Chapter 1 Satellite Communication Div A&b 2021-22

WELCOME TO SATELLITE
COMMUNICATION
Satellite
communication
PROF. N.J.BALUR
EXTC DEPARTMENT
RGIT, MUMBAI
COURSE SYLLABUS
COURSE OBJECTIVES & COURSE OUTCOMES
PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

What is satellite
• A satellite is a body that orbits around another body in

space. There are two different types of satellites –
natural and man-made.
Examples of natural satellites are the Earth and Moon.
• Satellite is also called spacecraft that carries an

onboard communication equipment enabling the
communication link to be established between 2 distinct
points. Hence we call it as SATELLITE
COMMUNICATION
Basic knowledge
World’s First satellite

What keeps satellite rotating around earth in its orbit ?

How many satellites are rotating
around the earth?
6,000 satellites
There are nearly 6,000 satellites circling the

Earth, but only 40% are operational.

Who invented the idea of satellite
communication?

Is satellite communication a LINE OF
SIGHT ?
• YES
• Hence we need to have repeaters due

to earth’s curvature (satellite acts as a
Repeater)

• Accessibility:
• Large coverage
• System cost independent of distance
• Remote area communication
• Versatility:
Advantages of • Variety of signals can be carried; fixed or mobile
networks on land, sea and air
Satellite • Networks can be established in short time
Communication
• Flexibility
• Bandwidth reallocation
• Reliability
• Capacity

• Initial Launching cost is High.
Disadvantages • High cost of making satellite.

of Satellite
Communication • Once launched no repair can be done to
satellite & if connection is lost satellite
cannot be tracked.

Satellite Frequency Bands
Band Frequency range (GHz) Applications

L 1-2 Mobile SAT, GPS, LEO SAT
S 2-4 TTC, DTV, LEO SAT
C 4-8 Domestic Satellite Telephony, Satellite TV, FSS
X 8-12 Military Satcom
Ku 12-18 VSAT, DTH, DBS
K 18-27 FSS
Ka 27-40 Inter-satellite Links

21
CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF SATELLITE SYSTEMS, ORBITS &
LAUNCHING

APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITES
• Research & Rescue Operations
• Voice & Data Communication to Aircrafts, ships,

land , vehicles and handsets
• Instant contact with news reporters from

inaccessible areas

LIST OF APPLICATIONS

Its always a constellation of satellites that work
together

Satellite Types
PASSIVE ACTIVE

• Passive - A passive satellite simply reflects the signal
received from earth stations.
Satellite Types
• Active -An active satellite amplifies, filters and
translates the frequency of the signal before
transmitting back to earth stations
• Regenerative -A regenerative satellite processes the signals
received from earth stations. Processing may include
amplification, demodulation, signal regeneration, channel
switching, remodulation etc.

Elements of
Satellite
Communication
• Space segment
• Ground segment
• Satellite link

Elements of Satellite Communications
Satellite
Transponders Resources-
Spectrum, Time,
Power
Up Link D/L
U/L
Down Link
Speech Base RF
Audio band Eqpt
Video Eqpt
Data
T- I/F HPA LNA
U/C Antenna Earth Station
Terrestrial Modem,
D/C Feed
Links to Trunk Mux-
Exchanges, Dmux, LO Diplxr
Studios, Access
Computer Control Earth Station
systems
29
BLOCK DIAGRAM
OF
SATELLITE
COMMUNICATION

Uplink
frequency
should be
always greater
than
downlink?

Uplink
frequency
should be
always
greater than
downlink?

Advantages
6/4 GHz ---
C band
Available equipment inexpensive
compared to 14/12 GHz
Rainfall doesnot appreciably

attenuate signals
Less noise and atmospheric

absorption 33
Disadvantages
6/4 GHz ---

C band All C band satellites are placed 2ᴼ,2.5ᴼ and 3.5ᴼ
hence less number of satellite's can be
accommodated in geosynchronous orbit.
Since downlink frequency is 4GHz , a large

expensive satellite antenna about 10m in
diameter is required to pick up the transmitted
signals.
C band frequencies may interfere with existing

terrestrial microwave systems
PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT 34
Advantages
14/12 High Frequency …..antenna size decreases ….about 1.5m in diameter …hence
GHz cheaper and easy to install on buildings.
High Frequency tends to spread less…..hence narrow beams…..hence no
K- interference…..when multiple beams are projected.
band Narrow beam ….more concentrated energy…more satellites can be placed in
GEO 2ᴼ apart.
Uplink frequency is not same as terrestrial links hence no interference
Used for DTH service
Disadvantages
Signal suffers more absorption by clouds ,rain & atmosphere than C band
signals. PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT
Satellite Network Configurations
Point to point configuration
Satellite
Uplink Downlink
Downlink
GES GES GES

Point to multi-point configuration
Satellite
Uplink Downlinks
GES Rx Terminals

Multipoint to point configuration
Satellite
Downlink Uplinks
GES Tx Terminals

Satellite services
Fixed satellite service
FSS VSAT, Transportable terminals
Broadcast satellite service

BSS Digital audio broadcast (DAB)
Digital video broadcast (DVB-S)
Mobile satellite service

MSS Land mobile
Maritime mobile
Aero mobile

• Type of service to be provided ex: voice ,data, mobile direct
broadcast, etc
• Desired signal quality with system constraints such as cost &
System Design technology
Considerations • Frequency selection for given application
• Propagation characteristics
• Spectrum availability
• Optimal modulation & coding schemes
• Appropriate accessing techniques
• Permitted earth station size and complexity
• Size and shape of service area.
ALL THE ABOVE ASPECTS MUST BE TIED TOGETHER IN

BEST POSSIBLE WAY IN ORDER TO PROVIDE AN
ACCEPTABLE DESIGN SOLUTION
Satellite Orbits
• Low Earth Orbit – LEO
• Medium Earth Orbit – MEO
• Global Earth Orbit --GEO

LOW EARTH ORBIT (LEO)
• Altitude in the range of 400-1500 km
• Usually inclined to equatorial plane
• Lower launch cost
• Orbit period is short, typically 90-100 minutes
• Due to short distance from earth, propagation delay and path loss
are small
• Single satellite cannot be used in communication application
• Used in remote sensing, navigation and military surveillance
applications
• Altitude in the range of 10,000 –
20,000 km
• Usually inclined to equatorial plane
• Orbital periods vary from 6-12

Medium Earth hours
Orbit [MEO]
• A constellation of MEO satellites is
used for navigation and mobile
communication

TWO TYPES
• GEO-STATIONARY
GLOBAL • GEO-SYNCHRONOUS
EARTH
ORBIT [GEO] • BOTH ARE ABOVE 35786KM ABOVE
EARTH SURFACE

Geo-stationary Orbit
A satellite in GEO appears stationary to an observer on earth
The orbit is circular, i.e. the eccentricity is zero
Inclination is zero, the orbit lies on equatorial plane
A satellite orbits in eastward direction, the same direction in

which earth rotates around its axis
46
Geostationary orbit
• Three conditions
Satellite must travel eastward at

same rotational speed as the earth Geostationary
orbit
Orbit must be circular
Inclination of orbit must be zero Earth rotating on

its axis

Geostationary orbit
Advantages Disadvantages
• Wide coverage • Polar regions not covered

• Stationary position • Long time delay
• Suitable for global • Echo
communication, broadcast • Long eclipse
• Low Doppler shift • Sun transit outage
• Multiple access
• Frequency reuse
• Long life of satellite
Geosynchronous Orbit
• The orbital period equals exactly one rotational period of earth
around it’s own axis
• This period equals one sidereal day, 23 H 56 m 4.01 s
• GEO stationary is a special case of geosynchronous orbit

Comparison between LEO, MEO & GEO:
Sr. Particulars LEO MEO GEO
No.
01 No. of satellites ` 40-80 10-20 3-6

02 Distance from the Earth surface 160 km-2,000 km 10000-12000km 36000km
03 Operation period 10-40 min 2-8hrs 24hrs
04 Area coverage Small (1.5-19%) Medium (30-37%) Large (43%)
05 Visible time 10-20 minutes 50-180 minutes 24hr

06 Time delay 5-10ms 30-100ms 240-280ms
07 Effect of eclipse more more less
08 Life time Less (5-8 years) Medium More(15-20 years)
09 Cost of satellite Large Medium Less
10 Launching cost Less Less More
11 Tracking requirement Required Required Not required
12 Effect of gravitation force of earth More Medium Less
Effect of the Sun & Moon Less Less More
13 Propagation loss Least High Highest

14 No. of handoffs High Low Least (none)

Polar Orbit
• Inclination angle is close to

900
• Satellite orbit passes over
poles
• Satellite scans different
areas of earth in successive
revolution

Satellite Footprint

GPS
• GPS has a variety of applications
➢ Land: diverse uses; ex. surveying,

recreational. Etc
➢ Sea: navigation by recreational

boaters, commercial fishermen, and
professional mariners
➢ Air: navigation by general aviation and

commercial aircraft

Kepler’s laws
3 laws
First
Second &
Third
A satellite in an orbit around the earth follows the same
laws of physics that any planet follows in its orbit around
the sun or a moon follows in its orbit around its parent
planet. All planetary motions in space are described by
three basic laws
• Law of orbits: The path of every planet about the sun is
Kepler’s elliptic with the centre of the sun located in one of the
focal points.
laws • Law of areas: The sectorial area covered by the line

joining the centre of the sun to the centre of the planet in
unit time is a constant.
• Law of periods: Square of the period of one revolution

around the sun is proportional to the cube of its mean
distance from the centre of the sun.

Geometry of ellipse Keplarian elements
Semimajor axis (a)
ra − rp Eccentricity (e)
e=
ra + rp Time of perigee
Right ascension
Inclination (i)
Argument of perigee (ω)
e=0 Circular
0  e  1 Ellipse
e =1 Parabola
e 1 Hyperbola
ra=a(1+e) rp=a(1-e)
ECCENTRICITY e≈0
• Eccentricity e e≈1
• Defines the shape
of the ellipse
• 0<e<1
e=0
circle
A satellite in orbit
Fin=gravitational force=m(μ/r2)
Fout=angular velocity force=mv2/r
Fin = Fout
v=√(μ/r) m=satellite mass
= satellite velocity required to v=satellite velocity
maintain orbit r=distance from centre of earth
μ=Kepler constant
=3.986x105 km3/s2

Kepler’s 1st law

Kepler’s second law
Area covered in
unit time
Planet
(satellite)
Sun
(Earth)
Ellipse
KEPLER’S 2ND LAW

Kepler’s Third Law:
It state that the square of periodic time of orbit is proportional to the

cube of the mean distance between the two bodies

=
3
a 2
n
2
Orbital period in
second T=
n
Significance: it shows there is a fixed relationship between period & size.
• Apogee (ha) • Prograde orbit
• Perigee (hp) • Retrograde orbit
Orbital • Line of apsides •True Anomaly
Parameter • Ascending node •Mean Anomaly
s
• Descending node
• Line of nodes
• Inclination
• Argument of perigee
• Right ascension of ascending node
Numerical 1

Numerical 1 Solution

Numerical 2

Orbital
elements

Orbital Parameters
• Prograde orbit
•Retrograde orbit

Argument of
perigee
It is an angle between the
line of apsides (line joining
the perigee and apogee
passing through the center
of the earth) and the line
joining the ascending and
descending nodes (also
passing through the center
of earth)
How many
Polar orbits
are there?

• Orbital inclination
• The elliptical orbit lies in the orbital plane that passes
through the center of the earth but inclined to the
equatorial plane. The angle between the equatorial
plane and orbital plane is the orbital inclination which
Keplarian is between 0 – 1800
elements … • Right ascension of the ascending node
• Just specifying inclination is not sufficient to fix the
satellite orbit as there are infinite orbits possible with
given inclination.
• To completely specify the orbit, we must fix the points
(nodes) on the equator where the satellite orbit
intersects.
• The ascending node is one of these points where the
satellite crosses the equator going from south to north.
• The position of these nodes cannot be specified in the
latitude-longitude co-ordinate system as earth is
spinning.
• Right ascension is an angle measured in the equatorial
plane from the line joining the center of the earth to a
reference point in the sky, called vernal equinox, to the
line joining the center of earth to the ascending node
Right ascension of ascending node

Right ascension of ascending node

Mean
Anomaly &
True
Anomaly

Numerical 3

Numerical 4

• A satellite in inclined orbit may
Sun- completely span the earth in less than
or more than one solar day
Synchronous • It the orbital period is so adjusted as
Orbit to span the earth in exactly one solar
day the orbit is called sun-synchronous
orbit
• A satellite in sun-synchronous orbit
appears exactly at the same spot at
the same local solar time

Sun-synchronous
orbits
• Orientation of a sun-synchronous orbit
remains fixed relative to the sun
throughout the year.
• Satellites in a particular orbits are
particularly suited to applications like
passive remote sensing, meteorological
military investigation and atmospheric
studies.
 =  −  =constant

Sun-synchronous
orbits
where,
 − right assension of ascending node.

 − right assension of the mean sun.
It takes 365.25 mean solar days to complete

mean yearly orbit of 3600 then,
𝛼 = 360/365.25 = 0.98560 increase

eastward

• Properties of sun-synchronous orbit,
• The satellite passes over a given location
on Earth every time at the same local time,
thereby guarantying almost the same
illumination conditions.
• The satellite orbit, being quasi-polar in
nature, ensures coverage of the whole
surface of the earth.
•No. of revolutions required before the
satellite repeats the same trip sequence can
be certainly calculated.
•The time that elapses before the satellite
revisits a given location in the same direction
is called an orbital cycle.
Sidereal day
• Solar day is measured with
respect to the sun as reference
• It is the time taken by the earth

to complete one revolution (time
from high noon to high noon)
around its axis
• Sidereal day is measured with

respect to a distant star
• Sidereal day is shorter to solar

day by 4 minutes (23 H, 56 M,
4.1 S)
Sidereal day &
1 mean solar day = 1.0027379093 mean sidereal days Solar day
= 24h3m56 s.55536 sidereal time
= 86636.55536 mean sidereal sec onds
1 mean sidereal day = 0.9972695664 mean solar days
= 23h56m04 s.09054 mean solar time
= 86636.55536 mean solar sec onds

Eclipse

Earth Eclipse of Satellite

(20-21 March)
Effect of eclipse:
and Sun Transit
Outage
If the earth’s equatorial

plane coincided with the
plane of the earth’s orbit
around the sun (the ecliptic
(22-23 September)
plane), geostationary
satellites would be eclipsed
by the earth once each day.

(20-21 March)
Effect of eclipse:
and Sun Transit
Outage
Therefore, the equatorial

plane is tilted at an angle of
23.4 to the ecliptic plane, and
(22-23 September)
this keeps the satellite in full
view of the sun for most days
of the year.

Effect of eclipse:
The eclipse lasts about 10 min at the beginning and end of the eclipse period and
increases to a maximum duration of about 72 min at full Eclipse
During an eclipse, the solar cells do not function, and operating power must be supplied
from batteries.

Sun Transit Outage
Another event which must be allowed for during the equinoxes is the transit of the
satellite between earth and sun such that the sun comes within the beamwidth of the
earth-station antenna.
When this happens, the sun appears as an extremely noisy source which completely
blanks out the signal from the satellite.
This effect is termed sun transit outage, and it lasts for short periods—each day for about
6 days around the equinoxes.
The occurrence and duration of the sun transit outage depends on the latitude of the
earth station, a maximum outage time of 10 min being typical.

Eclipse
geometry to
compute
duration

Why satellite
longitude
should be kept
west of Earth
Station rather
than east ?

When the satellite longitude is east of the earth
station, the satellite enters eclipse during
daylight (and early evening) hours for the earth
station, This can be undesirable if the satellite
has to operate on reduced battery power.
When the satellite longitude is west of the earth

station, eclipse does not occur until the earth
station is in darkness, (or early morning) when
usage is likely to be low.
Thus satellite longitudes which are west, rather

than east, of the earth station are more
desirable.
ORBITAL PERTURBATIONS

Orbital Perturbations
The satellite orbit (described by Keplerian ellipse) is
affected by a number of forces acting on it
• Non-spherical earth
• Earth is oblate, bulged on equator and flat on
poles
• Atmospheric drag
• Mostly on low orbit satellites, impedes the
motion and lowers the orbit
• Sun and moon’s gravity
• Cause change in inclination in geo satellites,
requiring north-south station keeping
• Solar radiation pressure
• Major effect on satellites in polar or highly
inclined orbits

Orbital Perturbations
Effect of a nonspherical earth:

According to the Kepler’s third law n0 = 3
a
The earth is not perfectly sphere of uniform mass (oblate spheroid)
 
Mean motion of satellite is
 K1
= n0 
1 + (1 − 1.5sin i
2
) 

n
( )
1.5
 
a 1−e
2 2
 
where, K1 = 66063.1704 km 2 = constant 2

The orbital period taking into account the earth’s
oblateness is termed the anomolistic period
T=
n
Oblateness of the earth also produces two rotations of the
orbital plane:
•Regression of the nodes
•Rotation of apsides
• Regression of the nodes, appear to slide along the
Regression of the equator.
nodes: • The Right ascension of ascending node (Ω ), shifts its

position.
• If orbit is prograde, the nodes slide westward, & if it is
retrograde, they slide eastward.
• The nodes therefore moves in a direction opposite to the
direction of satellite motion.
• For a polar orbit (i=90), the regression is zero.
• this effect depends on mean motion ‘n’, semi-major axis
‘a’ & eccentricity ‘e’
nK1
K= 2
a (1 − e2 ) 2 deg/ day or rad / day
• An approximate expression for the rate of change of Ω
with respect to time is
d
= − K cos(i )
dt
It is possible to choose the values of a, e, & i such that the rate
of rate of rotation is 0.9856/day eastward, such orbit is called
sun-synchronous orbit.
Rotation of apsides
this is due to the equatorial bulge, argument of perigee changes with time
• this effect also depends on mean motion ‘n’, semi-major axis ‘a’ & eccentricity ‘e’
nK1
K= 2 deg/ day or rad / day
a (1 − e2 ) 2
the rate of change of ώ with respect to time is
d
= K (2 − 2.5sin 2 (i))
dt
It is zero for i=63.435 , such orbit is called Molniya orbit.

ATMOSPHERIC DRAG

ATMOSPHERIC DRAG
At orbital altitude frequent collisions of gas
molecules with the satellite.
It is more at perigee, that reduce velocity, with

the result that the satellite does not reach the
same apogee height on successive revolutions.
It result in the reduction in the altitude of the

satellite’s orbit.
ATMOSPHERIC DRAG
Effect is more at about 180 km, & considered as
the lower boundary of space from satellite.
The orbital life of a small satellite in a 400 km

circular orbit is typically a few months,
Whereas, the orbital life of a similar satellite in a

800 km circular orbit could be several decades
Effects of sun and moon’s gravity

LOOK ANGLE
ANTENNA
LOOK ANGLE
Look Angle Determination

Look Angle Definition

Coordinate
System

Coordinate
System

Review of
Geometry

Azimuth and elevation angles of
a satellite

Antenna Look
Angle:
•Azimuth angle
•Elevation
angle
Information required:
1. ES latitude E
2. ES longitude E
3. Longitude of sub-satellite point
 SS
From Napier’s rule Quadrantal triangle
a = 900
b = arccos(cos B cos E ) c = 900 − E
 sin B  B = E −SS
A = arcsin  
 sin b 
From sine rule
d = R 2 + aGSO 2 − 2 R aGSO cos b

From cosine rule
 aGSO 
El = arccos  sin b 
 d  PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT
AZIMUTH ANGLE (AZ)

POLAR MOUNT
ANTENNA

Polar axis
Local horizontal
plane
Polar Mount Antenna

Polar Mount Antenna
Polar axis
From the geometry
 = 900 − Elo − E
Polar Mount Antenna:
For south situation, B=0

If B=0, then b = E
aGSO
cos Elo = sin E
d
 aGSO 
then,  = 90 − arccos 
0
sin E  − E
 d 
d = R 2 + aGSO 2 − 2 R aGSO cos E PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT
LIMITS OF VISIBILITY

The limiting angle
Limits of
Visibility ES

•There will be east and west limits on the geostationary
arc visible from any given earth station.
•The limits will be set by the geographic coordinates of

the earth station and the antenna elevation.
Limits of
Visibility
The limiting angle
 = arccos a E
= 81.3 degrees
a GSO

Numerical 5



Numerical 6



Numerical 7


Numerical 8

Launching
& LAUNCH
VEHICLES

Satellite Launching

Launching
Orbit

Expendable Launch Vehicle (ELV):
Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV): Space Transportation System (STS)
Orbit raising
methods

Lowest
inclination
of Orbit:
Launch window

Satellite Launch
Vehicles

Satellite Launch Vehicles
Two types
1. EXPENDABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE
2. REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE

Reusable launch vehicle Or Expendable launch vehicle
Space Transportation Vehicle
(STS)

Multistage
Launcher

ISRO Launch Vehicles

Launchers
- Overview
20
REFERENCES

WEBSITE REFERENCE
1.slide share PPTS

2.Wikipedia
3.isro.gov.in
4.Google images

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WELCOME TO SATELLITE

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

• A satellite is a body that orbits around another body in

• Satellite is also called spacecraft that carries an

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

There are nearly 6,000 satellites circling the

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

• Hence we need to have repeaters due

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

Disadvantages • High cost of making satellite.

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

Band Frequency range (GHz) Applications

S 2-4 TTC, DTV, LEO SAT

C 4-8 Domestic Satellite Telephony, Satellite TV, FSS

X 8-12 Military Satcom

Ku 12-18 VSAT, DTH, DBS

Ka 27-40 Inter-satellite Links

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

• Research & Rescue Operations

• Voice & Data Communication to Aircrafts, ships,

• Instant contact with news reporters from

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

Rainfall doesnot appreciably

Less noise and atmospheric

6/4 GHz ---

Since downlink frequency is 4GHz , a large

C band frequencies may interfere with existing

Used for DTH service

GES GES GES

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

Broadcast satellite service

Mobile satellite service

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

ALL THE ABOVE ASPECTS MUST BE TIED TOGETHER IN

• Medium Earth Orbit – MEO

• Global Earth Orbit --GEO

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

• Usually inclined to equatorial plane

• Orbital periods vary from 6-12

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

The orbit is circular, i.e. the eccentricity is zero

Inclination is zero, the orbit lies on equatorial plane

A satellite orbits in eastward direction, the same direction in

Satellite must travel eastward at

Orbit must be circular

Inclination of orbit must be zero Earth rotating on

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT

• Wide coverage • Polar regions not covered

PROF. N.J.BALUR, EXTC DEPARTMENT