n+l of a

Fig. S. Symmetrical interstices within a stranded
stranded concentric-lay conductor is given by
conductor.
n
Tn- Tn+1 =i& Pi/'(m)n(n+l) (84)
13
Lav = [3- i]d = 0.0806d for a triangular void (73) where Tn and Tn+l are the temperatures (assumed
and isothermal) of layers n and n+l, respectively,
n
Lav = [l - i]d = 0.2146d for a rectangular void (74) iC,oPi is the total power generation per unit length in
the layers up to and including layer n, and
where d is the diameter of the wires. The hydraulic '(hA)n(n+l)i~ the sum of the products of the heat
diameter Dh is equal to 4(area/perimeter) of the void,
transfer coefficients h and the areas of contact A
hence between layers n and n+l.

21 3
h - L 1
D - - - 1 d = 0.1027d for a triangular void (75)
where the subscripts m . g. v and con denote metallic
and

Dh = [: - l]d = 0.2732d for a rectangular void (76)

contacts, gaseous interstices between metallic contacts,
air voids. and conduction, respectively. The conductive
heat transfer coefficients h hgcon and hvcon may be
The Rayleigh number for natural convective heat calculated from (67). (72) and ( 8 0 ) . respectively. The
transfer is given by area of true metallic contact between layers n and n+l
per unit length of the conductor i s given by
L3(Tn - Tn+,)g
Ra = (77)
(Tf + 273) u2 . Pr

where L = L o r D,,, U is the kinematic viscosity, Pr is where q A and A /A are found from (64).
av n(n+l), qn(n+l) t q
the Prandtl number, and Tf is the film temperature, ( 6 6 ) and (70) o r (71), respectively. The surface area of
the interstices between the true metallic contacts per
+ ken as unit length of the conductor for the contacts between
layers n and n+l is given by
rf = 0.5 ( T +~ T,+~) (78)
Agn(n+l) = Aqn(n+l) qn(n+1)C1 - (87)
The Nusselt number Nu is then found from
The area of the voids between layers n and n+l per unit
Nu = f(Ra) (79) length of the conductor i s found from
Avn(n+l) = sd(2n+1) - qn(n+l) Aqn(n+l) (88)
and the convective heat transfer coefficient h is
vcon

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1449

TABLE 1 . Yield Stress of Various Metals tension of 30 kN results in the value 1.231 Wm-1 K - 1 ,
which falls within the range found experimentally. The
Yield stress, f (fa) contribution of the air gap at the contacts dominates
Metal
Y the components of hA for the inner layers, but the
effect of the voids between wires increases in
annealed hard-drawn importance at the outer layers, as the number of voids
per unit length increases. The interesting point to be
noted is that the heat conduction across the asperities
XlOi x10' is negligible compared with that across the air gaps and
Aluminum (1350) 3-5 14-17 air voids. Hence, corrosion or oxidation of the wires
Aluminum-alloy (6201) 10 28 will have little effect on the effective thermal
Cadmium 2 conductivity, unless the corrosion products tend to fill
Copper 10-13 .38 up the gaps and the voids. Birdcaging causes increases
Brass ( 7 0 / 3 0 ) 37 in both the air gaps and the air voids, hence the
Bronze (90/10) 27 56 effective thermal conductivity decreases and the radial
Gold 7 20-23 temperature difference increases.
Iron 23 67 The effect of increasing tension in the conductor
Steel (0.1%C) 33-37 53 is to increase the radial compressive forces at the
Lead 1.3 wire-to-wire crossings. and hence to increase the area
Magnesium 1:3 17 of contact. Both the true area of contact and the area
MO lybdenum 53-60 of the gaps between the asperities will increase: also,
Nickel 22-27 42-77 the effective gap length will decrease slightly. Hence,
Platinum 13 33 the total heat transfer across the contacts increases
Silver 8 27 with increasing tension: this results in 3 smaller
Sodium 0.02 temperature difference between the wires in adjacent
Tin 1.7 2 layers. Hence, the effective radial thermal
Tungsten 110 :3:30 conductivity increases with increasing tension, see
Zinc 9 13 figure 6. As previously stated, this effect has not
been confirmed experimentally. It is also seen from
Fig. 6 that the effective radial thermal conductivity
k increases with decreasing gap length in the manner
TESTS ON PAIRS OF CROSSING WIRES
k = AT6-'. where A and B are constants, for T'>lOkN.
In order to determine the experimental relationship The experimental measurements on crossing 3 . 5 mm
between the radial force per contact F the crossing hard-drawn aluminum wires show that, for a constant
rq'
angle (p, + ) between the contacting wires in compressive force, the apparent area of contact is
n+ 1 independent of the angle of crossing. The area of
adjacent layers, and the apparent area of contacr A contact increases non-linearly with increasing
q'
several tests were performed on pairs of crossing 3.5 mm compressive force, because some metal is extruded
diameter hard-drawn aluminum wires. Wires having outside the contact area. The area of contact with
lengths of 10 cm were held at the desired crossing angle constant compressive force increases slowly with time
by means of concave guides and were pressed together by duration. due to creep of the metal. The mean ratio
a load acting normal to the axis of each wire at the P /f between the apparent compressive stress and yield
9 Y
point of contact. The results are presented in Table 2.
Tests with a force of 1961 N (200 kgf) and a
crossing angle of 15" showed that the apparent area of TABLE 2 . Loading Tests on Crossing 3 . 5 mm Diameter
contact increased from 6.20 mm* to 6.85 mm* as the Hard-Drawn Aluminum Wires
duration of loading increased from 0.167 hr (10 min) t o
24 hours. This increase is due to creep of the Crossing Load Loading Apparent Pressure Vickers P
aluminum. An% 1e F Duration Contact P Hardness
Tests with a crossing angle of 45" and a load q' 9 Y
duration of 1 hour indicated that the apparent area of Area,A H
contact increased with increasing force, but not (des) (NI (hr) ("7) (Pa) (Pa)
linearly, as the force increased from 98 N (10 kgf) to
1961 N (200 kgf).
Tests with a constant load of 1961 N and a load x108
duration of 1 hour showed that the apparent contact area 45 98 1 0.42 2.23 1.59
remained approximately constant as the crossing angle 392 0.87 4.52 3.23
increased from 15" to 90". I t can he seen from Fig. 3 686 1.97 3.48 2.49
that the area of contact is enclosed between 981 3.21 3.05 2.18
intersection circular arcs when the crossing ansle is 1275 4.36 2.92 2.09
15'; is elliptical in shape from 30' to 7 5 " ; and is 1569 5.99 2.62 1.87
circular at 90". The angle between the major chord and 1961 8.37 2.34 1.67
the ,axis of the wire is half the crorsiiig ansle. The
mean contact area is 6.62 mm2. and the mean pressure p 15 1961 1 6.59 2.98 4.74 2.13
cl 6.54 3.00 3.63 2.14
30
is 2.97 x 108 Pa. The mean value of the ratio hetween 6.69 2.93 3.86 2.09
45
the pressure p and the yield stress f of 1 . 4 x 108Pa 60 6.60 2.97 3.76 2.12
9
[30] is 2.12. compared with the value of 2 . 3 given by i5 6.56 2.99 4.28 2.14
Atkins and Tabor [27]. 90 6.60 2.97 3.89 2.12

15 1961 0.167 6.20 3.16 2.26

DISCUSSION I 6.59 2.98 2.13
24 6.95 2.86 2.04
I t is seen from the example in the Appendix that
applying the new method proposed for calculating the
effective radial thermal conductivity of conductors to Yield stress, f = 1 . 4 x lo8 Pa
a 61/'3.5 mm stranded aluminum conductor with a total

1
1450
stress was found to be 2.26 after 10 minutes loading and
2.17 after one hour. These values are close to the
value 2.3given by Atkins and Tabor [27].
In determining the radial temperature difference
within stranded conductors, no account has been taken of
the heat transfer at the outer surface, and particularly
the effect of increasing wind velocity. Morgan, in the
discussion to [15]. noted that the radial temperature
difference depends only on the current, the geometry of
the conductor and the effective radial thermal
conductivity, and does not depend on the wind speed or
the ambient temperature. Black e t a l . [15] disputed
this conclusion, and showed from their analysis that the
radial temperature difference increases with increasing
wind velocity. In fact, both views are correct for
certain conditions: Morgan's conclusion is valid with
constant heat transfer at the outer surface, and Black
e t a l ' s conclusion is valid with constant surface
temperature (or temperature rise), which requires
increasing current as the wind velocity increases.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn:
( 1 ) The radial heat flow in stranded conductors occurs
mainly by conduction through the air gaps at the
contacts between wires in adjacent layers and the air
voids between wires in adjacent layers. Heat transfer
by convection and radiation i s negligible.
(2) The area of contact between crossing wires
increases with increasing radial force, and hence with
increasing tension in the conductor.
( 3 ) The area of contact between crossing wires is
independent of the angle of crossing for a fixed radial
force .
(4) The area of contact between crossing wires slowly
increases with increasing time duration, at a fixed
radial force, due to creep of the metal.
(5) The temperature difference between adjacent layers
of wires can be calculated from the total apparent area
of the contacts between wires per unit length and the
effective lengths of the air gaps and the air voids.
(6) The effective radial thermal conductivity can be
calculated from the total Joule heat in the conductor
and the total radial temperature difference. The value
calculated in the Appendix falls within the range of
experimental values. However, the assumed value of 1 pm
for the effective gap at the contacts may differ from
values found in practice.
(7) The effective radial thermal conductivity for a
conductor containing rectangular voids is less than for
the same conductor with triangular voids between wires.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author wishes to thank Mr A . Romijn and Mr G .
Optland for their assistance with the experimental work
on crossing wires.
REFERENCES
c11 V.T. Morgan, "Rating of bare conductors for
continuous currents," Proc. IEE (London) vol. 114.
No. 10,October 1967, pp 1473-1482.
c21 V.T. Morgan, "Rating of bare overhead conductors
for intermittent and cyclic currents," Proc. IEE.
vol. 116, No. 8. August 1969, pp. 1361-1376.
c31 V.T. Morgan, "A theoretical and experimental
analysis of the factors which determine the thermal
behaviour of a cylindrical current-carrying
conductor," Ph.D Thesis. University of London.
1971.
c41 D.A. Douglass, L.A. Kirkpatrick and L.S. Rathbun.
"AC resistance of ACSR - magnetic and temperature
effects," IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and
Systems, vol. PAS-104. No. 6, June 1985. pp.
1578-1584.
1 --
V.T. Morgan, discussion to reference [4].
S.C.Foss, S.H. Lin and R. Carberry, "Significance
of the conductor radial temperature gradient within
a dynamic line rating methodology." IEEE Trans. on
Power Delivery, vol. PWRD-2. No. 2 , April 1987,pp.
502-511.
J.F. Hall, A.K. Deb and J. Savoullis, "Wind tunnel
studies of transmission line conductor
temperatures," IEEE Trans on Power Delivery, vol.
PWRD-3,No.2, April 1988,pp.801-812
D.A. Douglass. "Radial and axial temperature
gradients i n bare stranded conductor," IEEE Trans.
on Power Delivery, vol. PWRD-1, No. 2 , April 1986.
pp. 7-15.
G.J. Clarke, "Summary report on the effects of high
operating temperatures on conductors and hardware
behaviour,''Ontario Hydro Research Division Report
No. 77-177-H. 25 ADril 1977.
[lo] R.A. Bush, W.Z. Black, T.C. Champion and W.R. Byrd.
"Experimental verification of a real-time program
for the determination of temperature and sag of
overhead lines," IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and
Systems, vol. PAS-102, No. 7, July 1983, pp.
2284-2288.
[11] V.T. Morgan, "The thermal rating of overhead-line
conductors. Part 1. The steady-state thermal
model," Elect. Power Syst. Res. vol. 5 , 1982, pp.
1 19-139.
[lZ] M. Jakob, "Influence of non-uniform development of
heat upon the temperature distribution in
electrical coils and similar heat sources of simple
form," Trans. ASME, vol. 65. 1943, pp. 593-605.
[13] R.H. Wilhelm, W.C. Johnson and R.S. Acton,
"Conduction. convection and heat release in
catalytic converters," Indust. Eng. Chem., vol. 35.
1943,pp. 562-575.
[14] V.T. Morgan. The Thermal Behaviour of Electrical
Conductors, Research Studies Press (John Wiley,
1989.
[15] W.Z. Black, S.S. Collins and J.F. Hall,
"Theoretical model for temperature gradients within
bare overhead conductors," IEEE Trams. on Power
Delivery. vol. PWRD-3, No. 2, April 1988, pp.
707-715.
[l6] V.T. Morgan, discussion to reference [7].
[17] V.T. Morgan. discussion to reference [13].
[lS] S . S . Collins, "Analysis of the radial temperature
gradients in uninsulated electric conductors." M.S.
Thesis. School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia
Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Ga. August 1985.
[19] G.S. Springer and J.W. Tsai. "Thermal
conductivities of unidirectional materials,
"
Journal of Composite Materials, vol 1 , 1967, pp.
166-171.
[20] F.H. Hruska. "Radial forces in wire ropes." Wire
and Wire Products, vol. 27, 1952, pp. 459-463.
[21] A.W. Leissa. "Contact stresses in wire ropes," Wire
and Wire Products, vol. 34. 1959, pp. 307-314 and
372-373.
[22] C . Avril. "Les constraintes dans les cables nus
conducteurs d'energie," Rev. Gen. Elect., vol. 75,
1966, pp. 849-858.
[23] R. Holm, Electric Contacts Handbook, Springer.
Berlin, 1958.
[24] J.A. Greenwood and B.P. Williamson, "Contact of
nominally flat surfaces," Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond.
vol. 295. 1966. pp. 300-319.
[E]B.B. Mikic. "Thermal contact conductance:
theoretical considerations," Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer, vol. 17, 1974. pp. 205-214.
[26] D. Tabor, "A simple theory of static and dynamic
hardness," Proc. Roy. Soc. A, vol. 192, 1948, pp.
247-274.
[27] A.G. Atkins and D. Tabor. "The plastic deformation
of crossed cylinders and wedges," J. Inst. Metals,
vol. 94. 1966, pp. 107-115.
 I

1451

[ 281 M.M. Yovanovich. "New contact and gap conductance Hence, the radial forces per contact, obtained from (65)
correlations for conforming rough surfaces". A I M are:
16th. Thermophysics Conference, Palo Alto, CA, June = 143,809/24 = 5992 N,
23-25, 1981, Paper AIM-81-1164. = 'ro/q10
[29] G.D. Raithby and K.G.T. Hollands, "Natural F = Fr,/ql = 1368401282 = 485 N
convection", in Handbook of Heat Transfer r12
Fundamentals (ed. W.M. Rohsenow. J.P. Hartnett and = 112,140/1068 = 105 N
E.N. Ganic). McGraw-Hill. New York, 1985,' Chapter Fr23 = Fr2/q23
6.
F r 3 4 = 'r3/q34 = 66.600/2237 = 29.8 N.
[30] C.J. Smithells. Metals Reference Book. vol. 3 , 4th
ed. 1967, Butterworths, London. The apparent area of each contact is then found
from (66) with f = 1 . 4 x 108 Pa.
Y
A = 6992/1.4 x 108 = 4.280 x 10-5 m2
APPENDIX 40I
Similarly, A = 3.46 x 10-6 m2, AqZ3 = 7 . 5 x 10-7 m2.
q12
Calculation of Radial Temperature Gradient for a and A = 2.13 x 10-7 d .
Stranded, Concentric-Lay Conductor 4 34
If we assume that P /H = 10.3, then the true areas
q
In the following analysis, i t is assumed that, of contact are one-thousandth of those given above. The
since the thermal conductivity of the bulk metal is harmonic mean of the thermal conductivities is equal to
roughly two orders of magnitude greater than the the thermal conductivity of each material, since they
effective thermal conductivity of a stranded conductor, are similar, hence kh, = 220 Wm-1 K-1 Assuming tanQ =
the temperature difference across the individual wires
can be neglected in relation to that across the contacts 0.05 and U = 10-6 m , we have, from (67). the heat
between wires. We consider a 61/3.5 mm AAC conductor transfer coefficient across each contact between wires
carrying a current of 1000 A and with the total tension in adjacent layers is
of 30 kN. The lay lengths of the individual layers of
wires, from the innermost layer, are: S I = 0.25 m , s2 = 1.13 x 220 x 0.05
0.26 m , s3 = 0.28 m , and s 4 = 0.30 m. The number of ( 1 0 - 3 ) 0 ' 9 4 =1.88 x 104 Wm-2 K-1
hmcon= 1 x 10-6
wires per layer are: nI = 6,n2 = 12. n3 = 18 and n4 =
24. The mean diameter of each layer is: DI = 2d = 7 m m , The air between the asperities at the contacts i s
D2 = 4d = 14 mm, D3 = 6d = 21 mm. and D4 = 8d = 28 mm, at atmospheric pressure and at a temperature determined
where d is the diameter of each wire ( 3 . 5 mm). by the heat generated in the conductor and the cooling
The angle of lay of each layer of wires is found conditions at the outer surface. Let us assume that the
from (58): = 5.03 deg. p2 = 9.60 deg. a 3 = 13.26 deg. temperature at the outer surface is 100°C. then the
and p4 = 16.34 deg. The tensile stress f is found from thermal conductivity of the air at the contacts and in
(59). where TI = 3 x 104 and the voids is approximately 0.0318 Wm-1 K-1. The
N effective gap 6 at the contacts is assumed to be
1 6n cosspn = 6 x COS^ 5.030 + 12 cos39.600 + 1pm.hence from (72). the coefficient of heat conduction
n= 1 across the gaps at the contacts is h = 0.0318/1 x
18 cos313.260 + 24 cos316.340 gcon
10-6 = 3.18 x 104 Wm-2 K-I. It is seen that the heat
= 5.93 + 11.50 + 16.60 + 21.21 = 55.24 transfer coefficients for the asperities and air gaps at
Hence, f = 3 x 104/[(~/4) x ( 3 . 5 x lO-3)2 x 56.241 = the asperities are of the same order.
5.54 x IO7 Pa. The tensions in the various layers are We now consider the heat transfer across the air
then found from f and the cross-sectional area of each voids between wires. For triangular voids, the mean
layer, e.g. To' = T x ( 3 . 5 x lO-3)2 x 5.54 x 107/4 = 533 spacing of the void is given by (73): Lav = 0.0806 x 3 . 5
N. Similarly TI'= 3173 N, T2' = 6218 N, T3' = 9089 N x 1 0 - 3 = 2.82 x 1 0 - 4 m. For rectangular voids, Lav =
and T4' = 11,780 N.
The radial forces per unit length due to the 0.2146 x 3.5 x 10-3 = 7.51 x 1 0 - 4 m. If we assume a
tensions in the various layers are found from eqn. (62): temperature difference of 2°C between adjacent layers of
F = 3173 x sin2 5.030/3.5 x 10-3 = 6969 N. Similarly, wires, and take Tf = 99"C, v = 2.26 x 10-5 m2s-I and P r
rl
F = 24,700 N, F = 45,540 N and F = 66,600 N. = 0.69, then we obtain the Rayleigh number from (77):
rz r3 r4
Hence, from (63). the total radial force per unit length (2.82 x 10-*)3 x 2 x 9.805 x 0.69
on the wires in each layer are Ra = = 1.6 x 10-3
- (99 + 273) x (2.26 x lO-5)2
F = 6969 N + 24,700 + 45,540 + 66,600 = 143,809 N.
r0
F = 24,700 + 45,540 +' 66,600 = 136.840 N , Hence, the natural convective heat transfer is
rl negligible, and Nu = 1 [29]. The heat transfer
- coefficient for triangular voids is then given by (80).
F = 45.540 + 66,600 = 112.140 N , and
rz
- = 1 x k /L = 0.0318/2.82 x 10-4 = 113 W m 2 K-1
F = 66.600N. hvcon g av
r3
The number of contacts per unit length between
wires in adjacent layers are: for the kin% wire to first It will be noted that this is actually the conductive
layer contacts, from (64). heat transfer coefficient for the void. The heat
901 = 6(1/0.25 + 0) = 24 transfer coefficient for the rectangular voids is hvcon
Similarly, = 42.3 Wm-2 K-1.
1 1 If i t is assumed initially that the conductor is
qlz = G2 [m m] = 292
+ isothermal, the total Joule heat generated within the
conductor per unit length, neglecting skin effect, is
1 1 given by PJ = IZRo(1 + aoT), hence
9 2 3 = 1Z2 [m+ a]= 1068 PJ = (1000)2 x 4.94 x 10-5 (1 + 0.00445 x 100) = 71.4
1 1 Wm-1. Neglecting the small increase in length due to
and 9 3 4 = 182
[ n o + m] = 2237 stranding, the current in each wire is 16.4 A. The heat
generated in the king wire is Po = 71.4/61 = 1.17 Wm-1.

.- - ~ I 1
1452

This heat flows radially towards the surface of the s lay length (in)
conductor across the contacts and the air voids in 'I' temperature ("C)
parallel. The temperature difference between the king T' tension (N)
wire and the wires in the first layer is obtained from: Y separation between surfaces (m)
To-Tl = Po/C(hA)ol. where C(hA)oi is found from (85), Y O , Yl Bessel functions of the second kind
(86). (87) and (88).
Greek,
x(hA)ol = 1.88x IO4 x 4.23 x 10-5 x 10-3 x 24
+ 3 . 1 8 x IO4 x 4.28 x 1 0 - 5 x 0.999 x 24 temperature coefficient of resistance ( K - 1 )
+ 113 x ( i 7 x ix 3 . 5 x 10-3 - 4.28 x 1 0 - 5 x 24) lay angle (deg.)
= 0.0193 + 32.63 + 1.126 = 33.73 W/"C see (55)
Similarly, thickness of gap at contact (m)
C(hA)12 = 0.0183+ 31.00 + 3.617 = 34.19 W/'C emissivity
x(hA)23 = 0.0151 + 25.45 + 6.122 = 31.59 W/"C slope angle of asperities (deg.)
X(hA)34 = 0.009 + 15.14 + 8.64 = 23.79 W/'C kinematic viscosity (m2s-I)
resistivity (flm)
The temperature differences between the various layers r.m.s. height of asperities (m)
are obtained from (84): Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 10-8 Wm-*K-4)
Tk-To = 1.17/33.78 = 0.035"C 4 see (55)
T2-Tl = 8.19134.19 = 0.240"C
T3-T2 = 22.24l31.59 = 0.704"C
and T4-T3 = 43.31/23.79 = 1.821"C 4
I I I I I
Hence, the total radial temperature difference i s
Tc-Ts = 0.35 + 0.240 + 0,704 + 1.821 = 2.800"C
and the effective radial thermal conductivity is
obtained from (16):
k = (Po + Pi + P2 + P3)/4i7 (Tc-Ts)
= 43.31/45 x 2.800 = 1.231 Wm-1K-l
It is clear that the conductive heat transfer across the
air gap at each contact contributes mainly to the total
heat transfer between layers at the inner layers. At
the outer layers, the heat transfer across the voids
becomes significant.
Since i t was initially assumed that the conductor
was isothermal, a more accurate value for k can be
found by iterating the derived temperatures of the
layers of wires and by using (15) instead of (16).
If we assume rectangular rather than triangular
voids for wire-to-wire contacts between the second,
third and fourth layers, the radial temperature
difference Tc - Ts is calculated to be 3.445"C and the
effective radial thermal conductivity is 1.000 Wm-' K-I.
NOEWCLATURE
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
A cross-sectional area (m2) Total axial tension, T ' (KN)
b (aeQgfir)+. see (5)
d wire diameter (m)
D diameter (m)
Fig. 6. Variation of calculated radial thermal
f stress (Pa) conductivity with total axial tension and
ratio of triangular to total voids thickness of the air gaps at the contacts
ft
volume fraction of voids between wires. 61/3.6mm AAC conductors.
fV I = 1000A.
F force (N) -all triangular air voids
-
F total force (N) _ _ _ rectangular air voids, except between
% acceleration due to gravity (ms-2) king wire and first layer.
h heat transfer coefficient (Wm-2K-1)
H microhardness ( P a )
I current ( A ) Vincent T. Mor- (SM. 1980) was born in London.
Ir radiative heat flux (Wm-2) England, and received the B.Sc.(Eng.) and Ph.D. degrees
from London University in 1950 and 1971, respectively
J current density ( A m - 2 )
After working in the fields of radar, electric lamps.
Jo.Ji Bessel functions of first kind
radiographic and electromedical equipment and power and
k thermal Conductivity (Wm-1K-1)
L length (m) telecommunication cables, he joined the U.K. Central
Electricity Research Laboratories in 19.51, where he
m number of wires in a layer
n number of layer researched many electric power transmission problems
From 1964 t o 1983 he was at the National Measurement
N total number of layers
Nu Nusselt number Laboratory in Sydney, Australia, and was head of the
high-voltage laboratory.
p pressure (Pa)
D r Morgan is currently a consultant on hiqh-voltage
P power flow per unit length (Wm-1
measurements, the electrical, mechanical and thermal
q number of wire crossings per uni length (m-1
characteristics of conductors, corona, electrostatics
Q power per unit volume (Wm-3)
r radius (m) and high-voltage insulation. He is a Fellow of the
Institution of Electrical Enqineers (London) and o
R resistance (fl)
Fellow of the Australian Institute of Physics.
Ra Rayleigh number

1 --