EBD_7242

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 INDEX
Quick General Science GK 1-92

PHYSICS • Metals and Non-Metals

• Units and Dimensions • Electro-chemistry
• Mechanics, Gravita on • Man
• Proper es of Ma er • Made Materials
• Heat • Energy Resources
• Simple Harmonic Mo on • Organic Chemistry.
• Waves LIFE SCIENCE
• Op cs • Physiology
• Electricity • Human Respiratory/
• Magne sm Circulatory/ Reproduc ve
• Atomic and Nuclear Physics System
• Nano Technology • Heart
CHEMISTRY • Sense Organs
• Nature of Ma er • Evolu on
• Structure of Atom • Analogous/ Ves gial Organs
• Radioac vity • Animal Kingdom
• Classifica on of Elements/ • Diseases & Defence
Periodicity Mechanism, Nutrients
• Mendeleev's Periodic Table • Protein
• Modern Periodic Law • Fats
• Acids • Biology in Human Welfare.
• Bases and Salts EVERYDAY SCIENCE

GENERAL SCIENCE
GENERAL SCIENCE
u Physics u Chemistry u Life Science u Everyday Science
PHYSICS
Units and Dimensions
Physical Quantities
Those quantities which can describe the laws
of physics and are possible to measure.
The physical quantities which do not depend
upon other physical quantities are called
fundamental quantities. There are 7
fundamental quantities: mass, length, time,
temperature, luminous intensity, electric
current and amount of substance.
The physical quantities which depend on
fundamental quantities are called derived
quantities, e.g. speed, acceleration, force, etc.
Units
The unit of a physical quantity is the reference
standard used to measure it.
System of Units
(i) Cgs System—centimetre, gram and
second setup in France.
(ii) FPS System—foot, pound and second—
British System.
(iii) MKS System—metre, kilogram and
second—French system.
(iv) SI System—The international system of
units.
The MKS, CGS and SI system are called metric or decimal system.
EBD_7242
GK-365
1. Fundamental Units: The units defined
for the fundamental quantities are called
fundamental or base units.
Fundamental Unit for Mass- Kilogram
(Kg), Length-metre (m), Time-second(s),
Temperature-kelvin (K), Electric Current
ampere (A), Luminous intensity - Candela
(cd), Amount of Substance - mole (mol).
There are 2 supplementary units
(i) radian (rad) for plane angle and
(ii) steradian (sr) for solid angle.
2. Derived Units: The units defined for
the derived quantities are called derived
units. e.g. unit of speed or velocity (metre
per second), acceleration (metre per
second2), etc.
Characteristics of a Unit
Unit should be :
(i) well defined
(ii) easy to reproduce
(iii) easy to compare
(iv) independent of changes in physical
conditions
(v) internationally accepted
(vi) easily accessible
 GK-2
SOME PRACTICAL UNITS OF LENGTH, MASS AND TIME
Length
Light year = distance travelled
by light in one year in vaccum.
1ly = 9.46 × 1015m
1 astronomical unit (A.U.)
= 1.5 × 1011m
1 parsec = 3.26 ly
= 3.08 × 1016m
1 nautical mile or seamile
= 6020 ft.
1 micron = 1mm = 10–6m
1 angstrom (A°) = 10–15m
1 foot (1') = 0.305m
1 inch (1") = 0.025m
Mass
1 quintal = 102 kg
1 metric ton = 103 kg
1 atomic mass unit (amu) or
dalton = 1.66 × 10–27 kg
1 slug = 14.59 kg
1 pound = 0.4537 kg
1 Chandrashekhar limit= 1.4
times the mass of sun=2.8 ×
1030 kg
GENERAL SCIENCE
Time
1 solar day = 86400 sec.
1 year = 365½ solar days
1 lunar month
= 27.3 solar days
Tropical year = It is the year
in which total solar eclipse
occurs.
Leap year = It is the year in
which the month of February
is of 29 days.

PREFIXES USED IN METRIC SYSTEM

Prefix Symbol Multiplier Prefix Symbol Multiplier
deci d 10 –1
deca da 101
centi c 10–2 hecto h 102
milli m 10 –3
kilo k 103
micro m 10–6 mega M 106
nano n 10–9 giga G 109
pico p 10 –12
tera T 1012
femto f 10–15 peta P 1015
atto a 10–18 exa E 1018

Mechanics Kinematic equations for uniformly

Path Length or Distance: The length of the accelerated motion
actual path between initial and final positions Motion under uniform acceleration is
of a particle in a given interval of time is called described by the following equations.
distance covered by the particle. 1
v = u + at ; s = ut + at2 and
Displacement: The shortest distance from 2
v2 = u2 + 2as
the initial position to the final position of the
particle is called displacement. Distance travelled in nth second of uniformly
accelerated motion
| Displacement | ≤ | Distance | a
S u + (2n − 1)
=
Speed, Velocity and Acceleration n th 2
Relative velocity
Distance travelled → →
Speed = If v A and vB be the respective velocities of
TimeTaken
object A and B then relative velocity of A w.r.t.
Displacement   
Velocity =
Time interval B is v A=
B v A − vB

 Change in velocity Similarly, relative velocity of B w.r.t. A is

()
Acceleration a =
Time interval

v BA

= vB − v A

 
v' - v
=
When a body moves int' space,
- t then the motion is called three–dimensional motion.

GENERAL SCIENCE
Scalars and Vectors
The physical quantities which require only
magnitude to express, are called scalar
quantities, e.g. Mass, distance, time, speed,
volume, density, pressure, work, energy,
power, charge, electric current, temperature,
potential, specific heat, frequency, etc.
Certain physical quantities have both magnitude
and direction, they are called vector quantities,
e.g. Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force,
momentum, impulse, electric field, magnetic
field, current density, etc.
Tensos : Moment of inertia, stress, refractive
index etc.
Newton’s Laws of Motion
1st law: Every body continues to be in its state
of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line
unless compelled by an external force to change
its state. This fundamental property of the
body is called inertia. This law is known as
Newton’s first law of motion or law of inertia.
Example: Passangers bend backward when
a vehicle starts suddenly and bends forward
when a vehicle stops suddenly.
Inertia: Inertia is the property of a body due to
which it opposes the change in its state. Inertia
of a body is measured by mass of the body. It is
directly proportional to the mass of the body
i.e., Inertia ∝ mass.
Momentum
The linear momentum of a body ( ) is defined
as the product of the mass of the body (m) and
 
its velocity. i.e., P = mv .
Its S.I. unit is kgm/s
2nd law: The rate of change of momentum of a
body is directly proportional to the unbalanced
external force applied on it.
 
 dp  dp  
i.e., F ∝ or, F = k or F = ma
dt dt
Force (F) = ma where m = mass of the object
and a = acceleration produced
Impulse: If a large force acts on a body or
particle for very small time, then impulse =
product of force and time.
 tan θ =
Impulse = F∆t
 
In every motion, force F is parallel to acceleration a .
EBD_7242
GK-3
3rd law: According to this law, every action
has equal and opposite reaction. Action and
reaction act on two different bodies and they
are simultaneous. There can be no reaction
without action.
Examples : Recoil of a gun, motion of rocket
etc.
Law of conservation of linear momentum
If the total external force acting on a system is
equal to zero, then the final value of the total
momentum of the system is equal to the initial
value of the total momentum ofthe system.

i.e., = constant or pf = pi
Friction
Whenever a body moves or tends to move over
the surface of another body, a force comes
into play which acts parallel to the surface of
contact and opposes the relative motion. This
opposing force is called friction. We are able to
write and work due to friction.
Circular and Rotational Motion
Motion of a body along a circular path is called
circular motion.
Angular Velocity: The angle subtended by the
line joining the object from the origin of circle
in unit time interval is called angular velocity.
It is generally denoted by w
θ 2π
w= = = 2πn
t T
Linear Velocity
V=r×w
Centripetal force: The force directed towards
the centre required for traversing a circular
path is called centripetal force.
mv 2
Centripetal force = F= = mw2 r .
r
• In a banked path with curvature (θ) with
friction, the safe velocity is given by
v = √ [rg (tan θ + µ) / (1 – µ tan θ)].
• Bending of cyclist: In order to take a
circular turn of radius r with speed v, the
cyclist should bend himself through an
angle θ from the vertical such that
v2
rg
 GK-4 GENERAL SCIENCE
Centrifugal force: A force that is equal and Torque and angular momentum
opposite to the centripetal force is called Torque is the moment of force. It is the cross
centrifugal force. e.gs. cream separator, product of the force with the perpendicular
centrifugal dryer, etc. distance between the axis of rotation and the
Equilibrium: If the resultant of all the forces point of application of force with the force.
  
acting on a body is zero then the body is said Torque = τ = r × F ; S.I. unit is N – m
to be in equilibrium. Angular momentum is the moment of linear
If a body is in equilibrium, it will be either momentum. It is also the product of the linear
at rest or in uniform motion. If it is at rest, momentum and the perpendicular distance of
the equilibrium is called static, otherwise the mass from the axis of rotation.
 
dynamic. Angular momentum L = r × p S.I. unit is
Static equilibrium is of the following three kg m2/s
types: Relation between torque and angular
(i) Stable Equilibrium: If on slight dis­ momentum,

placement from equilibrium position,  dL
T=
a body has tendency to regain its dt
original position, it is said to be in stable Moment of inertia
equilibrium. It is defined as the sum of the product of the
(ii) Unstable Equilibrium: If on slight constituent masses and the square of their
displacement from equilibrium perpendicular distances from the axis of
position, a body moves in the direction n
of displacement and does not regain rotation. S.I. unit is kg/m2; I = ∑ mi ri 2
its original position, the equilibrium i =1
is said to unstable equilibrium. In this Work, Power and Energy
equilibrium, the centre of gravity of the Work: Work done by a force on a body is defined
body is at the highest position. as the product of force and the displacement
(iii) Neutral Equilibrium: If on slight of the body in the direction of force. SI unit of
displacement from equilibrium position work is joule.

a body has no tendency to come back W= F.S
=  FScos θ
where θ is the angle
to its original position or to move in between F and S .
the direction of displacement, it is said Power : Power is the rate of doing work.Its SI
to be in neutral equilibrium. In neutral unit is watt.
equilibrium, the centre of gravity always  
dW F.dS  
remains at the same height. P
Power == = = F.v
Conditions for stable Equilibrium:
dt dt
1 Horse Power [1HP] = 746 W,
(i) The centre of gravity of the body should
be at the minimum height. Energy : Energy is the capacity of doing work.
It is also a scalar quantity. The SI unit is joule.
(ii) The vertical line passing through the
Work-energy theorem states that the work
centre of gravity of the body should pass
done on a body is equal to the change in its
through the base of the body. kinetic energy.
Centre of mass: It is an imaginary point at Kinetic energy: K.E. is the energy possessed
which the whole mass of a body is supposed to by the body due to its motion.
be concentrated. 1
m1 r1 + m2r2 + .......... + mn rn K.E. = mv 2
X= 2
m1 + m2 + .......... + mn Relation between momentum and kinetic
energy:
where, r1, r2, ............. rn are position vectors of
Consider a body of mass (m) moving with
constituent particles.
velocity (v).

The amount of heat energy produced by unit mass or unit volume of a fuel is called its calorific value.
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-5

KE of a particle can be expressed as where G is the universal gravitational

P2 constant.
=E = and p 2mE This is called Newton’s Universal
2m Gravitational law.
Potential energy: P.E. is the energy possessed • G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2
by the body due to its position or shape.
• Gravitational force is a central and
Gravitational P.E. = mgh conservative force.
Law of conservation of energy states • They can operate over a very long
that energy can neither be created nor be distances.
destroyed but it can be transformed from one • According to Newton’s theory, the
form to another. gravitational attraction between the
Some Equipments used to Transform Energy planets and the sun holds the planets in
is given below elliptical orbits around the sun.
S. Equipment Energy Transformed • The earth’s moon and moons of the other
No. planets are held in orbits by the attraction
between the moons and the planets.
1. Dynamo Mechanical energy • The force of gravity depends upon the
into electrical energy object’s mass or the amount of matter in
2. Candle Chemical energy into the object.
light and heat energy • The weight (w) of an object is equal to
the mass of the object multiplied by the
3. Microphone Sound energy into acceleration due to gravity(g). W = mg
electrical energy • gmaximum at poles and gminimum at equator.
4. Loud Electrical energy into 1
• g(moon) = g(earth)
(gearth)
Speaker sound energy 6
5. Solar Cell Solar energy into • The value of ‘g’ decreases with altitude,
electrical energy depth from the earth’s surface.
• g decreases due to rotation of earth.
6. Electric Bulb Electrical energy into
Weight of a body in a lift
light and heat energy
(i) If lift is stationary or moving with uniform
7. Battery Chemical energy into speed (either upward or downward), the
electrical energy apparent weight of a body is equal to its
8. Electric Electrical energy into true weight.
motor mechanical energy (ii) If lift is going up with acceleration, the
apparent weight of a body is more than
Gravitation the true weight.
• Gravitation is a natural phenomenon (iii) If lift is going down with acceleration, the
by which all physical bodies attract each apparent weight of a body is less than the
true weight.
other.
(iv) If the cord of the lift is broken, it falls
• On Earth, gravity gives weight to physical
freely. In this situation the weight of a
objects employing a downward force to
body in the lift becomes zero. This is the
keep them grounded. situation of weightlessness.
• Gravitational force is always attractive. (v) While going down, if the acceleration
• It is weakest force among the four natural of lift is more than acceleration due to
forces in nature i.e. electromagnetic, gravity, a body in the lift goes in contact
weak and strong nuclear force. of the ceiling of lift.
• If there are two objects of mass m1 and Escape speed (ve) is the minimum
m2 and they are placed at distance r speed with which an object just crosses
apart. Then force between them will be: the earth’s gravitational field and never
F = G(m1m2)/r2 comes back.

At the centre of the earth, weight becomes zero.

 GK-6 GENERAL SCIENCE
For geostationary satellite, height above
2GM
=Ve = 2gR the earth’s surface = 35800 km and orbital
R velocity = 3.1 km/s.
• The escape velocity of Earth is about 11.2 Polar Satellites: A satellite that revolves in a
kilometres per second and on moon it is polar orbit along north-south direction while
2.4 km/sec. the earth rotates around its axis in east west
direction.
• It is 2 times the orbital velocity i.e,
Weightlessness: A situation where the
effective weight of the object becomes zero.
Ve = 2Vo An astronaut experiences weightlessness in
Satellite space satellite because the astronaut as well
It is a heavenly body or an artificial object as the satellite are in a free fall state towards
which revolves round a planet in a particular the earth.
orbit. The required centripetal force is
provided by the gravitational force. Kepler’s Properties of Matter
laws of planetary motion are applicable to
them. Elasticity and Plasticity
(a) Orbital velocity of a satellite: Velocity The property of the body to regain its original
with which the satellite orbits around the configuration (length, or shape) when the
planet. deforming forces are removed is called
elasticity. Quartz and phosphorous bronze,
GM are closed to perfectly lastic body. On the other
vo =
R+h hand, if the body does not have any tendency to
regain its original configuration on removal of
(b) Time period of a satellite: Time taken
deforming force the body is called plastic body
by it to complete one revolution around
and this property is called plasticity.
the planet.
Putty and mud are close to perfectly plastic

T=
2π ( R + h )3 body.
Stress: The internal restoring force acting per
R g
unit area of a body is called stress.
(c) Height of a satellite above the surface i.e., Stress = Restoring force/ Area
of the planet: Strain: The ratio of change in configuration to
 T 2 R 2g  the original configuration is called strain.
H =  
2  –R Change in configuraion
 4π  i.e., Strain =
(d) Total energy of a satellite orbiting on Original configuration
a circular path is negative with potential Strain being the ratio of two like quantities has
energy being negative but twice as the no units and dimensions.
magnitude of positive kinetic energy. Elastic Limit
(e) Binding energy of a satellite is the Elastic limit is the upper limit of deforming
energy required to remove it from its force up to which, if deforming force is
orbit to infinity. removed, the body regains its original form
GMm completely and beyond which, if deforming
B.E. = No energy is required to
2r force is increased, the body loses its property
of elasticity and gets permanently deformed.
keep the satellite in its orbit.
Hooke’s law
Geostationary satellites: The satellites
in a circular orbit around the earth in the It states that within the elastic limit stress is
equatorial plane with a time period of 24 directly proportional to strain.
hours, appears to be fixed from any point on i.e., Stress ∝ strain
earth are called geostationary satellite. or Stress = E × strain

The geostationary satellites are used for weather forecasting and polar satellites are used for monitoring environment more
reliable than geostationary satellites.

GENERAL SCIENCE
Here E is the coefficient of proportionality and
is called modulus of elasticity or coefficient
of elasticity of a body.
Young’s modulus of elasticity (Y): It is
defined as the ratio of normal stress to the
longitudinal strain within the elastic limit.
Normal stress
Thus, Y =
Longitudinal strain
Materials-Ductile, Brittle and Elastomers
(i) Ductile materials: The materials which
have large range of plastic extension are
called ductile materials. They can be
drawn into thin wires, e.g., copper, silver,
aluminium, iron, etc.
(ii) Brittle materials: The materials
which have very small range of plastic
extension are called brittle materials.
These materials break as soon as stress
is increased beyond the elastic limit. e.g.,
glass, ceramics, cast iron, etc.
(iii) Elastomers: The materials which can
be stretched to large values of strain are
called elastomers. e.g., rubber, elastic
tissue of aorta, etc.
Fluids
Fluids are the substances that can flow.
Therefore liquids and gases both are fluids. The
study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics or
hydrostatics and the study of fluids in motion
is called fluid dynamics or hydrodynamics.
Both combined are called fluid mechanics.
Density (r)
Force exerted by air column on unit cross-
Mass per unit volume is defined as density.
section area of sea level is called atmospheric
dm dm m
ρ = lim = = pressure (P0)
∆v →0 dV dV V
Relative Density
It is defined as the ratio of the density of the
given fluid to the density of pure water at 4°C.
It is given by
Density of given liquid
= place and at a particular place from time to
Density of pure water at 4°C
The density of water is maximum at 4°C and is
equal to 1.0 × 103 kgm–3.
Relative density is measured by hydrometer.
Pressure
If a uniform force is exerted normal to an area
(A), then average pressure (pav) is defined as
the normal force (F) per unit area.
Thicker liquid like honey, coaltar, glycerine, sugar solution, etc. have a larger viscosity.
EBD_7242
GK-7
F
i.e., Pav =
A
∆F
In limiting sense, pressure p = lim
∆A →0 ∆A
The pressure exerted by liquid (density = ρ) at
depth ‘h’ below the surface of liquid, p = h ρ g.
SI unit: pascal (Pa), 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
Practical units: atmospheric pressure (atm),
bar and torr
1 atm = 1.01325 × 105Pa = 1.01325 bar = 760
torr = 760 mm of Hg column pressure.
Pascal’s Law of Transmission of Fluid
Pressure
Pascal’s law is stated in following ways:
• The pressure in a fluid at rest is same at
all the points if gravity is ignored.
• A liquid exerts equal pressures in all
directions.
• If the pressure in an enclosed fluid is
changed at a particular point, the change
is transmitted to every point of the fluid
and to the walls of the container without
being diminished in magnitude.
Applications of Pascal’s law: Hydraulic
machines, lifts, presses and brakes, are based
on the Pascal’s law.
Atmospheric Pressure
F
P=
0 = 101.3kN / m 2
A
Barometer is used to measure atmospheric
pressure which was discovered by Torricelli.
Atmospheric pressure varies from place to
time.
Sudden fall in barometer reading is the
indication of storm.
• Slow fall in barometre reading is the
indication of rain.
• Slow rise in barometre reading is the
indication of clear weather.
 GK-8
• Atmospheric pressure decreases with
height or altitude. This is why- fountain
pen leaks in aeroplane at height, cooking
on the mountain is difficult, etc.
Buoyancy and Archimedes Principle
If a body is partially or wholly immersed in a
fluid, it experiences an upward force due to
the fluid surrounding it. This phenomenon
of force exerted by fluid on the body is called
buoyancy and force is called buoyant force
or upthrust.
Archimedes’ Principle: It states that the
buoyant force on a body that is partially or
totally immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by it.
Bernoulli’s Principle
When incompressible, non-viscous, irrotational
liquid i.e., ideal liquid flow from one position
to other in streamline path then in its path at
every point, the sum of pressure energy, kinetic
energy and potential energy per unit volume
remains constant. Blowing of roofs by storms,
sprayer action of carburetor, etc. are based on
Bernoulli’s principle.
Viscosity
The property of a fluid due to which it opposes
the relative motion between its different layers
is called viscosity (or fluid friction or internal
friction) and the force between the layers
opposing the relative motion is called viscous
force.
Terminal Velocity
It is maximum constant velocity acquired by the
body while falling freely in a viscous medium.
Surface Tension
The liquid surface behaves like a stretched
elastic membrane which has a natural
tendency to contract and tends to have a
minimum possible surface area. This property
of liquid is called surface tension.
Force F
Surface tension T =
Length L
Examples of surface tension
(i) Raindrops are spherical in shape.
(ii) The hair of a shaving brush cling together
when taken out of water.
(iii) Oil spread on cold water but remains as a
drop on hot water etc.
Coffee powder is easily soluble in water because water immediately wets the fine granules of coffee by the action of capillarity.
GENERAL SCIENCE
Surface tension of a liquid decreases with
temperature and becomes zero at critical
temperature.
Capillarity
A glass tube with fine bore and open at
both ends is known as capillary tube. The
property by virtue of which a liquid rise or fall
in a capillary tube is known as capillarity.
Rise or fall of liquid in tubes of narrow bore
(capillary tube) is called capillary action. Rise
of kerosene in lanterns, rise of ink in fountain
pen etc. are due to capillary action.
Heat
Temperature and Heat
Temperature is defined as the degree of hotness
or coldness of a body. It is a scalar quantity. Its
S.I. unit is kelvin (K).
Heat is a form of energy which causes sensation
of hotness or coldness. The flow of heat is
always from higher temperature to lower
temperature. No heat flows from one body to
other, when both the bodies are at the same
temperature. The two bodies are said to be in
thermal equilibrium. The SI unit of heat is
joule. Its CGS unit is calorie, 1 cal = 4.2 joule
Measurement of Temperature
A branch of science which deals with the
measurement of temperature of a substance is
called thermometry.
Thermometer is a device used to measure
the temperature. Thermometer used for
measuring very high temperatures are called
pyrometer.
Relationship between different scales of
temperature
C − 0 F − 32 R − 0 K − 273 Ra − 492
= = = =
100 180 80 100 180
OR
C F − 32 R K − 273 Ra − 492
= = = =
5 9 4 5 9
Normal temperature of human body is 310.15
k (37°C = 98.6°F)
At –40° temperature, celsius and fahrenheit
thermometers read the same.
Ideal-gas Equation and Absolute

GENERAL SCIENCE
Temperature
The equation, PV = nRT
where, n = number of moles in the sample of
gas
R = universal gas constant; (its value is 8.31 J
mol–1 K–1), is known as ideal-gas equation
It is the combination of following three laws
(i) Boyle’s law: When temperature is
held constant, the pressure is inversely
proportional to volume.
1 Coefficient of volume expansion is defined as
i.e., P ∝ ( at constant temperature)
V temperature.
(ii) Charle’s law: When the pressure is held
constant, the volume of the gas is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature.
i.e., V ∝ T (at constant pressure)
(iii) Avogadro’s law: When the pressure and
temperature are kept constant, the volume
is directly proportional to the number of
moles of the ideal gas in the container.
i.e., V ∝ n (at constant pressure and
temperature)
Absolute temperature
The lowest temperature of –273.16 °C at which
a gas is supposed to have zero volume and zero
pressure and at which entire molecular motion
stops is called absolute zero temperature. A new
scale of temperature starting with –273.16°C
by Lord Kelvin as zero. This is called Kelvin
scale or absolute scale of temperature.
T(K) = t°C + 273.16
Thermal expansion
The increase in the dimensions, i.e. length,
area or volume of a body due to the increase
in its temperature on heating is called thermal
expansion.
Linear expansion: The fractional increase
in length per ºC rise in temperature is called
coefficient of linear expansion.
Coefficient of linear expansion,
 ∆l 
  dl
l
α=   =
∆T l.dT
Superficial expansion: On increasing the
temperature of a solid, its area increases. This
increase in area is referred to as superficial
expansion.
The air having moisture content equal to its humidity capacity, is called saturated air. Humidity capacity of air is directly
proportional to the temperature.
EBD_7242
GK-9
Coefficient of superficial expansion is defined
as the fractional increase in area per ºC rise in
temperature.
∆A / A dA
=β =
∆T A ⋅ dT
Cubical expansion: On increasing the
temperature of a solid, its volume increases.
This increase in volume with increase in
temperature is called cubical or volume
expansion.
the fractional increase in volume per ºC rise in
i.e., Coefficient of volume expansion,
∆V / V dV
γ= =
∆T V.dT
Relation between (α), (β) and (γ).
β γ
α= = ⇒ α : β : γ= 1: 2 : 3
2 3
Anomalous expansion of water
Almost all liquids expand on heating but
water when heated from 0°C to 4°C its volume
decreases and hence density increases until
its temperature reaches 4°C. Its density is
maximum at 4°C, on further heating its density
decreases. This behaviour of water is called
anomalous behaviour of water.
Triple point of water: The triple point of
water represents the co-existence of all
the three phases of water-ice, water and
water vapour in equilibrium. The pressure
corresponding to triple point of water is 6.03
× 10–3 atmosphere or 4.58 mm of Hg and
temperature corresponding to it is 273.16 K.
Specific heat capacity
It is the amount of heat energy needed to raise
the temperature of unit mass of substance by
1ºC (or 1K). It is denoted by s or c.
Cwater = 1 cal/g °C = 1 kcal/kg K=4200 joule/kg K
Latent heat or hidden heat
When state of a substance changes, change
of state takes place at constant temperature
(m.pt. or b.pt.) heat is released or absorbed
and is given by,
Q = mL
where L is latent heat.
 GK-10
L
fusion of ice = 80 cal/g = 336 × 103 j/Kg
L
vap of water = 540 cal/g = 2256 × 103 J/Kg
Change of State of Matter
Any state of a substance (solid/ liquid/ gas)
can be changed into another by heating or
cooling. The transition of a substance from
one state to another is called a change of state.
Some common changes of states:
(i) Melting: When heat is supplied, solid
substance changes into liquid, this change
of state of substance is called melting.
Heat
→ Liquid
Solid 
The temperature at which the solid and
the liquid states of a substance coexist in
thermal equilibrium with each other is
called its melting point.
(ii) Freezing: When heat is released, liquid
changes into solid, this change of state of
substance is called freezing.
Cool
Liquid  → Solid
(iii) Condensation: When vapour is cooled, it
changes into liquid, this change of state is
called condensation.
Cool
Vapour  → liquid
(iv) Evaporation: Conversion of liquid into
gaseous state at all the temperatures is
called evaporation or boiling.
Heat
Liquid 
→ Vapour
The temperature at which the liquid and
vapour states of a substance co-exist in
thermal equilibrium with each other is
called its boiling point.
(v) Sublimation: It is the conversion of a
solid directly into vapour.
Heat
Solid 
→ Vapour
Sublimation takes place when boiling
point is less than the melting point.
Heat transfer: Heat energy transfer from a
body at higher temperature to a body at lower
temperature by three different methods. They
are conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction: Conduction is that mode
of transmission of heat in which heat
is transferred from a region of higher
temperature to a region of lower temperature
by the aid of particles of the body without
The measuring of temperature closed to OK, is known as cryogenics while dealing with the measurement of very high
temperature, is called pyrometry.
GENERAL SCIENCE
their actual migration. Conduction requires
material medium.
Convection: Convection like conduction
requires a material medium. It is the process
in which heat is transferred from one place to
other by actual movement of heated particles.
Radiation: When a body is heated and placed
in vacuum, it loses heat even when there is no
medium surrounding it.
The process by which heat is lost in this case
is called radiation. This does not require the
presence of any material medium. It is by
radiation that the heat from the sun reaches
the earth.
Kirchhoff’s Law
Kirchhoff’s law signifies that good absorbers
are good emitter.
If a shining metal ball with some black spot on
its surface is heated to a high temperature, the
shining ball becomes dull but the black spots
shines brilliantly because black spot absorbs
radiation during heating and emits in dark.
Stefan’s Law
• The radiant energy emitted by unit area
of perfectly black body per unit time is
direct proportional to the fourth power
of its absolute temperature.
E ∝ T4 ⇒ E = σ T4
where, σ is Stefan’s constant and its value
is 5.67 × 10–8 Wm–2K–4
Perfectly Black Body
• A perfectly black body is one which
absorbs completely all the radiations
falling on its surface, whatever be the
wavelength.
Note Since perfectly black body is a perfect
absorber, hence according to Kirchhoff’s
law, it will also be a perfect radiator.
Newton’s Law of Cooling
The rate of cooling of a body (rate of loss of
heat) is directly proportional to the excess of
temperature of the body over the surroundings,
provided that this excess is small and loss of
heat by radiation only.
If θ and θ0 are the temperatures of the body
and its surroundings respectively, then
according to Newton’s law of cooling,
dQ
Rate of loss of heat, − ∝ ( θ − θ0 )
dt

GENERAL SCIENCE
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the branch of science in
which the conversion of heat into mechanical
work and vice versa is studied.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
If objects A and B are separately kept in thermal
equilibrium with a third object C then objects
A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each
other.
First Law of Thermodynamics
If some quantity of heat is supplied to a system
capable of doing external work, then the
quantity of heat absorbed by the system is equal
to the sum of the increase in the internal energy
of the system and the external work done by the
system.
i.e., δQ = δU + δW
The first law of thermodynamics is essentially
a restatement of the law of conservation of
energy, i.e. energy can neither be created nor
be destroyed but may be converted from one
form to another.
Adiabatic process : No exchange of heat i.e.,
∆H = 0.
Isothermal process : No change in
temperature.
• Second Law of Thermodynamics: The
second law of thermodynamics is the
outcome of human experience under
which heat energy can be converted into
mechanical energy.
• Kelvin-Planck’s Statement: It is
impossible to construct a device which
operates in a cycles that will take heat
from a body and convert it completely
into the work without producing any
other effect.
• Clausius Statement: It is impossible
to construct a self acting device which
operates in a cycle that will transfer heat
from a cold body to a hot body without
expenditure of work.
• Change in entropy at temperature T:
When ∆Q amount of heat exchanged is
∆Q
∆s = its SI unit is J/K.
T • potential energy is maximum.
Heat Engines
Heat engine is a device which converts heat
energy into work.
Efficiency of heat engine,
Work done (W )
η=
Heat taken from source (Q1 )
Uniform circular motion is periodic but not oscillatory
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Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
A refrigerator is the reverse of a heat engine. A
heat pump is the same as a refrigerator.
Freon acts as refrigeran in actual refrigerator.
Periodic Motion
Any motion that repeats itself in equal intervals
of time is called periodic motion. A periodic
motion can be represented in terms of sines
and cosines, so it is called a harmonic motion.
The uniformly rotating earth represents a
periodic motion that repeats itself every 24
hours.
An oscillatory motion is always periodic but
a periodic motion may not be oscillatory.
Oscillatory Motion
• If a particle repeats its motion after a
regular interval of time about a fixed
point, motion is said to be oscillatory or
vibratory.
• Motion of piston in an automobile engine,
motion of balance wheel of a watch are
the examples of oscillatory motion.
Simple Harmonic Motion
• If a body moves to and fro on a straight
line about a fixed position, then its
motion is called simple harmonic motion.
When a particle executing SHM passes
through the mean position, then
• no force acts on the particle.
• velocity is maximum.
• acceleration is zero.
• kinetic energy is maximum.
• potential energy is zero.
When a particle executing SHM is at the
extreme end, then
• Velocity of particle is zero.
• acceleration of the particle is maximum.
• kinetic energy of particle is zero.
• restoring force acting on the particle is
maximum.
• A simple pendulum is made by
suspending a small ball (called bob) from
a fixed support with the help of a light
string.
 GK-12 GENERAL SCIENCE
• Time period of oscillation of a simple which requires a material medium for its
l propagation.
pendulum is given as T = 2π (a) Transverse wave: When the
g particles of the medium vibrate in a direction
where l is the effective length of the perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
pendulum and g is the acceleration due to the wave, the wave is known as the transverse
gravity. wave. For example, waves produced in a
• If a simple pendulum is suspended in a lift stretched string, waves on the surface. These
descending down with acceleration, then waves travel in form of crests and troughs.
time period of pendulum will increase. These waves can travel in solids and liquids
If lift is ascending, then time period of only.
pendulum will decrease. (b) Longitudinal wave: When the
• If a lift falls freely under gravity, then particles of the medium vibrate along the
the time period of the pendulum will direction of propagation of the wave then the
be infinite. At Moon, the time period of wave is known as the longitudinal wave. For
simple pendulum increases, because example sound wave in air, waves in a solid rod
acceleration due to gravity at Moon produced by scrubbing etc.
decreases.
These waves travel in the form of compressi-
Waves ons and rarefactions. These waves can travel
in solids, liquids and gases.
• A wave is a disturbance which propagates
energy from one place to the other Electromagnetic Waves
without the transport of matter. The waves which do not require medium
• Waves are of two types for propagation are called electromagnetic
(i) Mechanical waves waves. This means that these waves can
(ii) Electromagnetic waves travel through vacuum also. For example, light
Mechanical Waves waves, X-rays, γ-rays, Infrared waves, radio
waves, microwaves, etc. These waves are of
A mechanical wave is a periodic disturbance
transverse type.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, THEIR WAVELENGTHS AND USES

Wave Wavelength Uses

Radio > 0.1 m In telecommunication
Microwave 0.1m to 1 mm In microwave oven, radar etc.
Infrared 1mm to 700 nm Treating muscular strain, taking photography in fog,
haze etc.
Visible 700 nm to 400 nm To see objects
Ultraviolet 400 nm to 1 nm Preserving food, sterilizing surgical instruments, etc.
X-rays 1 nm to 10–3 nm Medical diagnosis and treatment
Gamma rays < 10–3 nm To get imformation on nuclear structure, medical
treatment, etc.

Difference between sound waves and a speed of 3 × 108 m/s.

electromagnetic waves (iii) Sound waves do not pass through a
(i) Sound waves are longitudinal and vacuum but electromagnetic waves
electromagnetic waves are transverse. (light) do.
(ii) Sound waves travel at a speed of 340 m/s • Audible sound for human is 20 Hz to
whereas electromagnetic waves travel at 20000 Hz.
If half of the mirror is covered, then image formed is complete but its intensity reduces (because less amount of light is
reflected from the mirror).

GENERAL SCIENCE
• Sound higher than 20000 Hz are called
ultrasonics.
Uses of ultrasonics : (i) In ultrasonography
(ii) in sterilization of liquid (iii) for sending
signals (iv) measuring depth of sea etc.
• Sounds less than 20 Hz are called
infrasonics.
Speed of Sound
V=fl
f = frequency ; l = Wavelength
Vsolid > Vliquid < Vgas
Sound is characterised by three parameters:
(i) Pitch: Pitch is the sensation (brain
interpretation) of the frequency of an
emitted sound and is the characteristic
which distinguishes a shrill (or sharp)
sound from a grave (or flat) sound.
(ii) Loudness: Loudness or softness of a
sound wave is the sensation that depends
upon its amplitude. The loudness of
sound is a measure of the sound energy
reaching the ear per second.
The loudness of sound is measured in
decibel (dB).
The loudness of sound of people talking
quietly is about 65 dB, the loudness of
sound in a very noisy factory is about
100 dB.
(iii) Quality (Timber): Quality or timber of a
sound wave is that characteristic which
helps us in distinguishing one sound from
another having same pitch and loudness.
We recognise a person (without seeing)
by listening to his sound as it has a
definite quality.
A pure sound of single frequency is called a
tone.
An impure sound produced by mixture
of many frequencies is called a note. It is
pleasant to listen.
(iv) Mach Number : It is defined as the ratio
of speed of sound source to the speed
of sound in the same medium under
the same condition of temperature and
pressure.
 If Mach number > 1, body is called
supersonic.
 If mach number > 5, body is called
hypersonic
Humming of mosquito has high pitch (high frequency) but low intensity (low loudness) while the roar of a lion has high
intensity (loudness) but low pitch.
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 If mach number < 1, the body
(source) is said to be moving with
subsonic speed.
Echo
Phenomenon of hearing back our own sound is
called an echo. It is due to successive reflection
from the surface of obstacles of large size.
Conditions for the formation of Echoes
(i) The minimum distance between the
source of sound and the reflecting body
should be 17.2 metres.
(ii) The wavelength of sound should be less
than the height of the reflecting body.
(iii) The intensity of sound should be
sufficient so that it can be heard after
reflection.
Reverberation
Persistence of sound after its production
stopped, is called reverberation.
When a sound is produced in a big hall, its
wave reflect from the walls and travel back
and forth. Due to this energy does not reduce
and the sound persist.
A short reverberation is desirable in a concert
hall (where music is being played) because it
gives ‘life’ to sound.
Sonar
• It stands for sound navigation and
ranging. It is used to measure the depth
of a sea, to locate the enemy submarines
and shipwrecks.
• The transmitter of a sonar produces
pulses of ultrasonic sound waves of
frequency of about 50000 Hz.
• The reflected sound waves are received
by the receiver.
Doppler’s Effect
If there is a relative motion between source of
sound and obserever, the apparent frequency
of sound heard by the observer is different
from the actual frequency of sound emitted by
the source.
• This phenomenon is called Doppler’s
effects.
• When the distance between the source
and observer decreases, the apparent
frequency increases and vice-versa.
Uses
(i) By police to check over speeding of
vehicles.
 GK-14
(ii) At airport to guide the aircraft.
(iii) To study heart beats and blood flow An ‘image’ is defined as the impression of
in different parts of the body.
Optics
Optics
The branch of physics which deals with the
propagation, nature and behaviour of light is
known as optics.
Light is a form of energy which enables human
beings and creatures to ‘see’ things.
Light is an electromagnetic radiation which
exhibits properties like a wave as well as a
particle. It always propagates in a straight line.
Light travels with a speed nearly equal to 3
× 108 m/s. According to current theories, no
material particle can travel at a speed greater
than the speed of light.
Luminous and non-luminous objects
Luminous objects are those which emit its own
light e.g., sun, glowworm, burning candle,
electric lights. Non-luminous objects do not give
out its own light but are visible only when light
from a luminous object falls on it. e.g., moon,
earth, table, paper, etc.
Transparent, Translucent and Opaque
materials
Transparent materials are those which allow
most of light to pass through them. Example:
Glass, water, air.
Translucent materials allow only a part
of light to pass through it. We cannot see
distinctly through them. Example: greased
paper, paraffin wax, etc.
Opaque materials do not allow any light to
pass through it. They reflect or absorb all the
light that falls on them. Example: Books, desk,
stone, rubber, trees, etc.
Reflection of Light
The turning back of light in the same medium is
called reflection of light.
Laws of reflection
1. The angle of incidence ‘i’ is equal to the
angle of reflection ‘r’.
Uses of concave mirrors:
2. At the point of incidence, the incident
(i) In torches, search-lights and vehicles
rays, the normal to the surface and the
reflected ray all lie in the same plane.
At the sunrise and sunset, the sun appears flattened. This apparent flattening of the Sun’s disc is also due to the atmospheric
refraction.
GENERAL SCIENCE
Images and their properties
an object carried over and formed by light
reflected from it. An image is said to be a real
image if it can be caught on a screen, and a
virtual image if it cannot be caught on the
screen.
Real image
1. When the rays of light actually meet, the
image so formed is known as real image.
2. A real image can be caught on a screen
since it is formed by actual meeting
of rays.
3. A real image is always inverted.
4. A real image is formed by a convergent
reflected beam.
Virtual image
1. When the rays of light appear to meet,
the image so formed is known as virtual
image.
2. A virtual image cannot be caught on a
screen since it is formed by meeting of
imaginary rays.
3. A virtual image is always erect.
4. A virtual image is formed by a divergent
reflected beam.
Characteristics of images formed by a
plane mirror
The image formed by a plane mirror is
(a) virtual (the image cannot be formed on a
screen),
(b) upright,
(c) laterally inverted (the left side of an
image is formed by the right side of an
object),
(d) the same size as the object,
(e) the same distance behind the mirror as
the object is in front of the mirror.
In a plane mirror, to see full image, a person
requires a mirror of at least half of his height.
Concave and Convex Mirror
Concave mirror: If the reflection takes place
from the inner surface of a spherical mirror,
then the mirror is called concave mirror.
headlights to get powerful beams of light.
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-15

(ii) As a shaving mirror to see a large image Convex mirror: If the outer surface of the
of the face. spherical mirror acts as a reflector then the
(iii) As a dentists mirror to see large images of mirror is called convex mirror.
the teeth of patients. Uses of convex mirrors:
(iv) Large sized concave mirror is used to (i) As a rear -view mirrors in vehicles.
concentrate sunlight to produce heat in (ii) For security purposes.
solar furnaces. (iii) In sodium reflector lamp.
IMAGE FORMATION BY A CONCAVE MIRROR FOR DIFFERENT POSITIONS OF THE OBJECT
Position of object Position of the image Size of the image Nature of the image
At infinity At the focus F Highly-diminished, Real and inverted
point-sized
Beyond C Between F and C Diminished Real and inverted
At C At C Same size Real and inverted
Between C and F Beyond C Enlarged Real and inverted
At F At in finity Highly enlarged Real and inverted
Between P and F Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect

IMAGE FORMATION BY A CONVEX MIRROR FOR DIFFERENT POSITIONS OF THE OBJECT

Position of the object Position of the image Size of the image Nature of the image
Any where between pole Between P and F back Small Virtual and erect
(P) and in finity (∞) of the mirror
At in finity At F Very small in size Virtual and erect

Mirror Formula: If an object is placed at a minutes before the actual sunrise, and about
distance u from the pole of a mirror and its 2 minutes after actual sunset etc. due to
image is formed at a distance v (from the pole) atmospheric refraction.
1 1 1 Refractive index : Refractive index of medium
then, + = 2 with respect to medium 1.
v u f
Magnification : If a thin object linear size O Speed of light in medium1
µ 21 =
situated vertically on the axis of a mirror at a Speed of light in medium 2
distance u from the pole and its image of size
I is formed at a distance v (from the pole), Laws of Refraction
magnification (transverse) is defined as (i) Snell’s law: For any two media and for
(+ve means erect image) light of a given wavelength, the ratio
of the sine of the angle of incidence to
m   I   v  the sine of the angle of refraction is a
(–ve means inverted image)
O u (|m| >1 means large image) sin i
constant i.e., = constant .
(|m| < 1 means small image) sin r
Refraction of Light (ii) The incident ray, the refracted ray and
When a ray of light passes from one medium to the normal at the incident point all lie in
another medium it bends – towards the normal the same plane.
when goes from rarer to denser and away from When object is in denser medium and
the normal when goes from denser to rarer observer is in rarer medium:
medium. This phenomenon is called refraction Real depth
of light. Refractive index µ =
Virtual depth
Twinkling of stars, sun is visible to us about 2

Eye lens behaves as a convex lens of M = 1.437

 GK-16 GENERAL SCIENCE
Some Phenomena based on Refraction (vii) Writing on a paper appears lifted on
(i) Twinkling of stars putting glass slab on it.
(ii) Oval Shape of sun in the morning and (viii)An object in a denser medium
evening. appears to be nearer when seen
from a rarer medium, eg. fish in
(iii) Rivers appear shallow
water, a coin at the base of a water filled
(iv) Coins appear raised in glass filled with vessel.
water.
Lens
(v) Pencils appear broken in the beaker
filled with water. A lens is a piece of transparent material with
two refracting surfaces such that atleast one is
(vi) Sun appears above horizon at sunset
curved and refractive index of used material is
and sunrise. different from that of the surroundings.
NATURE, POSITION AND RELATIVE SIZE OF THE IMAGE FORMED BY A
CONVEX LENS FOR VARIOUS POSITIONS OF THE OBJECT
Position of the Position of the image Relative size of the Nature of the image
object image
At infinity At focus F2 Highly-diminished, Real and inverted
point-sized
Beyond 2F1 Between F2 and 2F2 Diminished Real and inverted
At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Real and inverted
Between F1 and 2F1 Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and inverted
At Focus F1 At infinity Infinitely large or Real and inverted
highly enlarged
Between F1 and On the same side of Enlarged Virtual and erect
Optical centre O the lens as the object

NATURE, POSITION AND RELATIVE SIZE OF THE IMAGE FORMED BY A

CONCAVE LENS FOR VARIOUS POSITION OF THE OBJECT
Position of the Object Position os the Relative size of the Nature of
Image Image
At infinity At focus F1 Highly-diminished, Virtual and erect
point, sized
Between infinity and Between F1 and Diminished Virtual and erect
Optioal centre O of Optioal centre O
the lens
Refraction through a thin lens (lens Total Internal Reflection: When the object is
formula): If an object at a distance u from the placed in an optically denser medium and if
optical centre of a lens and its images is formed the incident angle is greater than the critical
at a distance v (from the optical centre) and angle then the ray of light gets reflected back
focal length of this length is f then to the originating medium. This phenomenon
1 1 1 is called total internal reflection.
− = This is called lens formula. This phenomenon takes place in shining of
v u f
Power of a lens air bubble, sparkling of diamond, mirage,
looming, in optical communication, endoscopy
The power of a lens is defined as
using optical fibre.
1 Critical angle (ic): when a ray passes from an
P= . The unit of power is diopter.
f ( in m ) optically denser medium to an optically rarer

The minimum temperature of a body at which it emits light is 500°C.


GENERAL SCIENCE
medium, the angle of refraction r is greater
than the corresponding angle of incidence i.
From Snell’s law.
Let µ1 =µ 2 and µ 2 =1 and let for i = ic,
r = 90º then sin ic= 1 / µ
−1 1
∴ ic =
sin ; ic is called the critical angle.
µ
Dispersion of Light
When a white ray of light or sunlight passes
through a prism it breaks into its seven
constituents colours, i.e. violet, indigo, blue,
green, yellow, orange and red (VIBGYOR). This
phenomenon is called dispersion of light. The
band of seven constituents colours is called
spectrum. The deviation is maximum for
violet colour and least for red colour.
The Rainbow
A rainbow is a spectrum of white light from the
sun. This is a phenomenon due to combined
effect of dispersion, refraction and reflection
of sunlight by spherical water droplets of rain.
(i) Primary rainbow: It is formed due to
two refractions and one total internal
reflection of the light incident on the
droplet. Sunlight is first refracted as it
enters a raindrop which cause different
colours of light to separate. The observer
sees a rainbow with red colour on the top
and violet on the bottom.
(ii) Secondary rainbow: It is formed due
to two refractions and two total internal
reflection of light incident on the water
droplet. It is due to four - step process.
The intensity of light is reduced at
the second reflection and hence the
secondary rainbow is fainter than the
primary rainbow.
Mixing of Colours
Red + Green + Blue = White
Red + Blue = Magenta
Blue + Green = Peacock blue (or Cyan)
Red + Green = Yellow
If all the colours of white light are reflected
back from the object, then it appears white.
And if all the colours of white light is absorbed
by an object, then it appears black.
Polarisation is the only phenomenon which
proves that light is a transverse wave.
Soap bubbles in white light show various colours due to interference.
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The layer of kerosene oil over water surface
appear coloured in the presence of sunlight
due to proper interference of light.
Scattering of Light
As sunlight travels through the earth’s
atmosphere it gets scattered by the small
particles present in the atmosphere.
According to Rayleigh law, the amount of
scattering is inversely proportional to the
fourth power of the wavelength 
 1 
.
4
λ 
Phenomenon based on scattering of light
(i) Blue colour of sky: Blue colour has
a shorter wavelength than red colour
therefore blue colour is scattered strongly.
Hence the bluish colour predominates in
a clear sky.
(ii) White colour of clouds: Clouds contain
large dust particles, water droplets or ice
particles. These large sized Particles do
not obey Rayleigh law of scattering. All
wavelengths are scattered nearly equally.
Hence clouds are generally white.
(iii) Sun looks reddish at the Sunset
or Sunrise: At sunset or sunrise, the
sun’s rays have to pass through a larger
distance in the atmosphere. Most of the
blue and other shorter wavelengths
are scattered. The least scattered light
reaching our eyes, therefore the sun looks
reddish.
Power of Accomodation of Eye
The ability of the lens to change its shape
to focus near and distant objects is called
accommodation.
A normal human eye can see objects clearly
that are between 25 cm i.e., least distance of
distinct vision and infinity.
Defects of Vision
Myopia: In this case, the person cannot see the
distant object clearly. Image is formed before
the retina. Concave lens is used for correcting
myopia.
Hypermetropia : In this case, the person
cannot see near object clearly. Image is formed
behind the retina. Convex lens is used for
correcting hypermetropia.
 GK-18
Astigmatism : In this case, the curvature of
cornea becomes irregular and image is not
clear. Cylindrical lens is used for correcting
astigmatism.
Presbyopia : In old age the power of
accommodation of the eye lens decrease,
therefore, neither near nor distant objects are
clearly seen. Presbyopia can be removed by
using bifocal lenses.
Cataract : In this defect, an opaque, white
membrane is developed on cornea due to
which a person loses power of vision partially
or completely.
•• This defect can be removed by removing
this membrane through surgery.
Microscope: It is an optical instrument used
to see magnified image of a tiny objects.
V0  D 
Magnifying power = 1 + 
40  fe 
Resolving power (R.P.) of a microscope
Resolving power of a microscope is defined as
the reciprocal of the least separation between
two close objects, so that they appear just
separated, when seen through the microscope.
Telescope (Astronomical): It is an optical
instrument used to increase the visual angle of
distant large objects.
It is used to see far off objects clearly.
V  D
Magnifying power = 0  1 + 
40  fe 
Resolving power (R.P.) of a telescope
Resolving power of telescope is defined as the
reciprocal of the smallest angular separation
between two distant objects, so that they
appear just separated, when seen through the
telescope.
D Conductors and Insulators
Resolving power of telescope =
1.22λ
Interference of Light Waves
The phenomenon of redistribution of light
energy in a medium due to superposition of
light waves from two coherent sources is called
interference of light.
Conditions for sustained interference:
(i) Two sources must be coherent.
(ii) Amplitudes of waves should be either
equal or approximately equal.
(iii) Light should be monochromatic.
The minimum temperature of a body at which it emits light is 500°C.
GENERAL SCIENCE
Polarisation
It is the phenomenon of restricting the
vibration of light in a particular plane.
Light waves are transverse in nature i.e., the
electric field vector associated with light wave
is always at right angles to the direction of
propagation of the wave. When unpolarised
light is incident on a polaroid (Nicol Prism),
the light wave gets linearly polarised i.e., the
vibration of electric field vector are along a
single direction.
Electricity
Charge is something associated with matter
due to which it produces and experiences
electric and magnetic effects.
The study of charges at rest is called static
electricity or electrostatics while the
study of charges in motion is called current
electricity. There are two types of electric
charge:
(i) Positive charge and (ii) Negative charge
The magnitude of elementary positive or
negative charge is same and is equal to
1.6 × 10–19 C.
Charge is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is
ampere second or coulomb (C).
Basic properties of electric charge
(1) Similar charges repel and opposite charges
attract each other.
(2) A charged body attracts light uncharged
bodies.
(3) Accelerated charge radiates energy.
(4) Quantization of charge i.e., Q = + ne ; n = 1,
2, 3 ....
(5) Charge is conserved.
The materials which allow electric charge
(or electricity) to flow freely through them
are called conductors. Metals are very
good conductors of electric charge. Silver,
copper and aluminium are some of the good
conductors of electricity.
The materials which do not allow electric charge
to flow through them are called nonconductors
or insulators.
For example, most plastics, rubber, non-
metals (except graphite), dry wood, wax, mica,
porcelain, dry air etc., are insulators.
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-19

Coulomb’s law Capacitance or capacity (c) of a capacitor is

It states that, the electrostatic force of a measure of ability of the capacitor to store
interaction (repulsion or attraction) between charge on it.
two electric charges q1 and q2 separated When a conductor is charged then its potential
by a distance r, is directly proportional to rises. The increase in potential is directly
the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the charge given to the
proportional to the square of distance between conductor.
1 q1q 2 Q ∝ V or Q = CV or, C =
Q
them. i.e., F= i.e.
4πε0 r 2 V
Its SI unit is farad (F) or coulomb/volt
Electric Field Capacitance of the conductor depends
upon:
The region surrounding an electric charge or
a group of charges in which another charge (i) Size of conductor
experiences a force of attraction or repulsion is (ii) Surrounding medium
 (iii) Presence of other conductors nearby
 F
called ‘electric field’. ε= Electric Current
q0
The time rate of flow of charge through any
The S.I. unit of electric field intensity is N/coul
cross-section is called electric current. If ∆q
or volt/metre.
charge passes through a cross-section in time
Electric lines of force ∆t then,
An electric line of force is that imaginary smooth ∆q
curve drawn in an electric field along which a Average current I av =
free isolated unit positive charge moves. ∆t
∆q dq
Properties : Two lines of force never intersect. =
Instantaneous current I lim
=
If they are assumed to intersect, there will be ∆t dt
∆t →0
two directions of electric field at the point of Electric current is measured in ampere (A).
intersection, which is impossible. Types of electric current:
Electric Potential (a) Direct current: The current whose
Electric potential at a point in an electric field magnitude and direction does not vary
is the work done in bringing a unit positive with time is called direct current (dc). The
charge from infinity to that point. SI unit of various sources are cells, dc dynamo, etc.
electric potential is volt. It is a scalar quantity. It’s symbol is
Electric potential on earth is considered to be
(b) Alternating current: The current whose
zero.
magnitude continuously changes with time
Potential Difference and periodically changes its direction is
Work done in bringing a unit positive charge called alternating current. It has constant
from one point to other point is the potential amplitude and has alternate positive
difference between the two points. Its SI unit and negative halves. It is produced by ac
is volt and is a scalar quantity. dynamo.
Capacitors and Capacitance It’s symbol is
A capacitor or condenser is a device that Advantages of Alternating Current Over
stores electrical energy. It consists of conductors Direct Current
of any shape and size carrying charges of equal (i) A.C. can be obtained over a wide range
magnitude and opposite signs and separated by of voltages. These voltages can be easily
an insulating medium. stepped up or stepped down with the
The symbol of a capacitor is or help of transformers.
(ii) The generation of A.C. is found to be
The net charge on a capacitor is zero. economical than that of D.C.
Shark protective oceanic device (Shark POD) protects divers from shark. It consists of two metal electrodes, one attached
to diver’s fins and other to diver’s air tank.
 GK-20
Resistance, Conductance and Resistivity
Resistance (R): It is the property of a
substance due to which it opposes the flow of
current through it.
Its SI unit volt/ampere called ohm (Ω).
The reciprocal of specific resistance or,
1 Principle: It works on the phenomenon of
resistivity is conductance i.e. σ =
ρ mutual induction.
Superconductors: At a very low temperature,
the resistance of the conductor may vanish
completely. When it happens, the conductor is
called a superconductor. For example, helium
is a superconductor at 4.2 K (– 268.8°C).
Ohm’s law : It states that if the physical
state i.e. temperature, nature of material and
dimensions of a conductor remain unchanged
then the ratio of potential difference applied
across its ends to current flowing through it
remains constant.
V
i.e. V ∝ I or V = I R, where R = is the
resistance of conductor. I computer, air conditioner, etc.
Electrical Energy
The heat generated (in joule) when a current
of I ampere flows through a resistance of R
ohm for t second i.e., H = I2Rt.
This is the joule’s law of heating
1 unit of electrical energy
= 1 Kilowatt hour (1 KWh) = 3.6 × 106 joule
This is known as Board of trade (B.O.T) unit
of electrical energy.
Electric Power
Energy liberated per second is called its power.
The electrical power P delivered or consumed
by an electrical device is given by P = VI, where
V = Potential difference across the device and
I = current.
Ammeter : An ammeter is a low resistance
galvanometer used to measure strength of
current in an electrical circuit.
Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter:
A galvanometer can be converted to an
ammeter by connecting a low resistance or
shunt in parallel to coil of galvanometer.
Voltmeter: A voltmeter is a high resistance
galvanometer used to measure potential
difference.
Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter:
A galvanometer is converted to a voltmeter by
connecting a high resistance in series with the
coil of galvanometer.
Polaroids are useful in three dimensional motion pictures, i.e., in holography.
GENERAL SCIENCE
Transformers
It is a device used for transforming a low
alternating voltage of high current into a high
alternating voltage of low current and vice
versa, without increasing power or changing
frequency.
If a low voltage is to be transformed into a high
voltage, then the number of turns in secondary
is more than those in primary. The transformer
is called a step up transformer.
If a high voltage is to be transformed into a low
voltage, then the number of turns in secondary
is less than those in primary. The transformer
is called a step-down.
Uses of Transformer
A transformer is used in almost all ac
operation.
(i) In voltage regulators for TV, refrigerator,
(ii) In the induction furnaces.
(iii) Step down transformer is used for
welding purposes.
(iv) In the transmission of ac over long
distance.
AC Generator/Dynamo/Alternator
An electrical machine used to convert
mechanical energy into electrical energy is
known as AC generator/alternator or dynamo.
Principle: It works on the principle of
electromagnetic induction, i.e. when a coil is
rotated in uniform magnetic field, an induced
emf is produced in it.
DC motor
A D.C. motor converts direct current energy from
a battery into mechanical energy of rotation.
Principle: It is based on the fact that when a
coil carrying current is held in a magnetic field,
it experiences a torque, which rotates the coil.
Efficiency of the d.c. motor:
EI E Back e.m. f .
η= = =
VI V Applied e.m. f .
Uses of D.C Motor
1. The D.C. motors are used in D.C. fans
(exhaust, ceiling or table) for cooling and
ventilation.
2. They are used for pumping water.

GENERAL SCIENCE
3. Big D.C. motors are used for running
tram-cars and even trains.
Magnetism
The phenomenon of attracting magnetic
substances like iron, cobalt, nickel etc. is called
magnetism. A body possessing the property of
magnetism is called magnet.
Lodestone or magnetite is natural magnet.
Earth is also a natural magnet.
In magnetised substance all the atomic
magnets are aligned in same direction and
thus resultant magnetism is non-zero.
Properties of Magnet
(i) Attractive property: The places where
its attracting power is maximum are
called poles.
(ii) Directive property: When a magnet is
suspended its length becomes parallel
to N-S direction. The pole pointing north
is called the north pole while the other
pointing in the geographical south is
called the south pole of the magnet.
(iii) Poles of a magnet always exist in pairs:
In a magnet the two poles are found to be
equal in strength and opposite in nature.
(iv) Repulsive property: A pole of a magnet
attracts the opposite pole while repels
similar pole.
Demagnetisation of Magnet
A magnet gets demagnetised, i.e. loses its
power of attraction if it is heated, hammered
or alternating current is passed through a wire
wound over it.
Permanent and temporary Magnets
(Electromagnets)
The permanent artificial magnets are made
of some metals and alloys like Carbon-steel,
Alnico, Platinum-cobalt, Alcomax, Ticonal
etc. The permanent magnets are made of
ferromagnetic substances with large coercivity
and retentivity
The temporary artificial magnets like
electromagnets are prepared by passing
current through coil wound on soft iron core.
These cannot retain its strength for a long
time. These are made from soft iron, non-
AC equipments are more durable and convenient compared to dc equipments.
EBD_7242
GK-21
metal and alloy. Electromagnets are stronger
than permanent magnet.
Some applications of electromagnets
(i) Electric motors
(ii) Doorbells
(iii) In scrapyards to separate iron from other
metals
Magnetic Field
The space around a magnet (or a current
carrying conductor) in which its magnetic effect
can be experienced is called the magnetic field.
Magnetic Lines of Force
Magnetic line of force is an imaginary curve
tangent to which at a point gives the direction
of magnetic field at that point or the magnetic
field line is the imaginary path along which an
isolated north pole will tend to move if it is free
to do so.
Properties : Magnetic lines of force do not
intersect each other. Because if they do, there
will be two directions of magnetic field which
is not possible.
The Earth’s Magnetism
The branch of Physics which deals with
the study of earth’s magnetic field is called
terrestrial magnetism.
William Gilbert suggested that earth itself
behaves like a huge magnet.
(a) A freely suspended magnet always comes
to rest in N-S direction.
(b) A piece of soft iron buried in N-S direction
inside the earth acquires magnetism.
Geographic meridian: It is a vertical plane
passing through geographic north and south
pole of the earth.
Geographic equator: A great circle on the
surface of the earth in a plane perpendicular to
geographical axis is called geographic equator.
All places on geographic equator are at equal
distances from geographical poles.
Magnetic meridian: It is a vertical plane
passing through the magnetic north and south
pole of the earth.
Magnetic equator: A great circle on the
surface of the earth in a plane perpendicular
to magnetic axis is called magnetic equator.
All places on magnetic equator are at equal
distance from magnetic poles.
 GK-22
Magnetic Elements
The physical quantities which determine
the intensity of earth’s total magnetic field
completely both in magnitude and direction are
called magnetic elements.
Angle of declination (φ): The angle between
the magnetic meridian and geographical
meridian at a place is called angle of declination.
Angle of dip or inclination (θ): The angle
through which the N pole dips down with
reference to horizontal is called the angle of dip.
At magnetic north and south pole angle of dip
is 90°. At magnetic equator the angle of dip is
0°.
Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic
field: The total intensity of the earth’s magnetic
field makes an angle θ with horizontal. It has
(i) component in horizontal plane called
horizontal component BH.
(ii) component in vertical plane called
vertical component BV.
Comparison of properties of soft iron and
steel:
(1) The retentivity of soft iron is greater than
that of steel.
(2) The coercivity of steel is much larger than
that of soft iron.
(3) The magnetisation and demagnetisa-tion
is easier in soft iron than steel.
Diamagnetic Substances: The substances
which when placed in a magnetic field are
feebly magnetised in a direction opposite to that
of the magnetising field are called diamagnetic
substances.
Some diamagnetic substances are Cu, Zn, Bi,
Ag, Au, Pb, He, Ar, NaCl, H2O, marble, glass, etc.
PROPERTIES OF FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES
Particle Mass (Kg)
Proton 1.672 × 10–27
Neutron 1.675 × 10–27
Electron 9.108 × 10–31
Cathode Rays
Cathode rays are the stream of high speed
negatively charged particles moving from
cathode to anode in a discharge tube.
Cathode rays are used in cathode ray
oscilloscope and in production of X-rays.
Now-a-days large electromagnets are used to levitate modern trains, these trains are called, maglev.
GENERAL SCIENCE
Paramagnetic Substances: The substances
which when placed in a magnetic field are feebly
magnetised in the direction of magnetising field
are called paramagnetic substances.
Some paramagnetic substances are Al, Na, Sb,
Pt, CuCl2, Mn, Cr, liquid oxygen, etc.
Ferromagnetic Substances: The substances
which when placed in a magnetic field are
strongly magnetised in the direction of the
magnetising field are called ferromagnetic
substances.
Iron, cobalt, nickel, etc. are some examples of
ferromagnetic substance.
Curie Temperature
As temperature increases, the magnetic
property of ferromagnetic substance
decreases and above a certain temperature
the substance changes into paramagnetic
substances. This temperature is called Curie
temperature.
For soft iron, Curie temperature is 1000 K.
Atomic and Nuclear Physics
Atomic Physics
A tom is the smallest part of matter which
takes part in chemical reactions.
Atom consists of three fundamental particles
electron, proton and neutron. All the protons
and neutrons are present in the central core of
atom called nucleus. Electrons revolve around
the nucleus.
Size of atom 10–10m and of nucleus 10–15m
Atom is electrically neutral as no. of protons
+(ve) charge = no. of neutrons –(ve) charge.
Charge (Coulomb) Discoverer
–1.6 × 10–19 Rutherford
0 Chadwick
–1.6 × 10–19 J.J. Thomson
Properties of Cathode Rays
1. Travel in straight lines.
2. Can ionise the gases.
3. Can produce X-rays
4. Can produce fluorescence.
5. Can penetrate through thin metal foils
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-23

6. Deflected in electric and magnetic field. Radioactivity

Anode Rays or Positive Rays or Canal Rays. Radioactivity was discovered by Henry
Positive rays are moving positive ions of the Becquerel, Madame Curie and Pierre Curie for
gas filled in the discharge tube. The mass of which they jointly won Noble prize.
these particles is nearly equal to the mass of The nucleus having protons 83 or more are
the atoms of gas. unstable. They emit a, b and γ particles and
become stable. The elements of such nucleus
Properties of Positive Rays are called radioactive elements and the
These consists of fast moving positively phenomenon of emission of a, b and γ particles
charged particle. is called radioactivity.
These rays travels in straight line. γ rays are emitted after the emission of a and
Deflected in magnetic and electric field. b rays.
Speed of positive rays is less than that of
With the emission and a-particle, atomic
cathode rays. These rays can affect the
photographic plate. number is decreased by 2 and mass member
These rays penetrate through the thin is decreased by 4.
aluminium foil. With the emission of a b-particle atomic
These rays can produce fluorescence and number is increased by one and mass number
phosphorescence. does not change.
PROPERTIES OF A, B, AND G PARTICLES
Properties a b g
Origin Nucleus Nucleus Nucleus
Nature Positively charged Negatively charged Neutral
Composition He 4
1e 0
Photon
Mass 6.4 × 10–31kg 9.1 × 10–31kg Zero
Charge +2e –e Zero
Chemical effect Affects photo graphic Affects photographic Affects photo
plate plate graphic plate
Effect of electric and Deflected Deflected No effect
magnetic field
Penetrating power Minimum In between the other Maximum
two
Ionising power Maximum In between the other Minimum
two
Velocity Between 1.4 × 107 m/s to 1% to 99% of velocity 3 × 108 m/s
2.2 × 107 m/s of light

Half-Life Period : The time in which half nuclei
of the element is decayed.
0.693 l = disintegration constant.
T1 = ;
λ other stars release energy by nuclear fusion.
2
Nuclear Fission The process of the splitting
of a heavy nucleus into two or more lighter
nucleus is called nuclear Fission. Atom bomb
based on nuclear fission.
Nuclear Fusion The process of combining
of two lighter nucleus to form one heavy
nucleus, is called nuclear fusion. Hydrogen
bomb is based on nuclear fusion and it is more
destructive than an atom bomb. The sun and
Nuclear Reactor or Atomic Pile : Nuclear
reactor is an arrangement in which controlled
nuclear fission reaction takes place.
•• There are several components of nuclear
reactor which are as follows:
(i) Fissionable Fuel : U235 or U239

Light energy emitted by stars is due to — joining of nuclei.

 GK-24
(ii) Moderator : Moderator decreases the
energy of neutrons so that they can
be further used for fission reaction.
Heavy water and graphite are used as
moderator.
(iii) Control rod : Rods of cadmium or boron
are used to absorb the excess neutrons
produced in fission of uranium nucleus
so that the chain reaction continues to be
controlled.
(iv) Coolant : A large amount of heat is
produced during fission. Coolant absorbs
that heat and prevents excessive rise in the
temperature. The coolant may be water,
heavy water, or a gas like He or CO2.
Uses of nuclear reactor
(i) To produce electrical energy from the
energy released during fission.
(ii) To produce different isotopes which
can be used in medical, physical and
agriculture science.
Fast Breeder Reactor : A nuclear reactor
which can produce more missile fuel than it
consumes is called a fast breeder reactor.
Mass-energy equivalence: It is established
by Albert Einstein in 1905. According to
this theorem mass and energy are inter-
convertible i.e., E = mc2.
where c = 3 × 108 ms–1 is velocity of light in
vacuum or air.
Radioactive carbon –14 is used to measure
the age of fossils and plants. In radio carbon
dating age is determined by measuring. The
ratio of 6C12 and 6C14.
Semiconductor Electronics
Semiconductors are the materials whose
conductivity is more than insulators but less
than conductors. The electrical conductivity of
a semiconductor increases with the increase
in temperature. Germanium and silicon are
the two important semiconductors.
Types of Semiconductors :
(i) Intrinsic semiconductors or Pure
semiconductors
Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are the
examples of pure semiconductors.
In pure or intrinsic semiconductor,
ne = nh = ni where, ne = no. of electrons; nh =
no. of holes
and ni = no. of intrinsic carrier concentration.
In pure semiconductors, impurity must be less
than 1 in O8 parts of semiconductor.
Thermistor is a heat sensitive device whose resistivity changes very rapidly with change of temperature.
GENERAL SCIENCE
(ii) Extrinsic or, impure semiconductor:
n – type semiconductor: Si or
(a)
Ge with pentavalent doping i.e.,
antimony, or senics, etc.
p - type semiconductor: Si or
(b)
Ge with trivalent doping i.e.,
aluminium, boron, etc.
p – n junction: When a P-type semiconductor
is suitably joined to an N-type semiconductor,
then resulting arrangement is called p-n
junction. There is concentration gradient
between p and n sides, holes diffuse from
p side to n side (p → n) and electrons move
from (n → p) creating a layer of positive and
negative charges on n and p side respectively
called depletion layer.
Symbol of p-n junction diode
n
p
Special purpose p – n junction diode:
p-n junction diode is used as a rectifier.
Rectifier is a device which converts A.C. into D.C.
Inverter converts D.C. into A.C.
Zener diode: It is fabricated by heavy doping
of p and n sides of p – n junction. Depletion
region is thin < 10–6 m. Electric field of junction
is high ~ 5 × 106 V/m. Reverse bias ~ 5V.
It is used as voltage regulator.
Photodiode: It work on the principle of
photoelectric effect. It is always lightly
doped. It is a p – n junction fabricated with a
transparent window to allow light photons
to fall on it. These photons generate electron
hole pairs upon absorption. The generation
of electron hole pair is near the junction and
due to junction field they remain separated till
external load is connected. The electron are
collected on n–side and holes on p–side near
junction and give rise to an emf.
When external load is connected, current
flows. The magnitude of current depends on
intensity of incident radiation.
Light emitting diode (LED): It consists of
heavily doped p–n junction in forward bias.
Electrons move from n to p and holes from p
to n (minority carriers). Thus, near junction,
minority carrier concentration increases
(under no bias it is less) and they combine
with majority carriers near the junction to

GENERAL SCIENCE
release energy in form of photons with energy
equal to or less than band gap energy. As
forward bias increases, current increases till
light intensity reaches maximum.
Transistor : A three terminal device which
transfers a signal from low resistance circuit
to high resistance circuit.
Uses of Transistor : As an amplifier, Oscillator
and a switch.
Types of transistor: (i) n-p-n type, (ii) p-n-p type.
Emitter (E), Base (B), Collector (C)
Symbol:
E E
C C
B B
n-p-n type p-n-p type
Nano Technology
Introduction
Nanomaterials are cornerstones of
nanoscience and nanotechnology.
Nanostructure science and technology is a
broad and interdisciplinary area of research
and development activity that has been
growing explosively worldwide in the past few
years. It has the potential for revolutionizing
the ways in which materials and products
are created and the range and nature of
functionalities that can be accessed. It is already
having a significant commercial impact, which
will assuredly increase in the future.
Nanoscale materials are defined as a set of
substances where at least one dimension is
less than approximately 100 nanometers. A
nanometer is one millionth of a millimeter-
approximately 100,000 times smaller than the
diameter of a human hair. Nanomaterials are
IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES IN PHYSICS
Discovery
Atom
Atomic Structure
Dynamite
Diode
Electromagnetic induction
Electron
Magnetic field inside the body forms the basis of obtaining the images of different parts of body and it is done by using a
technique MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging).
EBD_7242
GK-25
of interest because at this scale unique optical,
magnetic, electrical, and other properties
emerge. These emergent properties have the
potential for great impacts in electronics,
medicine, and other fields.
Some nanomaterials occur naturally,
but of particular interest are engineered
nanomaterials (EN), which are designed for,
and already being used in many commercial
products and processes. They can be found
in such things as sunscreens, cosmetics,
sporting goods, stain-resistant clothing, tyres,
electronics, as well as many other everyday
items, and are used in medicine for purposes
of diagnosis, imaging and drug delivery.
Engineered nanomaterials are resources
designed at the molecular (nanometre level
to take advantage of their small size and novel
properties which are generally not seen in
their conventional, bulk counterparts. The two
main reasons why materials at the nanoscale
can have different properties are increased
relative surface area and new quantum effects.
Nanomaterials have a much greater surface
area to volume ratio than their conventional
forms, which can lead to greater chemical
reactivity and affect their strength. Also at the
nanoscale, quantum effects can become much
more important in determining the materials
properties and characteristics, leading to novel
optical, electrical and magnetic behaviours.
It could be nanoscale in one dimension (eg:
surface film), two dimension (eg: strands of
fibre) or three dimension (eg: particle).
Applications
(a) Medicine (b) electronics (c) cosmetic
TiO2, (Sun protection factor in sunscreen) (d)
automobiles (e) decrease pollutant. it is used
as nano optics nanomagnetic, nanoelectronic,
But its utilisation in nano mechanic is still a
challenge for scientists.
Scientist Year
John Dalton 1808
Neil Bohr & Rutherford 1913
Alfred Nobel 1867
Sir J.S. Fleming 1904
Michael Faraday 1831
J.J. Thomson 1897
GK-26 GENERAL SCIENCE
Laws of motion Newton 1687
Law of electrostatic attraction Coulomb 1779
Law of electric resistance G.S. Ohm 1827
Law of floatation Archemedes’ 1827
Law of electrolytic dissociation Faraday –
Nuclear Reactor Anrico Fermi 1942
Neutron James Chadwick 1932
Proton Goldstein 1886
Principle of relativity Albert Einstein 1905
Photoelectric effect Albert Einstein 1905
Periodic table Mandeleev 1888
Photography (On paper) W.Fox Talbot 1835
Photography (On metal) J.Neepse 1826
Quantum theory Max Plank 1900
Radioactivity Henry Becquerel 1896
Radium Madam Curie 1898
Raman effect C.V. Raman 1928
Thermionic emission Edison –
Triode Lee de Forest 1906
Wireless telegram Marconi 1901
X-Rays Roentgen 1895

INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS

Invention Inventor Country Year
Adding machine Pascal France 1642
Aeroplane Wright brothers USA 1903
Ball-point pen C. Biro Hungary 1938
Barometer E. Torricelli Italy 1644
Bicycle K. Macmillan Scotland 1839
Calculating machine Pascal France 1642
Centrigrade scale A. Celsius France 1742
Cinematograph Thomas Alva Edison USA 1891
Clock (mechanical) Hsing and ling-Tsan China 1725
Diesel engine Rudolf Diesel Germany 1892
Dynamo Michael Faraday England 1831
Electric lamp Thomas Alva Edison USA 1879
Evolution(theory) Charles Darwin England 1858
Film (with sound) Dr Lee do forest USA 1923

A human hair is about 60,80,000 nonometres wide.

 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-27

Fountain Pen L.E. Waterman USA 1884

Gramophone T.A. Edison USA 1878
Jet Engine Sir Frank Whittle England 1937
Lift E.G. Otis USA 1852
Match (safety) J.E. Lundstrom Sweden 1855
Microphone David Hughes USA 1878
Motor car(petrol) Karl Benz Germany 1885
Motorcycle Edward Butler England 1884
Printing Press J. Gutenberg Germany 1455
Radium Marie and Pierre Curie France 1898
Radio G.Marconi England 1901
Razor (safety) K.G. Gillette USA USA 1895
Refrigerator J. Harrison and A. Catlin Britain 1834
Rubber(vulcanized) Charles Good year USA 1841
Safety pin William Hurst USA 1849
Sewing machine B. Thimmonnier France 1830
Steam engine (piston) Thomas Newcome Britain 1712
Steam engine (condenser) James Watt Scotland 1765
Stainless Steel Harry Brearley England 1913
Telephone Alexander Graham Bell USA 1876
Television John Logie Bared Scotland 1926
Thermometer Galileo Galilei Italy 1593
Tractor J.Froelich USA 1892

SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR USES

Instrument Use
Altimeter Measures Altitudes (in aircraft)
Ammeter Measures electric current
Anemometer Measures force and velocity of wind and directions
Audiometer Measures intensity of sound
Bolometer To measures heat radiation
Calorimeter Measures quantities of heat
Cardiogram (ECG) Traces movement of the heart; recorded on a Cardiograph
Chronometer Determines longitude of a vessel at sea.
Colorimeter Compares intensity of colours
Cryometer A type of thermometer used to measure very low temperatures, usually
close to 0°c
Dynamo To convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
Electroence- Records and interprets the electrical waves of the brain (brain waves)
phalograph (EEC) recorded on electroence-phalograms
Electroscope Detects presence of an electric charge
J.J. Thomson gave the first idea regarding structure of atom.
GK-28 GENERAL SCIENCE
Endoscope To examine internal parts of the body
Fathometer Measures depth of the ocean
Galvanometer Measures electric current
Hygrometer Measures level of humidity
Hydrophone Measures sound under water
Hypsometer To determine boiling point of liquids
Kymograph Graphically records physiological movement. (e.g. blood pressure/
heartbeat)
Lactometer Measures the relative density of milk to determine purity
Machmeter Determines the speed of an aircraft in terms of the speed of sound
Manometer Measures the pressure of gases
Micrometer Measure thickness, width, wavelength, diameter of hair, wool, radiation
or cell or bacteria.
Microphone Converts sound wave into electrical vibrations
Microscope To obtain a magnified view of small objects
Periscope To view objects above sea level (used in submarines)
Photometer Compares the luminous intensity of the source of light
Polygraph Instrument that simultaneously records changes in physiological
processes such as heartbeat, blood-pressure and respiration; used as a
lie detector
Pyrheliometer Measures components of solar radiation
Pyrometer Measures very high temperature
Radar To detect the direction and range of an approaching aeroplane by means
of radio waves, (Radio, Angle, Detection and Range)
Salinometer Determines salinity of solutions
Sphygmometer Measures blood pressure
Stereoscope To view two-dimensional pictures
Stethoscope Used by doctors to hear and analyze heart and lung sounds
Telemeter Records physical happenings at a distant place.
Thermostat Regulates temperature at a particular point
Tonometer Measures the internal pressure of the eye to detect a disease (glaucoma)
Transistor As a switch, an amplifier, an oscillator, etc.
Udometer Rain gauge to measure the quantity of rain
Ultrasonoscope To measure and use ultrasonic sound (beyond hearing); use to make a
Ecogram to detect brain tumours, heart defects and abnormal growth
Viscometer Measures the viscosity of liquid

We come across the metal detect or at some public places like railway stations, airport, etc. walking through a metal detector
is walking through a coil of wire that carries a small electric current and is associated with some magnetic field.
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-29

CHEMISTRY
Chemistry : It is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structures,
properties and change of matter.
So, we will initiate our learning from matter.

Nature of Matter

Matter

Chemical classification of matter Physical classification of matter

Pure Substances Mixtures

Solid Liquid Gas

Homogeneous Heterogeneous

Elements Compounds

Organic Inorganic

Metals Metalloids Non-metals

Everything in this universe is made up of Matter is made up of particles where the

material. Scientist have named air, food particles of matter
we eat, stones, clouds, plants and animals, (i) have space between them
particle of sand everything as matter. (ii) attract each other.
Matter occupy space and have mass. i.e it The three important states of matter and
exhibits both mass and volume. their properties are given in the table.

State of Matter Properties Example

Solid • Definite shape (tightly packed particles, so rigid) Ice, salt, rubber band,
• Fixed volume sponge etc.
Liquid • No fixed shape (loosely packed particles than Water, Petrol, etc.
solids, so not rigid), can flow so it is a fluid
• Fixed volume
Gas • No fixed shape (largest space between particle Water vapour,
so can diffuse easily) oxygen, hydrogen,
• No fixed volume (high compressibility) nitrogen etc.
NOTE : Gas and Liquid both are fluids
Plasma, fourth state of matter can be found on the earth in flames, lightning and the polar auroras.
 GK-30
Factors determining the state of matter are
(i) Pressure
(ii) Temperature
•• Solids, liquids and gases are inter­
convertible by changing the conditions
of temperature and pressure.
Heat Heat
Solid state Liquid state Gaseous state
Cool Cool
Pure Substance
Pure substance is one that is a single form of
matter and has a uniform composition. Such
substances always have the same texture
and taste. e.g. water, salt, sugar, etc.
Testing the purity of a substance
The purity of substance can easily be
checked by checking:
•• the melting point in case of a solid
substance, or
•• boiling point in case of a liquid
substance.
Types of pure substances
Two different types of pure substances are
(i) Element: An element is a substance
which cannot be split into two or more
simpler substances by usual physical
and chemical methods like applying
heat, light or electric energy etc., e.g.,
hydrogen, oxygen, sodium, chlorine
etc.
GENERAL SCIENCE
(ii) Compound: A compound is a
substance made up of two or more
elements chemically combined in a
fixed ratio by weight, e.g. H2O (water),
NaCl (sodium chloride), etc.
Mixture
A mixture is a substance which consists
of two or more elements or compounds
combined together in indefinite proportion.
Types of mixtures
Mixtures are impure substances. They are of
two types:
(i) Homogeneous mixture: It has a
uniform composition through out and
its components cannot be distinguished
visually.
e.g. a well mixed sample of vinegar.
(ii) Heterogeneous mixture: It does
not have a uniform composition
through out. Different samples
of a heterogeneous mixture may
have different composi­ tion and its
components can be seen visually. e.g., a
mixture of salt and pepper.
Separating the components of a
mixture
Depending upon the type of mixture (i.e.
whether it is a homogeneous mixture or
heterogeneous mixture) different methods
used are given below:

S No. Mixture Separation Method Example

1. Insoluble solid in solvent Sedimentation followed by Sand in water tank
filtration. In case of a fine
solid, centrifugation is used
instead of filtration
2. Solution of solid in liquid Evaporation, NaCl in water sugar
crystallization, distillation solution
3. Miscible mixture of Fractional distillation Petroleum products
liquids
4. Immiscible mixture of Separating funnel Water-kerosene mixture
liquids
5. Mixture of two solids one Sublimation Camphor in iron ore
of which is sublime
6. Mixture of substances in Chromatography Pigments from natural
solution colours

Mosquitoes like the scent of estrogen, thus women get bitten more often than men do.
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-31

Solution (d) Unsaturated Solution: It is a solution

It is a homogeneous mixture of two or in which more solute can be dissolved
more substances whose composition can at the same temperature.
be varied, e.g. solution of common salt in (e) Super-saturated Solution: It is a
water, solution of ammonia in water. Some solution which contains more mass of
other examples are lemonade, coke, pepsi, the dissolved solute than the saturated
etc. solution at the same temperature and
(a) Solute: The component of solution pressure.
(f) Concentration of a solution: Con­
that is dissolved and present in smaller
centration of a solution is the amount of
quantities in a solution is known as
solute present in a given amount (mass
solute.
or volume) of a solution or the amount
(b) Solvent: The component of solution
of solute dissolved in a given mass or
in which solute is dissolved is known volume of a solvent.
as solvent. It is always present in large
amount in a solution. Amount of solute
Concentration=
(c) Saturated Solution: A solution in Amount of solvent
which no more solute can be dissolved •• Solubility: It is defined as the amount
at the same temperature is called of solute dissolved in 100g of solvent to
saturated solution. form a saturated solution.
Properties of colloids, true solutions and suspension
Property True Solution Colloidal Solutions Suspension
Size of the par- < 1nm 1– 1000nm >1000nm
ticles
Nature Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous
Filterability Particles of true So- Colloidal particles Suspension
(Diffusion lution diffuse rapidly pass through filter particles do not
through through filter paper paper but not pass through filter
parchment as well as parchment through parchment paper and parch-
paper) paper. paper. ment paper.
Visibility Particles of True So- Colloidal particles Suspension
lution are not visible are not seen to particles are big
to naked eye. naked eye but can enough to be seen
be studied through by naked eye.
ultra microscope.
Tyndal effect True Solution does Colloids show Tyn- Suspension may
not show Tyndall dall effect. or may not show
effect. Tyndall effect.
Appearance Transparent Translucent Opaque

•• Types of colloidal solution: Since (i) dispersed phase (colloidal particles)

colloidal solution is heterogeneous (ii) dispersion medium (the medium
mixture it consists of two phases. These in which colloidal particles are
are dispersed.)

Nanotechnology in the interdisciplinary field that has evolved from the study of colloids and the techniques of integrated
circuit fabrication.
 GK-32 GENERAL SCIENCE
Dispersed Dispersion Type of
Example
phase Medium colloid
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds, mist
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, automobile exhaust
Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, face cream
Solid Liquid Sol Milk of magnesia, mud
Gas Solid Foam Foam, rubber, sponge
Liquid Solid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter
Solid Solid Solid Sol Coloured gemstone, milky glass

Emulsion: Emulsions are liquid-liquid creams, vanishing creams, moisturising

colloids.
•• Types of Emulsion: Emulsions are of
two types:
(i) water in oil (ii) oil in water
•• Emulsifiers are those substances that
help in forming stable emulsions of oil
and water, e.g. milk, cod-liver oil, cold
cream, paints, etc.
•• Physical change: During such a change
no new substances is formed and there
is no change in the chemical properties
of the substances.
•• Chemical change: Such a change is
accompanied by change in chemical pro­
perties and formation of new substances.

Some Examples Involving Physical Changes

Change on physical
Physical changes Observation
property
• Switching of an The bulb glows and gives out heat The physical appearance of
electric bulb and light energy. the bulb changes.
• Rubbing a The steel rod gets magnetised. If it The steel rod acquires the
permanent is brought near iron nails, they get property of attracting pieces
magnet on a steel attracted. of iron.
rod
• Action of heat on The brownish grey crystals of iodine Change of state and colour.
iodine change to form violet vapours. On
cooling the vapours condenses to
for form crystals.
• Dissolving The white crystalline salt disappears Change of state.
common salt in in water. However, the water tastes
water exactly like common salt. Moreover,
common salt can be recovered by
evaporation.

The most abundant type of atom in the universe is the hydrogen atom. Nearly 74% of the atom in the milky way galaxy are
hydrogen atoms.

GENERAL SCIENCE
Some Examples Involving Chemical Changes
Chemical change Observation
• Burning of When a magnesium ribbon is heated in a
magnesium flame of Bunsen burner, it catches fire and
in air burns with dazzling white flame to form
white ash.
• Rusting of When iron (silver grey) is left exposed to
iron moist air for a few days, reddish brown
powdery mass (rust) is found on its surface.
• Burning of When LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) is
LPG burnt, it burns with a pale blue flame and
liberates colourless gas carbon dioxide
along with steam.
Structure of Atom
Atomic Laws and Theory
Law of conservation of mass: This law
was stated by Lavoisier in 1744. It states
that “In all physical and chemical changes,
the total mass of reactants is equal to total
mass of products.”
Law of constant proportions (or constant
composition): This law was first stated
by Proust in 1797. According to the law “a
chemical compound is always found to be
made up of the same elements combined
together in the same proportions by weight”
e.g. the ratio of hydrogen and oxygen in pure
water is always 1: 8 by weight. This law is
also called law of definite proportions.
Law of multiple proportions: This law was
given by John Dalton (1803) and states
that “when two elements combine to form
two or more compounds, the different mass
of one of the elements and the fixed mass of
the one with which it combines always form
a whole number ratio”. This law explains
the concept of formation of more than one
compound by two elements.
Dalton’s Atomic theory: Important
postulates of Dalton’s Atomic theory are as
follows:
(i) Matter is made up of extremely small
indivisible particles called atoms.
(ii) Atoms of the same substance are
identical in all respects, i.e. they possess
same size, shape, mass, chemical
The number of protons in the atom will determine its chemical element, and the number of neutrons will determine its isotope.
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GK-33
Chemical equation
Magnesium + Oxygen
→ Magnesium oxide
(from air) → Iron
+ Oxygen + Water
vapours → Rust
Butane (LPG) +
Oxygen → Carbon
dioxide + Water
properties, etc.
(iii) Atoms of different substances are
different in all respects, i.e. they
possess different size, shape, mass, etc.
(iv) Atom is the smallest particle that takes
part in a chemical reaction.
(v) Atoms of different elements may
combine with each other in a fixed
simple, whole number ratio to form
compound.
(vi) Atoms can neither be created nor
destroyed, i.e. atoms are indestructible.
Atom: It is the smallest particle of an
element which can take part in a chemical
change. It may or may not be capable of
independent existence.
Symbol: The abbreviations used for the
names of elements are termed as symbols.
The symbol of an element is the first letter
and another letter of English name or Latin
name of the element.
While writing a symbol, the first letter is
always capital and the second is always
small.
Molecule: It is the smallest particle of an
element or compound that is capable of
independent existence and shows all the
properties of that substance.
Atomicity: The number of atoms present in
a molecule of an element or a compound is
known as its atomicity, e.g. the atomicity of
oxygen is 2 while atomicity of ozone is 3.
 GK-34 GENERAL SCIENCE
Formula of Simple and Molecular number of neutrons and protons (i.e., sum
Compounds of protons and neutrons) called collectively
as nucleus, present in an atom.
Binary compounds are those compounds
(A) = number of protons + number of
which are made up of two different elements
neutrons
e.g. NaCl, KBr, CaO, etc. Following rules are
Isotopes: Atoms of the same element
to be followed for writing the formula.
(i) The valencies or charges on the ions having same atomic number but different
must be balanced. mass numbers are known as Isotopes
(ii) For a compound made up of a metal e.g. 35 and 36 , 1 H and 2 H , 12 and
17 Cl 17 Cl 1 1 6 C
and a non-metal, the symbol of metal
14 etc.
is written first. 6 C
(iii) In compounds formed with polyatomic Applications of Isotopes: Isotopes are
ions, the ion is enclosed in a bracket
used in various fields. For example
before writing the number to indicate
the ratio. (i) Isotope of uranium is used as a fuel in
Valency: The electrons present in the nuclear reactor.
outermost shell of an atom are known (ii) Isotope of cobalt is used in treatment
as valence electrons. These electrons of cancer.
determine the valency of an atom. (iii) Isotope of iodine is used in treatment
•• Valency is equal to the number of of goitre.
valence electrons.
Isobars: Atoms of different elements
•• In case the number of valence electrons
is close to its full capacity. Then, having same mass numbers are known as
Valency =8 − valence electrons Isobars, e.g. K-40 and Ar-40
Atomic number (Z): Atomic number of an Sub-atomic particles
element is equal to the number of protons Fundamental particles of on atom are
present in the nucleus of an atom. electron, proton and neutron.
(Z) = number of protons = number of
Electron — J.J. Thomson,
electrons
Proton— E. Goldstein. and Neutron–
Mass number (A) : It refers to the total
James chadwick
Properties of Atomic Particles (Comparative)
Particles Electron Proton Neutron

(i) Symbol e or e– p n

(ii) Nature Negatively charged Positively charged neutral (no charge)

(iii) (a) Charge (a) –1.6 × 10 –19 C (a) +1.6 × 10 –19 C 0

(b) Unit charge (b) –1 (b) + 1 0

(iv) Mass (a) amu (a) 0.0005486 amu (a) 1.00753 amu (a) 1.00893 amu
(b) kg (b) 9.1 × 10–31kg (b) 1.67265 × 10–27 kg (b) 1.67495 × 10–27 kg

(v) Location Extra nuclear space nucleus nucleus

(vi) Notation 0 1 1
−1e 1P 0n

(vii) Relative mass 1/1840 1 1

Helium is lighter than the air around us so it floats.

 Composition of Atoms of the First Eighteen Elements with Electron Distribution in Various Shells

Atomic Number of Number of Number of Distribution of Electrons

Element Symbol Valency
Number Protons Neutrons Electrons K L M N
GENERAL SCIENCE

Hydrogen H 1 1 - 1 1 - - - 1
Helium He 2 2 2 2 2 - - - 0

Lithium Li 3 3 4 3 2 1 - - 1
Beryllium Be 4 4 5 4 2 2 - - 2
Boron B 5 5 6 5 2 3 - - 3
Carbon C 6 6 6 6 2 4 - - 4
Nitrogen N 7 7 7 7 2 5 - - 3
Oxygen O 8 8 8 8 2 6 - - 2
Fluorine F 9 9 10 9 2 7 - - 1

The half life of carbon-14 is used in carbon dating to determine the age of fossils.
Neon Ne 10 10 10 10 2 8 - - 0
Sodium Na 11 11 12 11 2 8 1 - 1
Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 12 2 8 2 - 2
Aluminium Al 13 13 14 13 2 8 3 - 3
Silicon Si 14 14 14 14 2 8 4 - 4
Phosphorus P 15 15 16 15 2 8 5 - 3.5
Sulphur S 16 16 16 16 2 8 6 - 2
GK-35

Chlorine Cl 17 17 18 17 2 8 7 1
Argon Ar 18 18 22 18 2 8 8 0

EBD_7242
 GK-36
Radioactivity
• It was discovered by Henry Becquerel
but term radioactivity was given by
Madam Curie. It is the process of
spontaneous disintegration of nucleus
and is measured by Geiger counter.
• It is a nuclear phenomenon, thus
remains unaffected by external factors
like temperature, pressure, etc.
Radioactive Rays
• Radioactivity involves emission of a, b
and g rays or particles. The original unit
of radioactivity is curie (Ci). Curie is
replaced by becquerel (Bq) in SI unit.
Alpha (a) Rays
• These rays consist of positively charged
helium nuclei (He++). They have +2 unit
charge and 4 mass.
• They have low penetrating power but
very high ionising power and kinetic
energy.
• An a-emission reduces the atomic mass
by 4 and atomic number by 2, thus, the
new nuclei formed occupy a position
two places left to the parent nuclei in
the periodic table.
Beta (b) Rays
• These rays consist of negatively charged
electrons (–1e0) and have – 1 unit charge
and zero mass.
• These are more dangerous than a-rays.
• These have high penetrating power as
compared to a-rays.
• A b-emission increased the atomic
number by one with no change in
atomic mass, thus, the new nuclei
obtained occupy a position one place
right to the parent nuclei in the periodic
table.
Gamma (g) Rays
• These are electromagnetic radiation
and have very high penetrating power.
• These have low ionising power and
kinetic energy.
• Their emission does not affect the
position of nuclei in the periodic table.
Most radicals may be considered to have arisen by cleavage of normal electron – pair bonds.
GENERAL SCIENCE
Half-Life Period
• It is the time in which a radioactive
substance remains half of its original
amount.
Nuclear Fission
• It is a process in which a heavy nucleus
is broken down into two or more lighter
fragments.
• It is usually accompanied with the
emission of neutrons and large amount
of energy. It is used in nuclear reactor
and atom bomb.
Atom Bomb
• It is based on uncontrolled nuclear
fission. It contains 235U or 239Pu as fuel.
Nuclear Reactor
• It is a device that is used to produce
electricity and permits a controlled
chain nuclear fission.
• It contains fuels, e.g. 92U235, moderator
(e.g. graphite and heavy water, D2O) to
slow down neutrons and control rods
(made up of boron steel or cadmium) to
absorb neutrons.
• It may also contain liquid sodium as
coolant.
Nuclear Fusion
• It is a process which involves fusion
of two or more lighter nuclei to give a
heavier nuclei.
• It occurs only at extremely high
temperature (> 106 K), so also called
thermonuclear reactions.
• It is used in hydrogen bomb. Energy of
Sun is also a result of a series of nuclear
fusion reactions.
Hydrogen Bomb
It contains a mixture of deuterium oxide
(D2O) and tritium oxide (T2O) in a space
surrounding an ordinary atom bomb.
Radiocarbon Dating
• It is used in determining the age of
carbon bearing materials such as wood,
animal fossils, etc. It is based on the
concentration of carbon and carbon
isotopes.
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-37

Uranium Dating Formula of elements

It is used to determine the age of earth, The molecule of an element is denoted by
minerals and rocks. writing the symbol of the element and, to
Uses of Radioisotopes the right and below it, a number expressing
1. Iodine-131 is employed to study the the number of atoms in the molecule.
structure and activity of thyroid gland. Formula of compound
It is also used in internal radiation A molecule of a compound may be made
therapy for the treatment of thyroid up of atom of different elements linked
disease. up together chemically and in definite
2. Iodine-123 is used in brain imaging. proportion by weight.
3. Cobalt-60 is used in external radiation
Chemical Formula
therapy for the treatment of cancer.
It is of two types:
4. Sodium-24 is injected along with salt
solution to trace the flow of blood. (i) Molecular formula:
5. Phosphorus-32 is used for leukemia Chemical formulae that indicates
therapy. the actual number and type of atoms
6. Carbon-14 is used to study the kinetics in a molecule is called molecular
of photosynthesis. formulae.
(ii) Empirical formula:
General Concepts of Chemical formulae that indicates only
Chemistry the relative number of atoms of each
The study of chemistry is sub-divided into type in a molecule is called empirical
various branches such as: formulae.
(i) Physical chemistry
Equivalent weight
(ii) Inorganic chemistry
(iii) Organic chemistry (i) Equivalent weight of element
(iv) Biochemistry Molecular mass
(v) Analytical chemistry =
Basicity of acid / Acidity of base
(vi) Industrial chemistry (ii) Eq. wt of an acid/base
(vii) Agricultural chemistry
(viii) Applied chemistry Molecular mass
=
Basicity of acid / Acidity of base
Ions or Radicals (iii) Eq. wt of salts
An ion is formed when electrons are
removed from or added to an atoms or Formula mass
=
group of atoms. (Valency of cations) (No.of cations)
When electron(s) is/are removed the resulting Expression of strength /
ion is called a cation or basic radical. A cation concentration of solution
is positively charged ion. (e.g. Na+).
(i) Mass percent
When electron(s) is/are added the resulting
ion is called an anion or acidic radicals. Weight of solute (gm)
= × 100
An anion is negatively charged ion (e.g. Cl–, Weight of solution (gm)
O22–). (ii) Normality
An ion or radical is classified as monovalent,
divalent, trivalent or tetravalent when the Number of gram equivalents of solute
=
number of charges over it is 1, 2, 3 or 4 Volume of solution (lit .)
respectively.
Most oxidation-reduction (redox) processes involve the transfer of oxygen atoms, hydrogen atoms or electrons.
 GK-38 GENERAL SCIENCE
(iii) Molarity Reversible Reactions
Reversible reactions are those which occurs
Number of gram moles of solute
= in forward as well as in backward direction
Volume of solution (lit .)
but never go to completion.
Gram moles of solute Irreversible Reactions
(iv) Molality =
Weight of solvent (kg) Irreversible reactions occur only in forward
(v) Mole fraction: Mole fraction of solute direction and go to completion.
nA Displacement Reactions
= X= A
nA + nB In such reactions, an atom or a group of

Mole fraction of solvent atoms of a molecule is replaced by another
atom or group of atoms e.g.,
nB
= X= B CuSO4 + Fe  → FeSO4 + Cu
nA + nB
Copper Ferrous
XA + XB = 1 sulphate sulphate

Double Displacement Reactions

Chemical change
These involve exchange of ions between
A chemical change is generally accompanied two compounds, e.g.,
by a change of state, change of colour, NaCl + AgNO3  → AgCl + NaNO3
evolution of a gas or change of temperature
etc. Reactions occurring between the ions or
ionic compounds, are very fast.
Chemical Reaction
Exothermic Reactions
The process in which substances (reactants)
react to form new compounds (products), is These are those reactions in which energy
is released, e.g., burning of natural gas,
known as chemical reaction.
respiration, decomposition of vegetable
Types of Chemical Reactions
matter into compost, combustion reactions
Chemical reactions are of following types etc.
Combination Reactions Endothermic Reactions
In such reactions, two or more substances These are those reactions in which energy
combine to give a single substance, e.g., is consumed, e.g., digestion, photosynthesis,
CaO + H2O → Ca (OH)2
 evoporation of water, melting of an ice, etc.
Calcium Water Calcium
Oxide hydroxide Redox Reactions
Decomposition Reactions In such reactions, oxidation and reduction
These are those irreversible reactions in occur simultaneously. These are called
disproportionation reaction when the same
which, a molecule decomposes into two or
element is oxidised as well as reduced.
more simpler molecules e.g.,
∆ Oxidation
2KClO3 
→ 2KCl + 3O2
Potassium Potassium Oxygen •• It involves addition of oxygen or any
chlor ide
chlorate other electronegative element like
Dissociation Reactions fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), nitrogen (N),
These are those reversible reactions in etc.
which a molecule dissociates into two or •• It involves removal of hydrogen (H)
more simple molecules, e.g., or any other electropositive element
like sodium (Na). It involves loss of
2HI 
 H2 + I2 electrons i.e., increase in the positive
Hydrogen Hydrogen Iodine
iodide charge of ion.
Bee stings are acidic while wasp stings are alkaline.

GENERAL SCIENCE
Reduction
•• It involves addition of hydrogen or any
other electropositive element.
•• It involves removal of oxygen or any
other electronegative element. It
involves gain of electron, i.e., decrease
in oxidation state.
Oxidising Agent or Oxidant
These are the substances that have the
ability to oxidise other substances, e.g.,
H2O2 , MnO4− , CrO3 , Cr2O72− , OsO24− or
electronegative elements (O2, F2, Cl2, Br2)
etc.
Reducing Agent or Reductant
These are the substances that have the
ability to reduce other substances, transfer
electrons to another substance; e.g.,
electropositive element, metals such as
lithium, sodium, magnesium, iron, zinc, and
aluminium, and hydride transfer reagents,
such as NaBH4 and LiAlH4, etc.
Reduction
+2 +2 +1
2HgCl2 + SnCl2(aq) Hg2Cl2(s) + SnCl4
(Oxidising (Reducing
Agent) Agent)
Oxidation
Chemical equation
The qualitative representation of a chemical
reaction in a short hand or concise form in
term of symbols and formulae, is called a
chemical equation.
Rancidity: The most important cause
of deterioration in fats and fatty foods is
oxidation of fats. What we perceive is an
unpleasant change in the flavour and odour
of a food, called rancidity.
Classification of Elements
and Periodicity in Properties
Doberiner’s Law of Triads
According to this law, “in certain triads
(group of three elements) the atomic mass
of the central element was the arithmetic
Acids and bases are important in the human body. Stomach secretes hydrochloric acid, to digest food. Bile juice secreted from liver
are rich in base bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid before it reaches to small intestine.
EBD_7242
GK-39
mean of the atomic masses of the other two
elements.”
Limitations of Doberiner’s Triads: He
could identify only a few such triads and so
the law could not gain importance. In many
traids like in the triad of Fe, Co, Ni, all the
three elements have a nearly equal atomic
mass and thus does not follow the above law.
Newland’s Law of Octaves
According to this law “the elements are
arranged in such a way that the eighth
element starting from a given one has
properties which are a repetition of those of
the first if arranged in order of increasing
atomic weight like the eight note of musical
scale.”
Drawbacks of Newland’s law of octaves:
(i) According to Newland only 56 elements
exist in nature and no more elements
would be discovered in the future. But
later on several new element were
discovered whose properties did not
fit into law of octaves.
(ii) In order to fit new elements into his
+4 table Newland adjusted two elements
in the same column, but placed some
unlike elements under the same
column.
Thus, Newland’s classification was not
accepted.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
Mendeleev arranged 63 elements known at
that time in the periodic table. According to
Mendeleev, “the properties of the elements
are a periodic function of their atomic
masses.” The table consists of eight vertical
column called ‘groups’ and horizontal rows
called ‘periods’.
Merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table:
(i) At some places the order of atomic
weight was changed in order to justify
the chemical and physical nature.
(ii) Mendeleev left some gap for new
elements which were not discovered at
that time.
(iii) One of the strengths of Mendeleev’s
periodic table was that when inert
 GK-40
gases were discovered they could
be placed in a new group without
disturbing the existing order.
Achievements of Mendeleev’s periodic
table
(i) The arrangement of elements in
groups and periods made the study of
elements quite systematic
(ii) Prediction of new elements and
their properties: Many gaps were left
in this table for undiscovered elements.
The elements silicon, gallium and
germanium were discovered in this
manner.
(iii) Correction of doubtful atomic
masses: Mendeleev corrected the
atomic masses of certain elements with
the help of their expected positions
and properties.
Limitations of Mendeleev’s classification:
(i) He could not assign a correct position
of hydrogen in his periodic table, as
the properties of hydrogen resembles
both with alkali metals as well as with
halogens.
(ii) The isotopes of the same element will
be given different position if atomic
number is taken as basis, which will
disturb the symmetry of the periodic
table.
(iii) The atomic masses do not increases
in a regular manner in going from one
elements to the next. So it was not
possible to predict how many elements
could be discovered between two
elements.
Characteristics of the Periodic Table
Its main characteristics are:
(i) In the periodic table, the elements are
arranged in vertical rows called groups
and horizontal rows called periods.
(ii) There are eight groups indicated by
Roman Numerals I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII,
VIII. The elements belonging to first
seven groups have been divided into
sub-groups designated as A and B
on the basis of similarities. Group VIII
consists of nine elements arranged in
three triads.
Black salt is made in India by mixing saltwater with harad seeds. The mixture is left to evaporate leaving behind black lumps
of salt. When the salt is ground, the resulting powder is pink.
GENERAL SCIENCE
(iii) There are six periods (numbered 1, 2,
3, 4, 5 and 6). In order to accomodate
more elements, the periods 4, 5, 6 are
divided into two halves. The first half
of the elements are placed in the upper
left corners and the second half occupy
lower right corners in each box.
Modern Periodic Law
Modern this law was given by Henry
Moseley in 1913. It states, “Properties of the
elements are the periodic function of their
atomic numbers”.
Cause of periodicity: Periodicity may be
defined as the repetition of the similar
properties of the elements placed in a group
and separated by certain definite gap of
atomic numbers.
Modern periodic table
Moseley proposed this modern periodic
table and according to which “the physical
and chemical properties of elements are
periodic function of their atomic number and
not the atomic weight.”
(i) The modern periodic table has 18
vertical columns called “groups” and
seven horizontal rows called “periods”.
The groups have been numbered 1, 2,
3.......18 from left to right.
(ii) The elements belonging to a particular
group make a family and usually named
after the first member. In a group all
the elements contain the same number
of valence electrons.
(iii) In a period all the elements contain
the same number of shells, but as we
move from left to right the number of
valence shell electrons increases by
one unit.
The maximum number of electrons
that can be accommodated in a shell
can be calculated by the formula 2n2
where n is the number of the given
shell from the nucleus.
Trends in modern periodic table
The trends observed in some important
properties of the elements in moving down
the group (from top to bottom of the table)
and across a period (from left to right in a
period) are discussed below:

GENERAL SCIENCE
Atomic Size
•• It generally increases on moving down
the group because number of shells
increase.
•• It decreases along a period from left to
right. Thus, size of alkali metal is largest
and that of halogens is samllest in a
period.
•• Smallest atom is hydrogen and largest
atom is cesium.
•• Most poisonous metal is plutonium.
Valency
•• It is the combining capacity of an
element.
•• It increases from 1 to 7 along a period
with respect to oxygen whereas with
respect to hydrogen, it first increases
from 1 to 4 and then decreases to 0.
•• For alkali metal (i.e., sodium, potassium,
etc.,) it is 1, for alkaline Earth metals
(i.e., magnesium, calcium, etc.,) it is 2,
for aluminium, it is 3 and for nitrogen
it is 3. It remains the same in a group.
•• For s-block elements, all the elements in
a group have same valency.
•• For p-block elements, they show
variable valencies P(3, 5), S(4, 6) but
tendency to show higher valency
Sodium bicarbonate combines with water and work as cleaning agent and also as deodoriser.
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GK-41
decreases when we move down in a
group due to inert pair effect.
•• For d-block (Fe(2, 3,), Cu(1, 2) elements,
the elements of same group may have
different valencies, and the element
itself exhibit different valencies.
Metallic and non-metallic properties
•• In a period from left to right metallic
nature decreases while non-metallic
character increases.
•• In a group metallic character increases
from top to bottom while non-metallic
character decrease.
Electronegativity
•• The relative tendency of an atom to
attract the shared pair of electrons
towards itself is called electronegativity.
•• In a period from left to right, the value
of electronegativity increases
•• In a group from top to bottom the value
of electronegativity decreases.
Acids, Bases and Salts
Acids and Bases
The term acid, in fact, comes from the
latin term acere, which means “Sour”.
In everyday life we come across many
compounds that chemists classify as acids.
 GK-42 GENERAL SCIENCE
Bases are compounds which taste bitter eg.
Strength of bases
milk of magnesia.
A. Properties of acids
Chemical properties:
Strong bases Weak bases
(i) Action of metals
NaOH, KOH NH4OH, Fe(OH)3
Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen
Acidity of a base: The number of removable
(ii) Action with metal oxides
hydroxyl (OH–) ions from a base is called
(Basic oxides)
acidity of a base.
Basic oxide + Acid →
Acidity of NaOH = 1
Salt + Water (neutralisation reaction) Acidity of KOH = 1
(iii) Action with metal carbonates Acidity of Ca(OH)2 = 2
and metal hydrogen carbonates
Carbonate/bicarbonate + Acid → pH Scale
Salt + water + carbon dioxide. It is a scale that is used for measuring H+ ion
(hydrogen ion) concentration of a solution.
B. Properties of bases
The term pH stands for “potential” of
Chemical Properties: “hydrogen”. It is the amount of hydrogen ions
(i) Reaction of metals with bases: in a particular solution.
Metals (e.g. Zn, Al, Sn) dissolve For acids pH < 7
in NaOH (an alkali) to liberate For bases pH > 7
hydrogen gas. For neutral substances pH = 7
(ii) Action with acids: It is a Importance of pH in Daily Life
neutralisation reaction. (i) Blood pH: For proper functioning
Base + Acid → Salt + Water our body needs to maintain blood pH
Non-metallic oxides react in the same between 7.35 and 7.45. Values of blood
way hence non-metallic oxides are pH greater than 7.8 or less than 6.8
acidic in nature. often results in death.
Strength of Acids and Bases (ii) Acid rain: When pH of rain water is
less than 5.6, it is called acid rain. When
Strength of acids
acid rain flows into rivers, it lowers the
pH of river water.
strong acid weak acid
Approximate pH values of some
(completely (partially common substances:
ionised in water ionised in water) Substance pH Substance pH
HCl, HNO3, H2SO4 CH3 COOH, H2CO3, HCOOH value value
Hydrochloric 1.0 Bread 5.5
Basicity of an acid: The number of
acid
removable hydrogen ions from an acid is
Sulphuric 1.2 Potatoes 5.8
called basicity of that acid. acid
Mono basic acid (one removable H+ ion) —
Gastric juice 2.0 Rain water 6.2
HCl, HNO3
Lemon 2.3 Milk 6.6
Dibasic acid (two removable H+ ion) —
Vinegar 2.8 Pure water 7.0
H2SO4, H2CO3, H3PO3
(Acetic acid)
Tribasic acid (three removable H+ ion) —
Soft drink 3.0 Egg 7.8
H3PO4
Apple 3.1 Sea water 8.5
Acidic strength
(i) HF < HCl < HBr < HI Grape 3.1 Ammonium 11.1
(ii) CH3COOH < H2SO4 < HNO3 < HCl hydroxide

Amalgam used for dental fillings, is made from mercury, tin, silver, zinc and copper.
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-43

Substance pH Substance pH (ii) Washing soda, Na2CO3.10H2O,

value value Sodium carbonate
Tomato 4.2 Sodium 13.0 Sodium carbonate can be obtained by
hydroxide heating baking soda; recrystallisation
Banana 4.6 of sodium carbonate gives washing
Battery acid, 0 Stomach acid, 1 soda. It is also a basic salt.
Baking soda, 8 Washing 9 Uses:
NaHCO3 soda, Na2CO3 • Sodium carbonate (washing soda)
Milk of 10 Aqueous 11 is used in glass, soap and paper
magnesia, household industries.
Mg(OH)2 ammonia, • It is used for removing permanent
NH3 hardness of water.
Limewater, 12 Drano, 0.1 M 13 (iii) Bleaching powder
Ca(OH)2 NaOH Calcium hypochlorite is a chemical
Drano, 1.0 M 14 compound with formula CaOCl2. It
NaOH
is a yellowish powder with smell of
chlorine. It is widely used for water
Salts
treatment and as a bleaching agent
A salt is an ionic compound which (bleaching powder)
dissociates to yield a positive ion other than 2Ca(OH)2 + 2Cl2 →
hydrogen ion (H+) and negative ion other CaOCl2 + CaCl2 + 2H2O
than hydroxyl ion (OH–) e.g. NaCl.
Uses:
Salts are formed by the reaction of acid and
• It is used for bleaching cotton
base which is also known as neutralisation.
(i) Baking soda, Sodium hydrogen carbo­ and linen in the textile industry,
nate (NaHCO3) for bleaching wood pulp in paper
Sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) factories.
is a mid non-corrosive base. • It is used for disinfecting drinking
Heat water.
On heating, 2NaNCO3 → NaHCO3
(iv) Plaster of Paris, CaSO4 .1/2 H2O
Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 the following
reaction occurs: It can be obtained by heating gypsum
Uses: (CaSO4. 2H2O)
• In baking powder: The most (CaSO 4 .2H 2O + heat →
practical use of baking soda is as  1  3
a leavening agent in baking.  CaSO 4 . H 2O + H 2O
2 2
• As an antacid: Baking soda reacts
with acid due to its alkaline nature Plaster of paris is a white powder and
and neutralizes acidity (i.e. acts as on mixing with water it changes to
an antacid). gypsum once again giving a hard solid
• In fire extinguishers: It is used in mass
soda-acid fire extinguisher. Uses:
• Ant or bee sting contains • It is used for making moulds or
methanoic or formic acid. Due casts for toys, pottery, ceramics
to which victim feels pain and etc.
irritation. Use of a mild base like • It is used in surgical bandages for
baking soda is a remedy for it. setting fractured bones.

Diamonds being the rarest gems have been replaced by jadeite which costs about $3 million per carat.
 GK-44
Metals and Non-Metals
There are 118 elements present in the
periodic table. New 4 elements have been
added recently, earlier it was 114 elements.
These elements can be broadly classified
into two categories, i.e. metals and non-
metals. Out of 118 elements, 22 are non-
metals. Some elements share the property
of both metal & non-metal are called
metalloid.
List of metalloid : Silicon (Si), Germa-
nium (Ge), Arsenic (As) Antimony (Sb),
Tellurium (Te)
Newly added 4 elements in Periodic
table are :
115 Ununpentium (Uup)
116 Livelmorium (Lv)
117 Ununxptium (Uus)
118 Ununoctium (Uuo).
Physical properties of metals:
(i) They are usually shiny i.e. have a
metallic lustre.
(ii) Metals have a high density.
(iii) Metals are ductile, i.e. they can be
drawn into wires.
(iv) Metals are malleable i.e. they can be
hammered into thin sheets.
(v) Metals are good conductors of electricity.
(vi) Metals have high melting point and
are generally in solid state at room
temperature.
(vii) Metals are good conductors of heat and
sound.
Uses of metals:
Metals
Faraday is basically the charge on 1 mole of electrons. Its exact value is 96487 coulomb.
GENERAL SCIENCE
•• Metals are used in manufacturing of
bridges, railways, aeroplanes, diesel
mobile units (DMU), electric mobile
units (EMU), motor cars, electric
motors, telephones, televisions,
interplanetary space vehicles, or even
common articles like cooking utensils
and coins.
•• Metals are very important for the
economy of a country. Few metals, such
as titanium, chromium, manganese
and zirconium are strategic metals.
These metals and their alloys find wide
applications in atomic energy, space
science projects, jet engines and high
grade steels.
•• Gold and silver ornaments are obtained
from small pieces of metals by
hammering.
Noble metal: Noble metals are metals that
are resistant to corrosion or oxidation,
unlike most base metals. For example
tantalum, gold, platinum, and rhodium.
Precious metal: A precious metal is a
rare metallic chemical element of high
economic value. Precious metals include
the platinum group metals: ruthenium,
rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and
platinum, of which platinum is the most
widely traded.
The arrangement of metals in the
decreasing order of their activity is known
as activity or reactivity series. It is also
known as electrochemical series.
Reactivity Series (or Activity Series) of
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-45

Alloy: An alloy is a mixture of two or more different ratios of metals as alloys modify
elements in solid solution in which the the properties of pure metals to produce
major component is a metal. Combining desirable characteristics.

Alloy Composition Uses

1 Brass Cu = 80%, Zn = 20%
For making utensils and cartridges.
2 Bronze Cu = 90%, Sn = 10%
For making statues, medals, ships, coins and
machines
3 Solder Sn = 50%, Pb = 50% For joining metals, solding wire and electronic
components etc.
4 Duralumin Al = 95.5%, Cu = 3%, Used in bodies of aircrafts, kitchen ware and
Mn = 1.0%, Mg = 0.5% automobile parts etc.
5 German Silver Cu = 60%, Zn = 20%, For making utensils and ornaments
Ni = 20%
6 Gun metal Cu = 90%, Sn = 10% For making gears and castings etc.
7 Bell metal Cu = 80%, Sn = 20% For making bells, gangs etc.
8 Magnalium Al = 90%, Mg = 10% For making balance beams, light instruments.
9 Type metal Pb = 82%, Sb = 15%, For making casting type
Sn = 3%
10 Stainless steel Fe, Ni, Cr, C For making utensils, cutlery etc.

Physical properties of non-metals: (v) Sulphur is used in vulcanization of

(i) They are dull, however diamond,
graphite and iodine are lustrous.
(ii) They are poor conductors of heat
and electricity. Graphite is a good
conductor.
(iii) They are weak and brittle (they easily
break or shatter).
(iv) They have a low density (they feel light
for their size).
(v) They do not make a ringing sound
when they are hit.
(vi) Melting points and boiling points are
usually low.
(vii) Non-metals are usually soft. (Diamond
is an exception, it is quite hard. It is a
crystalline solid).
(viii) They exist in allotropic forms.
Uses of Non-Metals
(i) Oxygen is essential for survival of life.
(ii) Hydrogen is used to convert vegetable oil
into vegetable ghee by hydrogenation.
(iii) Nitrogen is used to preserve food and
for manufacturing proteins by plants.
(iv) Carbon in the form of diamond is
used for cutting rocks and in the
form of graphite as electrode and in
manufacturing of lead pencils.
Nowadays, Ni-MH (Nickel-metal hydride) batteries are widely used. These batteries have 25% more rechargeable life and is less
hazardous as compared to Ni-Cd (Nickel-Cadmium) battery.
rubber, as fungicide and in manufacture
of dyes, gun powder etc.
(vi) Chlorine is used as water disinfectant
and in the manufacture of pesticides
like gammaxene.
Extraction of Metals
(i) Minerals: The natural substance in
which the metals or their compounds
occur in the earth is called minerals.
(ii) Ores: The minerals from which
the metals can be conveniently and
economically extracted are called ores.
(iii) Native ores: These ores contain
metals in the free state, e.g., silver, gold,
platinum, etc.
(iv) Metallurgy: The whole process of
obtaining a pure metal from one of its
ore is known as metallurgy.
(v) Gangue or matrix: Ores usually
contain soil, sand, stones and others
useless silicates. These undesired
impurities present in ores are called
gangue or matrix.
(vi) The removal of unwanted earthy and
silicious impurities from the ore is
called ore-dressing or concentration
of ores and the process used to
concentrate an ore is called the
benefication process.
 GK-46 GENERAL SCIENCE
Some important ores and the metals obtained from these ores are listed in the following
table:
S. Metal obtained from
Name of the ore Formula of the ore Types of ore
no. the ore
1 Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O Oxide Aluminium (Al)
2. Haematite Fe2O3 Oxide Iron (Fe)
3. Magnetite Fe2O4 Oxide Iron (Fe)
4. Zincite ZnO Oxide Zinc (Zn)
5. Cuprite Cu2O Oxide Copper (Cu)
6. Litharge PbO Oxide Lead (Pb)
7. Malachite CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 Carbonate Copper (Cu)
8. Magnesite MgCO3 Carbonate Magnesium (Mg)
9. Lime stone CaCO3 Carbonate Calcium (Ca)
10. Cinnabar HgS Sulphide Mercury (Hg)
11. Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 Sulphide Copper (Cu)
12. Zinc blende ZnS Sulphide Zinc (Zn)
13. Galena PbS Sulphide Lead (Pb)
14. Common salt NaCl Chloride Sodium (Na)
(Halide)
15. Fluorspar CaF2 Fluoride Calcium (Ca)
(Halide)
16. Horn silver AgCl Chloride Silver (Ag)
(Halide)
17. Chalcocite Cu2S Sulphide Copper (Cu)

Electrochemistry • Anodisation is an electrolytic process

It is the study of production of electricity
from energy released during spontaneous
chemical reactions and use of electrical
energy to carry out non-spontaneous
chemical transformations.
Electrolysis
The process in which a non-spontaneous
reaction is carried out by using electrical
energy.
It is used
• in production of oxygen for spacecraft
and nuclear submarines.
• in layering metals to fortify them.
• in production of hydrogen for fuel.
• In electrolytic etching of metal surfaces
like tools or knives with a permanent
mark or logo.
• Electrometallurgy is the process of
reduction of metallic compound into
pure metal by electrolysis.
Water glass is basically a compound of Sodium Silicate (Na2 SiO3) and prepared by heating sodium carbonate with silica.
that makes the surface of metals
resistant to corrosion.
• Electrolysis of brine (the water,
saturated or nearly saturated with
salt, usually sodium chloride) gives
hydrogen and chlorine. The products
are gaseous.
2NaCl + 2H2O 
→
2NaOH + H2 + Cl2
Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis
First Law of Electrolysis
It states that the quantity of elements
separated by passing an electric current
through a molten or dissolved salt is
proportional to the quantity of electric
charge passed through the circuit.
w ∝ Q ; w ZQ = Z It
(Charge Q = Current × Time)

GENERAL SCIENCE
Second Law of Electrolysis
The amount of different substances
liberated at the electrodes by the same
quantity of electricity passing through the
electrolytic solution are proportional to
their chemical equivalent weights.
W E
W ∝ E or 1 = 1
W2 E 2
Electrochemical Cell
• It is a device that produces an electric
current from energy released by a
spontaneous redox reaction (in short
which converts chemical energy into
electrical energy). This kind of cell
includes the galvanic cell or voltaic
cell.
• It has two conductive electrodes, i.e.,
anode (at which oxidation occurs) and
cathode (at which reduction occurs)
• It contains an electrolyte in between
the electrodes, which contains ions
that can move freely.
Battery
• It is an arrangement of one or more
cells connected in series.
• It is basically a galvanic cell.
These are of two types
1. Primary batteries (non-rechargeable)
e.g., dry cell, mercury cell etc.
2. Secondary batteries (rechargeable)
e.g., lead storage battery, nickel-
cadmium battery.
Lechlanche Cell or Dry Cell
• It consists of a zinc container that acts
as anode and carbon (graphite) rod
surrounded by powdered manganese
dioxide and carbon which acts as
cathode. It contains a paste of NH4Cl
and ZnCl2 in between the electrodes.
• It is used in transistors and clocks.
• It has a potential of 1.5 V.
Mercury Cell
• It is suitable for the low current devices
like hearing aids and camera, etc.
• It consists of zinc-mercury amalgam as
anode and a paste of HgO and carbon
as cathode. The electrolyte is a paste of
KOH and ZnO.
Excess of lime in the cement causes cracks in cement during solidification. While excess of alumina in it causes easy and
quick solidification of cement.
EBD_7242
GK-47
• It has potential of 1.35 V. This potential
remains constant during its whole life.
Lead Storage Battery
• It is a secondary battery.
• It acts as electrochemical cell during
discharging (i.e., during use) and as
electrolytic cell during charging.
• It is used in automobiles and invertors.
• It consists of lead as anode and a
grid of lead packed with lead dioxide
(PbO2) as cathode. A 38% solution of
sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte.
• It consists of a series of six identical
cells assembled in series. Each cell
may produce a potential of 2 V, hence
overall voltage produced is 12 V.
• PbSO4 is formed when lead storage
battery is in use and lead dioxide are
formed when it is charged.
Fuel Cell
These are galvanic cells which use energy
of combustion of fuels like hydrogen (H2),
methane (CH4), methanol (CH3OH), etc. as
the source to produce electrical energy. e.g.
hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell.
Corrosion of Metals
Corrosion is an oxidation reaction with
atmospheric oxygen in the presence of
water on the surface of a metal. Rusting is
3
Fe(s) + O2(g) + xH2O(l ) →
2
Fe2 O3 .xH2O(s)
i.e. rust is hydrated iron oxide.
Prevention of Corrosion
Iron and steel (alloy of iron) are most easily
protected by paint which provides a barrier
between the metal and air/water. Moving
parts on machines can be protected by a
water repellent oil or grease layer. Other
important methods are
(i) Alloying: Iron or steel along with other
metals can also be protected by ‘alloying’
or mixing with other metals (e.g.,
chromium) to make non-rusting alloys.
(ii) Galvanizing: Coating iron or steel with
a thin zinc layer is called ‘galvanizing’.
 GK-48 GENERAL SCIENCE
Some Important Man Made of a mixture of calcium and potassium
Materials silicates.
Physical properties of glass
Glass
Hard, rigid, high viscosity, bad conductor of
It consists of a mixture of two or more heat and electricity, brittle, etc.
silicates. Blowing: It is a method to cast the molten
Preparation of glass glass into different moulds. There are two
Common glass (or soft glass): It is used different methods of glass blowing:
to make bottles, glass wares etc. and is (i) Free blowing and ( ii) mould blowing
obtained by heating together silica (in the Free blowing: It involves the blowing of air
form of sand), sodium carbonate or sodium to inflate the molten glass which is gathered
sulphate and chalk or lime stone (calcium at one end of the blow pipe to give the
desired shape.
carbonate). Some broken glass and a
Mould blowing: This method was developed
little coke are usually added. The glass so
after the technique of free blowing. In this
prepared consists of silicates of sodium and
method, molten glass is inflated into a
calcium.
wooden or metal carved mould with the
Na2CO3(s) + SiO2(s) → help of blow pipe which gives the molten
        (silica) glass the shape and design of the interior of
Na2SiO3(s) + CO2(g) the mould.
Na2SO4(s) + SiO2(s) →
Chemical properties of glass
Na2SiO3(s) + SO3(g)
(i) It is resistant to action of air and acids
CaCO3(s) + SiO2(s) →
except hydroflouric acid.
CaSiO3(s) + CO2(g)
(ii) It is alkaline in nature.
Hard glass: For preparation of hard glass (iii) It slowly reacts with water to form
K2CO3 is used in place of Na2CO3. It consists alkaline solution.
Types of processed glass and their applications are given here:
Processed glass Applications
1. Laminated glass Used for doors and windows of automobiles. it has high strength.
2. Fibre glass Used for reinforcing purpose (it has enough tensile strength)
3. Foam glass Used for civil construction and insulation purposes (it is light
weight).
4. Opaque glass In it a non-transparent glass filters the light entering into it.
Thus provides an aesthetic look.

Energy Resources Fuels

Natural Resources These are the substance which produce
These resources are given by nature like air, heat and light on combustion.
water, mineral, sunlight, etc. Coal
Renewable Natural Resources •• It is believed to have been formed by the
These are available in excess amount e.g.,
slow carbonisation of vegetable matter
air, sunlight, etc.
buried underneath the Earth from
Non-Renewable Natural Resources
centuries ago, in limited supply of air
These resources are available in limited
quantity, e.g., minerals, coal petroleum, under high temperature and pressure
natural gas, etc. prevailing there.
Though solid at room temperature, gallium will liquify in your hand.
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-49

•• It is available in different varieties: Peat Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

(60% C), lignite or brown coal (70% C) It is a mixture of n-butane, iso-butane and
bituminous coal (80% C) and anthracite some propane.
coal (90% C). •• It is easily compressed under pressure
•• Bituminous is the most common variety as liquid and stored in iron cylinders.
of coal. Coal is used for the synthesis of •• A strong foul smelling substance called
water gas and producer gas. ethyl mercaptan, is added to LPG which
Petroleum detect the gas leakage.
•• It is a dark coloured oily liquid with Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
offensive odour. It is also called rock oil, •• It consists mainly of methane (95%)
mineral oil, crude oil or black gold. which is a relatively unreactive
•• When subjected to fractional hydrocarbon and makes its nearly
distillation, it gives different products complete combustion.
at different temperatures. •• It has octane rating 130.
Different Fuels, their Composition and Source
Fuel Composition Source
Water gas Carbon monoxide (CO) + Hydrogen (H2) By passing stem over red hot
coke
Producer gas Carbon monoxide (CO) + Nitrogen (N2) by passing insufficient air
ober red hot coke
Oil gas Methane (CH4) + Ethylene (C2H4) + By destructive distillation of
Acetylene (C2H2) kerosene
Coal gas Hydrogen (H2) + Methane (CH4) + by fractional distillation of
Ethylene + Acetylene + CO wood
Natural gas Methane (83%) + Ethane From petroleum
LPG Butane (C4H10) + Propane (C3H8) From oil wells
Biogas or Methane (CH4) + Carbon dioxide (CO2) + From organic wastes
Gobar gas Hydrogen (H2) + Nitrogen (N2)

Colorific value of some important Fertilizers

fuels are as follow Fertilizers are chemical compounds which
when added to the soil increase their
Calorific Value
Fuel fertility and directly supply the need of
(kJ/g) essential elements [N, P, K] of primary
Hydrogen 150 importance.
Methane 55 Classification
Petrol 50 Chemical fertilizers are broadly classified
LPG 50 into the following three types:
Natural gas 35-50 (i) Nitrogenous fertilizers: Ammonium
Kerosene oil 48 sulphate, urea etc.
(ii) Phosphatic fertilizers: Super phosphate,
Diesel 45 ammonium phosphate
Bio gas 35-40 (iii) Potash fertilizers: Potassium chlo-
Coal 25-32 ride, potassium sulphate.
Ethanol 30 Soaps and Detergents
Wood 17 Soap: Fatty acid salts of sodium and
Cow dung 6-8 potassium are known as soaps. These are
Oxygen gas is colourless but the liquid and solid forms of it are blue.
 GK-50 GENERAL SCIENCE
prepared by the action of fatty acids with Industrial Chemical Name and
sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. Name Formula
Fatty acid + sodium hydroxide → Soap + Caustic potash Potassium hydroxide
glycerol. (KOH)
Detergents are sodium salt of long chain
Caustic soda Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
sulphonic acids or alkyl hydrogen sulphate.
Advantages of detergents over soaps Chile salt petre Sodium nitrate (NaNO3)
(i) Detergents can be used for laundering Chloroform Trichloromethane (CHCl3)
even with hard water as they are Dry ice Solid carbon dioxide (CO2)
soluble even in hard water. Epsum Magnesium sulphate
(ii) Detergents possess better cleansing (MgSO4 ⋅ 7H2O)
properties than soaps.
Disadvantages of detergents over soap: Glauber’s salt Sodium sulphate
decahydrate
Detergents are prepared from hydrocarbons,
(Na2SO4 ⋅ 10H2O)
while soaps are prepared from edible fatty
Green vitriol Ferrous sulphate
oils. Thus they are non biodegradable.
(FeSO4 ⋅ 7H2O)
Saponification
•• It is the process of making of soap by the Gypsum Calcium sulphate
hydrolysis of fats and oils with alkalis. (CaSO4 ⋅ 2H2O)
•• Both soaps and detergents are soluble Hypo Sodium thiosulphate
in water and act as surfactants which pentahydrate
(Na2S2O3 ⋅ 5H2O)
reduce the surface tension of water to
a great extent. This increases the water Laughing gas Nitrous oxide (N2O)
- fabric interaction as a consequence of Litharge Lead oxide (PbO)
which dirt particles, grease spots etc Lunar castic Silver nitrate (AgNO3)
are washed away effectively. In other Magnesia Magnesium oxide (MgO)
words soaps and detergents enhance Marble or chalk Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
the cleansing action of water. or pearl
Industrial Names of some Important Marsh gas Methane (CH4)
Compounds Mohr’s salt Ferrous ammonium
sulphate,
Industrial Chemical Name and (NH4)2SO4 ⋅ FeSO4 ⋅ 6H2O
Name Formula Mosaic gold Stannous sulphide (SnS2)
Alum Potassium aluminium Muriatic acid Hydrogen chloride (HCl)
sulphate (K2SO4 ⋅ Al2(SO4)3 Pearl ash Potassium carbonate
⋅ 24 H2O) (K2CO3)
Alcohol Ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) Plaster of Paris Calcium sulphate
Baking powder Sodium bicarbonate hemihydrate
(NaHCO3)  1 
CaSO4 ⋅ H2O
Blue vitriol Copper sulphate  2 
(CuSO4 ⋅ 5H2O)
Quicklime Calcium oxide (CaO)
Bleaching Calcium hypochlorite
Red lead Lead peroxide (Pb3O4)
powder (CaOCl2)
Rock salt Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Borax Sodium tetraborate
decahydrate Ruby or Aluminium oxide, (Al2O3)
(Na2B4O7 ⋅ 10H2O) sapphire
Brine or salt Sodium chloride (NaCl) Sand Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
Calomel Mercurous chloride Sal ammoniac Ammonium chloride
(Hg2Cl2 or HgCl) (NH4Cl)

The only two non-silvery metals are gold and copper

 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-51

Industrial Chemical Name and Lipid

Name Formula •• Lipids are organic compounds soluble
Slaked lime Calcium hydroxide in non-polar fat solvents such as
[Ca(OH)2] acetone, ether, chloroform, benzene,
Spirit Methyl alcohol (CH3OH) etc. and insoluble in water.
Soda ash Sodium carbonate •• The most important role of lipids is that
(Na2CO3) of biological fuel. Lipids supply more
Vinegar Acetic acid (CH3COOH) energy than carbohydrates, excess of
Vermilion Mercuric sulphide (HgS)
lipids is stored in the body and used at
the time of starvation.
Washing soda Sodium carbonate
decahydrate Proteins
(Na2CO3 ⋅ 10H2O) •• Proteins are highly complex, natural
White vitriol Zinc sulphate compounds, composed of a large
(ZnSO4 ⋅ 7H2O) number of different amino acids joined
together with peptide linkage, i.e. they
General Organic Chemistry are naturally occurring polypeptides.
Carbohydrates •• The biological importance of proteins
Carbohydrates are defined as the optically can be judged by the fact that the
active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or animals can live for a long time without
substances which yield these on hydrolysis. fat or carbohydrate, but not without
protein.
Classification of Carbohydrates
Nucleic Acids
Based on Molecular Size
•• Nucleic acids are colourless, complex,
Carbohydrates amorphous, compounds made up of
three units: bases, sugar and phosphoric
acid.
Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides •• These are macro-molecules of high
Based on Nature molecular weight and are present in
Carbohydrates are also classified as every living cell.
reducing and non-reducing sugars Vitamins
depending on whether they reduce Fehlings
and Tollen’s reagent or not. Vitamins are organic compounds
Based on Taste required in the diet in small omounts to
Carbohydrates with sweet taste are called perform specific biological functions for
sugars while those without a sweet taste maintenance of optimum growth and
are called non-sugars. health.

Some important vitamins, their sources and diseases caused by their deficiency are listed
in the following table:
Sr.
Name of Vitamins Source Deficiency Diseases
No.
1 Vitamin A (Retinol) Cod, liver oil, carrots, egg, Xerophthalmia (hardening
butter and milk of cornea of eye) Night
blindness
2 Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Seeds, whole grains, Pulses, Beri beri (loss of appetite,
nuts retarded growth)

Fungi and arthropods have a structural carbohydrate molecule called chitin.

 GK-52 GENERAL SCIENCE
Sr.
Name of Vitamins Source Deficiency Diseases
No.
3 Vitamin B2 Milk, egg white, liver, Cheilosis (fissuring at
(Riboflavin) Kidney corners of mouth and lips),
digestive disorders and
burning sensation of the skin
4 Vitamin B5 Barley, liver, maize, wheat Pellagra (skin pigmentation)
(Nicotinamide) degeneration of spinal cord)
5 Vitamin B6 Yeast, milk, egg yolk, rice, Anaemia
(Pyridoxine) cereals and grams
6 Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, egg and curd Pernicious anaemia (RBC
(Cyanocobal-amine) deficient in haemoglobin)
7 Vitamin C (Ascorbic Citrus fruits, amla and Scurvy (bleeding gums)
acid) green leafy vegetables
8 Vitamin D (Calciferol) Exposure to sunlight, fish Rickets (bone deformities in
and egg yolk children) and osteo-malacia
(soft bones and joint pain in
adults)
9 Vitamin E (Tocoferol) Vegetable oils like wheat Increased fragility of RBCs
germ oil, cotton seed oil, and muscular weakness,
sunflower oil, etc Antifertility
10 Vitamin K (phyllo- Green leafy vegetables Increased blood clotting time
quinone)

Polymers Polymer Uses

•• They are made up of many repeating
Bakelite Electrical insulation
units known as monomers.
buttons
Some common man-made polymers and
their uses Lexan Bullet proof glass
Polymer Uses Melamine Crockery
Polythene Packaging material,
carry bags, bottles Pollutants
Polypropene Bottles, Crates These are the substances that contaminate
the environment. Pollutants are of two
Polyvinyl Pipes insulation types:
chloride (PVC)
•• Primary Pollutants: These persist in
Nylon Fibres, ropes the environment in the form, they are
(Polyester) produced e.g., sulphur dioxide (SO2),
Teflon Nonstick kitchen ware nitrogen dioxide (NO2), etc.
•• Secondary Pollutants: These are
Vinyl rubber Rubber erasers
the products of reaction of primary
Polystyrene Foam, Thermocol pollutants e.g., PAN (Perocyacylnitrates),
Poly (Styrene Rubber, bubble gum ozone (O3), aldehyde, etc.
butadiene)

The polyamides include the naturally occuring proteins Casein, found in milk and zein found in corn.
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-53

Major Pollutants of Air

Pollutants Primary sources Harmful Effects
SO2 Vehicular combustion, Acid rain, irritation in eyes, premature
fossil burning falling of leaves
CO and CO2 Vehicular combustion, Global warming, green house effect,
burning of fuels and CO has great affinity for hydrocarbons,
hydrocarbons haemoglobin and forms carboxy
haemoglobin
Smoke, fly ash and Thermal power stations Respiratory diseases.
soot
Lead and mercury Autoexhaust from Affects the nervous system and
gasoline (petrol), paints, circulatory system causing nerve fuel
storage batteries. Fossil burning and brain damage
fuel like coal burning.
CFCs (Chloro fluoro Refriagerants and
Kidney damage and ozone depletion.
Carbon) aerosol

Major Pollutants of Water

Pollutants Primary sources Harmful Effects
Pesticides and Improper use in Toxic to fishes, predatory birds and
insecticides agriculture like mammals
DDT, BHC, mosquito
repellants
Plastics Homes and industries Kills fishes and animals. Persists in
the environment because of non-
biodegrabality.
Chlorine Water disinfection Fatal for plankton (organisms floating
compounds with chlorine, paper on the surface of water), foul taste and
industries and odour can cause Cancer in humans.
bleaching powder
Lead paints Leaded gasoline Toxic to organisms
Mercury Natural evaporation Highly toxic to humans
and dissolved
industrial wastes,
fungicides
Acids Mine Mine drainage, Kills organisms
drainage, industrial wastes
industrial wastes
Sediments Natural errosion, Reduces ability of water to assimilate
run off from oxygen.
factories, mining and
construction activities,
fertilizer and other

The overage human body carries ten times more bacterial cells than human cells.
 GK-54 GENERAL SCIENCE
Following chart depicts the effects of the pollutants

Ozone layer depletion

Global warming

Acid rain

Photochemical smog

Chlorofluoro carbons (CFCs)

Unburnt hydrocarbon fuels like
Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Methane (CH4)
petrol, diesel

Halons

Ocean pollution kills over one million seabirds every year.

 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-55

LIFE SCIENCE

Cell Biology •• Robert Hooke in 1665 coined the word ‘cell’.

Biology is the science of life. Biologist study
the structure, function, growth, origin,
evolution and distribution of living organism.
Father of biology & zoology: Aristotle
Father of Botany : Theophrastus.
Cell
Cell is a basic structural and functional unit
of life.
•• Anton van Leeuwenhoek first saw and
described a live cell.
•• Robert Brown later discovered the nucleus.
•• Cell theory was proposed by Schleiden and
Schwann in 1839 to explain the concept
of the cellular nature of living organism.
Note : Every cell originates from pre-existing cell.
Cells are of 2 types: Prokaryotic cell and
Eukaryotic cell

Difference between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes.

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
1. Size of cell is generally small. 1. Size of cell is generally large.
It contains single chromosome which is It contains more than one
2. 2.
circular in shape. chromosomes.
3. Nucleus absent. 3. Nucleus present
Cell division takes place by fission or budding. Cell division takes place by mitosis
4. 4.
and meiosis.
Membrane bound cell organelles are absent. Membrane bound cell organelles
5. 5.
present.

Archaebacteria are the primitive type of prokaryotes which includes methanogens, halophiles and thermoacidophiles.
 GK-56 GENERAL SCIENCE
A eukaryotic cell consists of the following Mitochondria
components: •• Mitochondria are also called power-
Golgi
house of cells.
apparatus Plasma Plastids
membrane
Smooth Centriole
endoplasmic
reticulum
Lysosome
Nuclear
envelope Ribosomes
Mitochondrion
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
Nucleus
Cytoplasm

Cell Wall
•• The cell wall is a non-living, rigid,
external protective covering of the cell.
•• Cell wall is entirely absent in animals.
•• It is made up of cellulose secreted by
the cell itself. Ribosomes
•• Ribosomes are smallest cell organelles
Cell Membrane •• They are protein synthesising factories.
•• The cell membrane is a living, •• There are two types of ribosomes viz.,
thin, elastic and semi-permeable – Prokaryotic or 70S ribosomes
membranous covering of plant and – Eukaryotic or 80S ribosomes
animal cells. Nucleus
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) •• N ucleus is centrally located, spherical
There are two types of endoplasmic and largest component of the all
reticulum, i.e. eukaryotic cell. It contains the genetic
•• Smooth or agranular ER – They do material of the cell.
not have attached ribosomes on their Structure of Nucleus
surface. It is site for Lipid Synthesis. •• A typical nucleus consists of four
•• Rough or granular ER – They bear structures: (i) nuclear membrane, (ii)
nucleoplasm (iii) chromatin and (iv)
ribosomes on their surface, for the nucleolus.
protein synthesis.
Nucleolus
Golgi Apparatus •• It is present inside the nucleus.
•• Golgi apparatus or golgi complex is a •• It is the site of active ribosomal RNA
stack of flattened, membrane bound, synthesis.
parallely arranged organelles that Difference between Plant and Animal
occur in the association of endoplasmic Cells
reticulum in the cytoplasmic matrix.
•• The golgi apparatus principally performs Plant Cell Animal Cell
the function of packaging materials to
be delivered either to the intra-cellular Plant cells are Animal cells
targets or secreted outside the cell. 1. larger in size. 1. are generally
Lysosomes smaller in size.
•• Lysosomes are popularly called 2. Plastid present. 2. Plastid absent.
“suicidal bags” present in animal cell.
•• Helps in intracellular digestions. Cell wall present, Cell wall
Vacuoles 3. made up of cellulose 3. absent.
•• In plant cells, the vacuoles can occupy and chitin.
up to 90% of the volume of the cell. Centrosome C e n t ro s o m e
The vacuole is bound by a single 4. 4.
absent. present.
membrane called tonoplast. They
are responsible for maintenance of 5.
Vacuoles are
5.
Vacuoles are
turgor pressure. larger in size. smaller in size.
Mitochondria and Plastid are semi autonomous organelles as they posses their own DNA.
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-57

Genetics •• Diploid – Chromosomes in pair

•• Haploid – Set of unpaired chromosome
Study of heredity and variation is called genetics.
•• Term genetics was given by - Bateson. DNA
•• Father of genetics - Gregor Johann Mendel. •• D NA is found in nucleus, and also found
•• Father of experimental genetics - in mitochondria and chloroplast.
Thomas Hunt Morgan. •• It stands for deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
•• Father of human genetics - Archibald Garrod. •• It is double stranded.
Gene •• It consists of nitrogenous bases-
•• It is a segment of DNA and basic unit Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine or
of heredity. These are located on Guanine, 5-carbon sugar and a
chromosomes. phosphate molecule.
•• Structural model of DNA – Watson and Crick
Cell cycle •• DNA molecule consists of two
•• It is a sequence of events in which polynucleotide strands, forming a double
cell duplicates its genetic material, helix.
synthesises other constituents of cell and •• Sugar + Nitrogen base = Nucleoside
finally devides into two daughter cell. •• Sugar + Nitrogen base + phosphate =
Cell Cycle Nucleotide.
RNA
•• It stands for ribonucleic acid
Mitosis Meosis •• It is made up of phosphate + ribose
•• Occurs in somatic •• Occurs in reproductive sugar + nitrogen base (uracil, adenine,
cell cell guanine, cytosine)
•• Helps in growth, •• Results in the formation •• RNA types : (1) Massenger RNA (mRNA)
repair and devel- of haploid gamete i.e, ⇒ Brings message from DNA in nucleus
opment ova & sperm to cytoplasm in coded form.
(2) Transfer RNA (tRNA) ⇒ Carrier of
Chromosome amino acid and transfer it to ribosome
•• Thread like structure in nucleus (3) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) ⇒ Present
•• Each chromosome is made up of two in ribosome which is the site of protein
chromatids synthesis

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RNA AND DNA

DNA RNA
1. Sugar is deoxyribose type. 1. Sugar is ribose type.
2. It is double stranded structure. 2. It is single stranded structure.
It contains the base adenine, thymine and It contains uracil in the place of thymine
3. 3.
cytosine and guanine.
4. It is mainly found in nucleus. 4. It is foundin both nucleus and cytoplasm.
SOME HUMAN BODY DISORDERS
Disorder Symptoms Defect
Cystic fibrosis Mucus clogs in lungs, liver, and Failure of chloride ion transport
pancreas mechanism
Sickle-cell anemia Poor blood circulation Abnormal hemoglobin molecules
Tay-Sachs disease Deterioration of central nervous Defective enzyme (hexosaminidase A)
system in infancy
Phenylketonuria Brain fails to develop in infancy Defective enzyme
(phenylalanine hydroxylase)

Only about 3% of the DNA actually codes for genes, the rest is called non-coding DNA.
 GK-58
Hemophilia Blood fails to clot
Huntington’s disease Brain tissue gradually deteriorates
in middle age
Muscular dystrophy Muscles waste away
(Duchenne)
Congenital Increased birth weight, puffy face,
hypothyroidism constipation, lethargy
Hypercholesterolemia Excessive cholesterol levels in
blood, leading to heart disease
Klinefelter Syndrdome Feminine Characters, sterility
Turner’s Syndrome Lack of secondary sexual character
Down’s Syndrome Mental retardation, Mangolism
Colour Blindness Unable to distinguish red and Defective gene located on sex
green colour
Mendel’s Laws
•• M endel conducted cross hybridization
experiments on Garden Pea plant (Pisum
sativum).
•• The first law was the Principle of
segregation, which claimed that each
trait was specified by paired hereditary
determinants (alleles of genes) that
separate from each other during gamete
formation. This law is also called Law of
purity of gametes or law of splitting
of hybrids.
•• Mendel was the first individual to apply
a modern scientific approach to the study
of heredity. Mendel proposed two basic
principles of transmission genetics.
•• Mendel’s second basic conclusion was the
Principle of independent assortment,
which stated that the segregation of one
Any defects in RNA can be the cause for severe diseases such as cancer and stroke.
GENERAL SCIENCE
Defective blood-clotting factor VIII
Production of an inhibitor of brain
cell metabolism
Degradation of myelin coating of nerves
stimulating muscles
Failure of proper thyroid development
Abnormal form of cholesterol cell
surface receptor
Extra X or Y Chromosome in male
Single sex chromosome in female
Extra chromosome added to 21st
autosomal chromosome
chromosome
pair of genes-controlling a given trait -
was not influenced by the segregation
of other gene pairs. Genes located on
different chromosomes move to gametes
independently of each other during meiosis.
Mutation
•• Phenomenon that results in alteration
of DNA sequence and consequently
results in change in genotype and
phenotype of an organism is called
mutation.
•• Mutagens are various chemical and
physical factors that induce mutations,
e.g. UV radiations, carcinogenic
chemicals like nicotine, nitric oxide
(NO).
Sex Determination in Human
•• Male sex chromosome – XY
•• Female sex chromosome – XX
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-59

Human Blood Groups

•• T he system of blood groups in humans was discovered by Karl Landsteiner in the 1900s.
•• There are four phenotypes of blood namely A, B, AB and O produced by three different
alleles IA, IB and i of a gene.
•• The allele IA and IB are equally dominant and do not interfere with expression of each
other hence the allele IA IB are said to be co-dominant because both are expressed in the
phenotype AB.

Blood Antigen present Antibody present Possibility of blood donation

Group in RBC in plasma
A A b Can donate blood to A and AB
B B a Can donate blood to B and AB
AB A, B none Can receive from all but donate to only AB
O None a, b Can donate to all but receive blood only
from O

Blood B × AB A, B, AB
•• Blood is a fluid connective tissue and AB × AB A, B, AB
composed of blood corpuscles, and Blood Cells
plasma.
•• It is slightly alkaline is nature (pH 7.4). Erythrocytes (RBCs)
•• Its average volume in an adult is 5–6 L. •• Red blood cells contain the blood’s
•• Plasma : 60% of blood is plasma. haemoglobin and distribute oxygen.
•• Plasma composition: 90% water, 7% •• Mature red blood cells lack a nucleus
protein, 0.9% salt and 0.1% glucose. and organelles in mammals. However,
•• Serum : The clear liquid left after the in camel and Llama it is nucleated.
extraction of fibrinogen and protein •• One RBC contains about 280 million of
from plasma. haemoglobin molecules.
•• During blood clotting fibrinogen changes •• RBC is formed in bone marrow.
into fibrin by thrombin which is obtained
from thromboplastin in the presence of •• Average life span : 20–120 days
Ca2+. •• Destruction of RBC takes place in liver
•• Blood helps in transport of oxygen, and spleen.
nutrient, disease control, maintain body •• Haemoglobin contains iron containing
temperature. compound, giving red colour to blood.
Blood Type of Parent and their Leukocytes (WBCs)
Children •• These are part of the body’s immune
system; they destroy and remove old
Blood Type of Possible Blood or aberrant cells and cellular debris,
Parent (Homo or Type of Children as well as attack infectious agents and
Heterozygous) foreign substances. These are much less
in number than RBCs (1 : 600).
O×O O •• WBC are formed in bone marrow, lymph
O×A O, A node and sometimes liver, spleen.
•• Avg. life span : 5-21 days
O×B O, B
Thrombocytes
O × AB A, B
(Platelets)
A×A A, O •• It is responsible for blood clotting
A×B O, A, B, AB (coagulation). It changes fibrinogen
A × AB A, B, AB into fibrin.
•• It is found only in the blood of human
B×B B, O and other mammals.
Only 4% of the population has AB+ and just one in every hundred people have AB– blood group.
 GK-60 GENERAL SCIENCE
•• There is no nucleus in it It can coagulate be- It can coagulate but
•• Its formation takes place in bone cause it contains very slowly because it
marrow.
fibrinogen and pro- contains these two in
•• It is destroyed in spleen
•• In dangue fever, number of platelets is thrombin. small quantities.
reduced. Blood Pressure (BP)
Comparison between Plasma and Lymph •• The pressure created by the blood on
Plasma Lymph the walls of the blood vessels due to
the repeated pumping of heart is called
It contains 92% wa- Lymph contains a va-
blood pressure. It is measured by
ter, 8% blood plasma riety of substances
sphygmomanometer.
proteins and trace including proteins,
amounts of other ma- salts, glucose, fats, •• It can be felt at certain places in our
terials water and WBCs. body, viz wrist of the hands etc.
It is cell free part of It is modified tissue •• Blood pressure is recorded as systolic/
blood, contain salts, fluid, contains cells diastolic. Blood pressure in a normal
considerable amount like lymphocyte and person is 120/80 mm Hg. Factors
of proteins as well as monocytes, salt and affecting blood pressure are age, cardiac
more or less all con- small amount of pro- output, total peripheral resistance, etc.
stituents of body. teins. It is colourless.
•• If a person has persistent high blood
It flows within blood It flows within lym- pressure then it is called hypertension
vessels. phatic vessels. and persistent high blood pressure is
It takes part in nu- It supplies nutrition 150/90 mm Hg. Factor responsible are
trition, excretion, to tissue devoid of overeating, fear, worry, anxiety, sorrow,
respiration, etc. by blood supply,takes
etc. Hypotension is condition of low blood
transporting various part in fat absorption
materials and helps and defence mecha- pressure, i.e. persistent 100/50 mm Hg.
in the defence mecha- nism of the body. •• Electrocardiograph (ECG) is used to
nism of the body by check proper working of heart by using
producing antibodies. electrodes.

An adult body has 100,000 kilometers or 60,000 miles of blood vessels.


GENERAL SCIENCE
Plant Physiology
Photosynthesis
•• Photosynthesis occurs in specialized
cells called mesophyll cell which contain
chloroplast.
•• Photosynthesis follows two main steps:
Light dependent reaction which occur
in grana of the chloroplast and dark
reaction which occur in stroma region
of the chloroplast.
•• It is actually oxidation reduction
process in which water is oxidized and
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates.
•• The reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates
needs assimilatory powers, i.e. ATP and
NADPH2.
Light
•• 6CO2+12H2O C6H12O6
+ 6H2O + 6O2. Chlorophyll
•• Green coloured pigment chlorophyll
absorbs light for photosynthesis.
Respiration
•• Carbohydrates are broken down
through the process of oxidation and
release of energy for cellular use, is
called respiration. Respiration occurs in
three steps as Glycolysis, Kreb’s Cycle
and Electron transport system.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy
•• Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of
the cell and the final product is pyruvate
which is transported from the cytoplasm
to mitochondria. Citric acid cycle/Kreb’s
cycle occur in mitochondrial matrix.
Transpiration
•• Loss of water in the form of water
vapour from plant through the small
pore (stomata) present on leaves is
called transpiration.
Plant Reproduction
•• Pollination : Transfer of pollen grains
from anther to stigma.
•• Fertilization : Fusion of male nucleus
with egg cell.
•• In angiosperm, fertilization is triple
fusion.
•• Parthenocarpy : Development of fruits
from ovary without fertilization. E.g., –
Banana, Papaya, Orange, etc.
•• Fruit is ripened ovary after fertilization.
More than half (70%) of the world’s oxygen is produced by phytoplankton photosynthesis in the world’s oceans .
EBD_7242
GK-61
Nitrogen Metabolism
•• P
lants obtain nitrogen from the soil in the
form of nitrites (NO2—), nitrates (NO3—)
and ammonium (NH4)+ ions. Nitrogen
assimilation is carried out by plants in
three steps.
Ammonification
•• It is the process of conversion of
complex organic compounds like
protein into ammonia in the presence
of ammonifying bacteria.
•• Proteins → Amino acids → Organic
acids → Ammonia
Nitrification
•• Ammonia is rapidly converted first to
nitrite and then nitrates by the process
of nitrification. Nitrification is brought
about by nitrifying bacteria such as
Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter.
Denitrification
•• It is the process of conversion of nitrate
present in the soil to gaseous nitrogen
which escapes into atmosphere. It takes
place with the help of bacteria called
Pseudomonas.
Plant Growth Regulators
Some chemical molecules secreted by the
plants which affect the growth of the plant
known as plant growth regulators.
Auxin
•• It controls division in the vascular
cambium and xylem differentiation. It
Promotes flowering. It also causes the
phenomenon of apical dominance.
Gibberellins
•• It causes an increase in length of axis
of the plant. It delays senescence and
helps in induction of seed germination.
Cytokinins
•• It promotes cell division and growth
of lateral branches by inhibiting apical
dominance. It also promotes formation
of adventitious shoot.
Ethylene
•• It is synthesized in the tissue undergoing
senescence and ripening of fruits.
It promtes ripening of fruits and
accelerate the abscission of flower.
Abscisic acid
•• It causes ageing and abscission of
leaves and fruits. It also regulates bud
and seed dormancy.
 GK-62 GENERAL SCIENCE
Human Physiology •• It regulates the quantity of glucose in
the blood by converting extra glucose
Human Digestive System
into glycogen or glycogen (during
The human digestive system consists of
deficiency of glucose) is converted into
alimentary canal and digestive glands. The glucose.
alimentary canal consists of mouth, (having •• It destroys dead RBC and controls
teeth and tongue) oesophagus, stomach, temperature. It converts excess of
small intestine and large intestine. amino acid into ammonia (which is
Teeth converted into urea by Ornithine cycle).
•• With the help of teeth the food is Urea comes out from the body through
chewed. Teeth are of four types: kidney.
Incisors (for cutting) •• If there is any obstruction in bile duct,
Canines (for tearing) liver cells stop taking bilirubin from
Premolars (for chewing) the blood, consequently it spreads
Molars (for chewing and grinding) throughout the body causing jaundice.
Tongue Pancreas
•• S aliva, secreted by the salivary glands,
is mixed with the chewed food by the •• It is the second-largest gland of
tongue. the human body and has Islets of
Langerhans and exocrine part secreting
•• Tongue also contains taste buds due
enzymes for carbohydrate, protein and
to which we sense bitter, sour, salty or
nucleic acid digestion.
sweet taste. •• The most common part is the β–cells,
which produces insulin, a hormone
the deficiency which causes diabetes
melitus.
•• Excess of insulin causes hypoglycemia,
Bitter in which glucose level of blood falls.
Sour Sour

Salt Salt
Sweet
Taste Areas on the Human Tongue
Some Digestive Glands
Liver
•• It is the largest gland in the human body
and secretes bile juice, which is stored
in gall bladder.

DIGESTION OF FOOD
Name of the Name of the enzymes Substrate End product
digestive juice
Saliva Ptyalin (Salivary amylase) Starch Maltose
Intestinal juice Sucrase (invertase), Maltase, Sucrose; Glucose, fructose and
Lactase Maltose, galactose
Lactose
Gastric Juice Pepsin, Rennin Proteins, Peptones, calcium caseinate
Casein
Pancreatic Juice Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Proteins, Proteoses and peptides,
Carboxy peptidases Peptides Amino acid

The Stomach has the ability to stretch and hold upto 4 pounds of food.
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-63

VITAMIN REQUIRED BY THE BODY

Vitamin Chemical Function in Body Deficiency Sources
Name Disease
B1 Thiamine Part of coenzyme for Beri-beri: Cereals, legumes,
respiration nerve and heart beans, nuts.
disorders
B2 Riboflavin Part of coenzyme Ariboflavinosis: Milk, yogurt, meat,
FAD needed for skin and eye leafy greens, whole
respiration disorders grains.
B12 Cyanoco- Coenzyme needed Pernicious Meat, fish, poultry,
balamin for making red blood anaemia shellfish, eggs,
cells, bone, blood and cheese, milk.
nerve changes
B3 Nicotinic Part of coenzymes Pellagra: skin, Widespread in food.
acid (‘niacin’) NAD, NADP used in gut and nerve
respiration disorders
C Ascorbic acid Not precisely known Scurvy: Citrus fruits, e.g.
degeneration of lemon.
skin teeth and
blood vessels.
A Retinol Not fully known but Xeropthalmia: Milk, eggs, meat, fish
forms part of visual ‘dry eyes’ liver oils, green leafy
pigment, rhodopsin vegetables.
D Cholecalciferol Stimulates calcium Rickets: bone Exposed to sunlight,
absorption by small deformity dairy products, egg
intestine, needed for yolk, fish liver oils,
proper bone growth oysters, yeast.
E Tocopherol Not precisely known Infertility Plant oils, green,
leafy vegetables, egg
yolk, nuts, seeds,
and liver.
K Phylloquinone Involved in blood Possible Bacterial synthesis
clotting haemorrhage in the digestive
tract. Green leafy
vegetables, cabbage
and milk
MINERAL REQUIRED BY BODY

Minerals Source Function

Sodium (Na) Table salt is present in processed
foods, milk, breads, vegetables, and
meats
Chloride Table salt in large amount is present
in processed foods, small amounts in
milk, meats, breads, and vegetables
Potassium Meat, milk, fresh fruits and vegetables,
whole grains, legumes
Needed for proper fluid balance,
nerve transmission, and muscle
contraction
Needed for proper fluid balance,
stomach acid
Needed for proper fluid balance,
nerve transmission, and muscle
contraction

Tounge is the only muscle in human body that works without any support from skeleton.
 GK-64 GENERAL SCIENCE
Calcium Milk and milk products, canned Important for healthy bones and teeth,
fish with bones (salmon, sardines), helps muscles relax and contract,
fortified tofu and fortified soy milk, important in nerve functioning, blood
greens (broccoli, mustard green), clotting, blood pressure regulation,
legumes immune system health
Phosphorus Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk, Important for healthy bones and
processed foods teeth, found in every cell, part of
the system that maintains acid-base
balance
Magnesium Nuts and seeds, legumes, leafy green Needed for making protein, muscle
vegetables, seafood, and chocolate contraction, nerve transmission,
immune system health
Sulfur Occurs in foods as part of protein, Important for protein synthesis
meats, poultry, fish, eggs, milk,
legumes, nuts
Iron Organ meats, red meats, fish, poultry, Part of a molecule hemoglobin
shellfish (especially clams), egg yolks, found in red blood cells that carries
legumes; dried fruits dark, leafy oxygen in the body, needed for
greens, iron-enriched breads and energy metabolism
cereals, and fortified cereals
Iodine Seafood, foods grown in iodine-rich Found in thyroid hormone, which
soil, iodized salt, bread, dairy products helps regulate growth, development,
and metabolism
Human Respiratory System CONSTITUTION OF AIR IN BREATHING
•• H
uman respiratory system consists Nitrogen Oxygen Carbon
of external nostrils, nasal cavity, dioxide
nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchiole
and lungs. Air inhaled 79% 21% 0.03%
•• Overall passage of air in humans is as Air exhaled 79% 17% 4%
follows:
Nostrils → Pharynx → Laryx → Trachea RESPIRATORY ORGANS OF SOME ANIMALS
→ Bronchi → Bronchioles → Alveoli
→ Cells → Blood. Respiratory Animal
Organ
Lungs Reptiles like lizards,
1. mammals like man,
camel, cattle, etc.
Skin Frog, earthworm and
2.
leeches
Gills Fishes, tadpoles and
3.
prawns
Trachea Insects, centipedes and
4.
millipedes.
Book lungs Spider, scorpion, ticks
5.
and mites.
Book gills King crab, prawn, cray
6.
fish and Daphnia
Allelomarph is one of a number of alternative forms of the same gene occupying a given position on a chromosome.
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-65

Air bladder Lung fish and bony

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AEROBIC
7.
fishes (e.g., Lebeo) AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Air sacs/ Birds Aerobic Anaerobic respiration
8.
lungs respiration
Body surface Amoeba, Euglena, •• Takes place in •• Takes place in the
9. Chlamydomonas, the presence of absence of oxygen
Spirogyra, Hydra, etc. oxygen
Transport of gases •• End products •• End products are
•• 9
7% of oxygen is transported from the are carbon carbon dioxide and
dioxide, water ethyl alcohol in
lungs to the tissues in combination with and energy plants and lactic
haemoglobin (Hb + O2 HbO2, acid and energy in
oxyhaemoglobin). 3% is transported in animals
dissolved condition by the plasma. •• Eg- Most •• Eg → Yeast
plants and
There are three ways of transport of
animals
CO2
•• 5 %–7% (approximately) of CO2 is Circulatory System
transported, being dissolved in the
•• It is a transport system that carries
plasma of blood.
•• CO2 reacts with the water to form useful material and removes the waste
carbonic acid (H2CO3) by the enzyme from the body.
carbonic anhydrase (present in RBC). •• It consists of heart, blood vessels and
•• CO2 reacts with amine radicals (NH2) blood.
of haemoglobin molecule and forms Heart
a carbamino – haemoglobin (HbCO2)
•• Heart is a thick, muscular, contractile,
molecule. Nearly 23% of CO2 is
automatic pumping organ of circulatory
transported through this mode.
system.

The lungs are the only organs that can float on water.
 GK-66
•• The chambers which receive blood from
body tissues are called auricles and the
chambers of heart which pump blood to
body tissues are called ventricles.
•• There is a thin two layered sac around
the heart known as pericardium, filled
with a watery fluid called pericardial
fluid.
Circulatory Pathways
The circulatory patterns are of two types –
Open circulatory system is present in
arthropods and molluscs in which blood
pumped by the heart passes through large
vessels into open spaces or body cavities
called sinuses.
Closed circulatory system
•• Annelids and chordates have a closed
circulatory system in which the
blood pumped by the heart is always
circulated through a closed network of
blood vessels. All vertebrates possess a
muscular chambered heart.
•• Fishes have a 2-chambered heart with
an atrium and a ventricle.
•• Amphibians and the reptiles (except
crocodiles) have a 3-chambered heart
with two atria and a single ventricle.
Crocodiles, birds and mammals
possess a 4-chambered heart with
two artia and two ventricles.
•• To pump out blood, the heart chamber
undergoes alternate contraction called
systole and relaxation called diastole.
The sequence of systole and diastole
causes the heart sound Lub and Dub.
•• Arteries transport pure blood from the
heart while veins carry impure blood
to the heart.
•• Human heart beat is myogenic in
nature, i.e., initiated by a patch of
modified heart muscles itself without
requiring an external stimulation. This
patch is called SA node (sino-auricular
node) or pacemaker.
•• When SA-node becomes abnormal, i.e.,
it does not generate cardiac impulses, it
can be cured by surgical grafting of an
artificial pacemaker (an electric device)
in the chest of the patient. It stimulate
the heart electrically at regular
intervals.
A blue whale’s heart is about the size of a compact car.
GENERAL SCIENCE
Heart Beat and Pulse
The human heart beats at the rate of about
72-80 per minute in the resting condition.
Electrocardiograph
•• E
CG is the graphic record of electronic
current produced by the excitation of
cardiac muscles.
Blood Vessels
Blood vessels are of three types:
Arteries
•• These are thick walled blood vessels
which carry the blood away from the
heart to various body parts. These are
deep seated in the body and have no
valves in them.
•• These carry oxygenated blood except
the pulmonary artery which carries
deoxygenated blood to the lungs. In
arteries, blood flows at a high pressure
and a higher speed.
Veins
•• These are thin walled blood vessels and
carry blood away from various body
parts towards the heart. These have
valves in them to prevent back flow
of blood in them. Blood flows at low
pressure and at a lower speed.
•• These carry deoxygenated blood except
the pulmonary vein which carries
oxygenated blood to the heart.
Capillaries
•• These are the thinnest blood vessels
and connect arteries to the veins.
•• These help in exchange of materials like
the nutrients, gases, waste product, etc.,
between blood and cells.
Excretion
Kidney
•• It is bean-shaped, chocolate brown
organ lying in the abdomen, one on
each side of the vertebral column just
below the diaphragm.
•• These form the urine and controls
osmotic pressure within the organism
with respect to external environment.
••
Nephrons are the functional and
structural unit of kidney. Each nephron
is made up of Bowman’s capsule and
renal tubule.
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-67

Urine Formation

Kidney Functions: Coxal glands Scorpion

1. Formation of urine Green glands Prawn
2. Purification of blood plasma
3. Excretion of harmful substances such Skeletal System
as urea, uric acid and creatinine. Human Skeleton
4. Regulation of blood pressure through (comprising 206 bones)
hormones divided into
•• The process of excreting ammonia is
-Ammonotelism. Kidney plays a minor Axial Skeleton Appendicular Skeleton
role in the elimination of ammonia made up of made up of
e.g. teleost fishes, tadpoles, aquatic
soft bodied invertebrates. Organism
undergoing ammonotelism are called Skull Vertebral Sternum Ribs Girdles Limbs
ammonotelic. column
•• The process of excreting urea is -
Ureotelism. e.gs. are mammals, many Joints
terrestrial adult amphibians and Joints are structural arrangements of
cartilaginous fishes (shark). tissues by which bone and bone or bone
•• The process of elimination of uric acid is and cartilage are joined together.
Uricotelism, egs. are land snails, insects,
birds and many reptiles. They are of following types
•• Each kidney has nearly one million Joint Name Location
complex tubular structures called
nephrons, which are the functional 1. Immovable Bones of skull
units of kidney. These filter the blood to 2. Hinge Ankle, knee, elbow
produce urine.
3. Ball and Socket Shoulder and hip
Excretory Organs of Some Animals
4. Slightly Pubic bones of
Excretory Organ Animal movable pelvic girdle
Contractile vacuole Amoeba 5. Pivot Radius and humerus
Flame cells/solenocytes Tapeworm
6. Saddle Metacarpal and
Renette cell Ascaris carpal
Nephridia Earthworm 7. Gliding Vertebra, radio-ulna
Malpighian tubules Cockroach and carpals

Exactly half of one kidney can do the job that is performed by two kidneys.
 GK-68
NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION
•• The neural system is the control system
of the body which consists of highly
specialized cells called neurons.
•• A neuron consists of main cell body and
cytoplasmic processes arising from it.
•• The human brain is divisible into three
parts:
•• Forebrain: It comprises the olfactory
lobes, cerebrum and diencephalon.
Cerebrum is the largest and complex
part. It consists of the left and right
hemispheres connected by a bundle
of myelinated fibres, called corpus
callosum. The outer layer of the
cerebrum is called the cortex.
•• Diencephalon: The main parts of
the diencephalon are epithalamus,
thalamus and hypothalamus. The
hypothalamus is the highest centre of
autonomic nervous system. It governs
emotional reactions and exercise
control over sleep mechanism.
•• Midbrain: It is formed of corpora
quadrigemina and cerebral peduncles.
Cerebral penduncles are bundles of
fibres connecting the cerebral cortex
with other parts of brain and spinal
cord.
•• Hind brain: It comprises of:
Cerebellum: It controls the balance
and posture of the body.
•• Pons varolii - The pons is concerned
with maintenance of normal rhythm of
respiration.
•• Medulla oblongata - Medullary
centres (reflex centres) are present
Heparin, a natural anticoagulant in the blood that prevent the conversion of prothombin into thombin in circulating blood.
GENERAL SCIENCE
for controlling the functions of
important organs, e.g. cardiac centres
(heart), respiratory centre, vasomotor
centre (for regulating diameter of
blood vessels) and reflex centres (for
swallowing, vomiting, peristalsis,
secretion and activity of alimentary
canal, salivation, coughing, etc.)
Sense Organs
Eye
Eyes are the sensitive detectors of light. The
human eye can distinguish about 10 million
colours. It consists of three parts:
Sclerotic Layer
It is the outermost, bony layer, which
includes
Cornea is the clear dome-shaped tissue,
covering the front of the eye.
Conjunctiva is the continuation of upper
eyelid.
Choroid Layer
It is the middle layer and consists of:
Pupil is the black hole in the centre of the
iris. It changes size as the amount of light
changes.
Ciliary muscles regulates the lens curvature.
Iris is the coloured part of the eye. It
controls the amount of light that enters the
eye by changing the size of the pupil.
Lens is a biconvex transparent circular
solid located just behind the iris. It focuses
onto the retina
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-69

Retina Hyperopia or Hypermetropia (long

Lens Fovea (point of
Iris central focus)
Optic nerve to
brain’s visual
cortex
Pupil
Cornea
Blind spot
The Eye
Retina
•• Light sensitive tissue that lies at the
back of the eye. It contains millions
of photoreceptors (rods and cones)
that convert light rays into electrical
impulses that are relayed to the brain
via the optic never.
•• The image formed on retina is real and
inverted.
•• Rods are highly sensitive to dim light
and contain a reddish purple pigment
called rhodopsin. Night vision involves
mostly rods (not cones).
•• Cones are sensitive to bright light,
hence differentiate the colours.
•• The fovea centralis is the area
of sharpest vision due to high
concentration of ones.
•• The blind spot (optic disc) has not rods
and cone cells, hence no image is form
in this region.
Defects of Vision & Remedies
Myopia or Near(short) sightedness
A person suffering from Myopia can’t see
the far (distant) object clearly but can see
nearby object clearly.
Causes
•• The eye ball is too long (i.e. elongated)
so image is formed before retina.
•• Lens being too curved for the length of
the eye ball.
•• Combination of above, i.e. elongated
eyeball & curved lens.
•• Shortening of focal length of eye lens.
•• Overstretching of ciliary muscles.
Remedy: Concave lens is used to diverge
the rays at retina.
The eyes start to develop two weeks after a person is conceived.
(far sightedness)
A person suffering from it can’t see near
object clearly but can see distant object
clearly.
Causes
•• The eye ball is too short so image is
formed beyond the retina.
•• Cornea is not curved enough.
•• Eye lens is farther back in the eye.
•• Increase in the focal length of eye lens.
•• Stiffening of ciliary muscles.
Remedy: Convex lens is used to converge
the rays at retina.
Target group
•• It can affect both children and adults.
•• People whose parents are farsighted.
•• It can be confused with presbyopia (i.e.
“after 40” vision).
Astigmatism: Astigmatism is the most
common refractive problem responsible for
blurry vision. Cylindrical lens is used to
correct astigmatism.
Presbyopia (“after 40” vision)
After age 40, and most noticeably after age
45, the human eye is affected by presbyopia,
which results in greater difficulty maintaining
a clear focus at a near distance with an eye
which sees clearly at a far away distance.
Cataract
It is the clouding of the lens of the eye that
prevents a person to see.
Because light rays can’t pass through the
cloudy lens, vision of a person becomes
cloudy, blurry, foggy, or filmy.
Causes
•• Protein builds up in the eye lens &
makes it cloudy.
•• Cloudy protein layers prevent rays to
pass through eye lens.
•• New lens cells form on the outside of the
lens, making older cells compacted into
the center of the lens to form cataract.
Remedy
•• It can be corrected with suitable eye
glasses (lenses).
•• Cataract surgery is performed when eye
glass does not suit.
 GK-70 GENERAL SCIENCE
Ear

•• Ears are meant for both balancing and hearing.

•• It can be divided into three parts as External ear (pinna + external auditory canal),
Middle ear (tympanic cavity) and Internal ear (bony and membranous labyrinth).
•• Hearing is controlled by auditory are a of temporal lobe of cerebral cortex.
•• Human ear can listen the sound of 60-80 decibel.
•• Human ear is sensitive to sounds frequency 50–20KHz.
•• Defects of ear are : Otalgia ear, ache (pain in ear); Othitis media (acute infection of
middle ear), Labyrithine disease (malfunction of inner ear).
Nose
•• Nose is a sense organ for smell or olfaction, It contains
1. Olfactory cells which are more chemosensitive than taste cells.
2. Olfactory stimuli such as, chloroform and ammonia are irritating and can cause tearing.
•• Dogs have an acute olfactory sense. They can trace people because they can distinguish
between the odours of different persons.
CHEMICAL COORDINATION IN ANIMAL (HORMONES)
Endocrine Gland Hormone Principal action Disorders
Thyroxine (T4) and Maintains calcium level normal Cretinism,
Triiodothyronine (T3)
in the body. myxoedema, goiter
Thyroid
Calcitonin Increases rate of metabolism in
the body.
Parathyroid Parathormone (PTH) Increases plasma calcium Parathyroid tetany,
osteoporosis
“Adrenal gland “Adrenaline and Increases heart beat, blood
(medulla)” Noradrenaline” sugar and also constricts blood
vessel
“Mineralocorticoids Increases reabsorption of “Addison’s disease
(aldosterone)” sodium and excertion of Adrenal virilism”
potassium
Adrenal cortex
Glucocorticoids Increases blood sugar and Cushing’s syndrome
(cortisol) affects carbohydrate, fat and
protein metabolism
Bone marrow is the flexible tissue in the interior of bones.
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-71

ARH Regulates corticotropin

secretion
TRH Thyrotropin secretion
Hypothalamus SRH Stimulates secretion of
gonadotropins
Growth hormone Regulates secretion of
releaing factor prolactin
Pituitary gland Stimulates general growth Dwarfism, gigantism,
anterior lobe Acromegaly
Prolactin Stimulates milk production and
secretion
Follicle stimulating Stimulates ovarian follicle and
Pituitary gland hormone (FSH) spermatogenesis
anterior Luteinizing Stimulates corpus luteum
lobe hormone (LH) and ovulation in females and
interstitial cell in males
Thyroid stimulating Stimulates thyroid gland to
hormone (TSH) secrete hormones
Adrenocorticotropic Stimulates adrenal cortex to
hormone secrete glucocorticoids
Intermediate Melanocyte Growth and development of
lobe stimulating hormone melanocyte
Oxytocin Contraction of uterine muscles
and mammary gland cells
Posterior lobe “Vasopressin Promotes reabsorption of Diabetes insipidus
(ADH)” water from collecting ducts of
kidneys

Reproductive System Syngamy (sexual) Cockroach, frog, human

•• The process by which new individuals being, etc.
are produced from their parents is called
reproduction and the organs which Male Reproductive System
are used for this process, collectively The various organs which constitute
constitute the reproductive system. the male reproductive system and their
•• Reproduction is of two types, i.e.,
functions are tabulated below:
asexual and sexual.
•• In asexual reproduction only one Reproductive No Function
parent is involved and sex cells are not Organ
involved. Testes 2 Produce sperm and
•• In sexual reproduction two parents testosterone
are involved and formation and fusion
Sperm duct 2 Conduct the sperm from
of gametes takes place.
the testes to urethra
Modes of Reproduction in Different
Seminal 2 Secrete seminal plasma
Organisms
Vesicles
Mode of Organism
Reproduction Epididymis 2 Temporarily store
sperms and provides
Fission (asexual) Amoeba, bacteria, mobility
flatworm, etc.
Urethra 1 Conduct urine and
Budding (asexual) Hydra, yeast and sponge sperms.
In transpiration water loss occur in the form of vapour through stomata whereas in Guttation water loss occur in form of
water droplets through hydathodes.
 GK-72 GENERAL SCIENCE
Prostate gland 2 Secrete an alkaline fluid •• If sperm is present, the egg will be
to neutralise the acidity fertilised in the ampullary isthmic
of urethra and make the junction of Fallopian tube.
sperm more active. •• After maturity the ovary releases an
ovum (egg cell) after every 28 days.
Cowper’s 2 Secrete an alkaline •• The connection between developing
gland white lubricating fluid embryo and mother is made by
Penis (have 1 Pass urine and deposit placenta. It supplies blood, organic
rich blood sperm in female genital and inorganic nutrients, harmones,
supply) tract antibodies etc.
•• The embryo develops for nine months
•• Males can produce spermatozoa in uterus. It is called gestation period.
(sperm) throughout their life from age •• Child is delivered after its development
of 13-14 yrs. The growth of hairs on and mother produces milk to nourish
body is due to masculine hormones. the child (lactation).
•• The first milk which comes out from
the mother’s mammary gland just after
Urinary Seminal child birth is caused colostrum.
bladder vesicle •• This milk is rich in protein, antibodies
(behind which imparts immunity to new born
Prostate bladder) baby.
gland
Bulbourethral Urethra Menstrual Cycle
gland Scrotum •• Reproductive period of a human female
Erectile tissue extends from puberty (10-14 years) to
of penis
Glans menopause (40-50 years).
Vas deferens penis •• The release of the first menstrual flow
Epididymis
or period is called menarche.
Testis
•• Menarche marks the onset of
Male Reproductive System reproductive life and onset of puberty
Female Reproductive System in females.
Female reproductive system includes •• Menopause is stopping of ovulation and
menses. It normally occurs between
following organs which are tabulated below the age of 45 to 55. This stage onwards,
Reproductive No Function woman lose the ability to reproduce.
Organ •• The periodic vaginal bleeding during
Ovaries 2 To produce ova and menstrual cycle is called menstruation.
hormones •• On an average menstrual cycle is
completed in 28 days.
Oviducts 2 To move the ovum •• It is absent during pregnancy, may
towards uterus. be suppressed during lactation and
Uterus 1 To provide space for permanently stops at menopause.
developing child About 13 mature eggs are released
from two ovaries of female in a year.
Vagina 1 To receive the sperms •• Menstrual cycle is controlled by FSH, LH,
Ovaries Oviduct Follicles oestrogen and progesterone harmones.
Birth Control Methods or
Contraception Methods
•• The prevention of union of sperm and
ovum is known as contraception.
Uterine Corpus The various methods used for it are
Uterus luteum
wall diaphragm, condoms, contraceptive pills,
Cervix Endometrium tubectomy, vasectomy, copper-T etc.
Vagina •• Amniocentesis or amniotic fluid test
is technique of finding out sex and
Female Reproductive System disorder of foetus.
Digestion begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes.
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-73

Gestation Perioda of Animals 3. Virus Living and non-

Animal Gestation Animal Gestation living
Period Period 4. Peripatus Annelida and
Buffalo 310 days Horse 340 days (Arthropoda) Arthropoda
Elephant 610 days Leopard 105 days 5. Neopilina Annelida and
(Mollusca) Mollusca
Lion 120 days Tiger 103 days
6. Balanoglossus Non-chordata and
Whale 365 days Squirrel 40 days
(Chordata) Chordata
Human 280 days Dog 61 days
7. Dipnoi (Lung Pisces and
Biological Evolution fish) Amphibia
8. Archaeopteryx Reptiles and Aves
Origin of life
(Aves)
•• Life orginated on Earth 3.5 billion years ago.
•• First scientific account of origin of life
9. Prototheria Reptiles and
was given by AI Oparin. (Mammalia) Mammalia
•• Primitive atmosphere contained hydrogen, Plant Kingdom
methane, ammonia and water vapour.
Features of Plants
•• Primitive atmosphere was reduing.
•• Most of the plants are eukaryotic and
This was proposed by Miller and crey
chlorophyll containing organisms.
in 1953.
•• Cell walls of plant cells are comprised of
•• Evidences from morphology
cellulose.
and anatomy
•• They have an ability to grow by cell
Homologous Organs:
division.
•• The organs which are similar in
•• In life cycle of plant cells, the
structure and origin but dissimilar in
interchanges occur from the embryos
function. Eg- cats paw, wings of bat.
and are supported by other tissues and
•• They show divergent evolution.
self produce.
Analogous Organs •• Plants have both organs and organ
systems.
•• The organs which are similar in shape
•• They obtain their energy from sun
and function but dissimilar in their
through photosynthesis.
origin and development e.g., wings of
•• Plants reproduce both by sexual and
insect, birds and bats.
asexual modes.
•• They are convergent evolution.
•• Plants develop a self defense mechanism
Vestigeal Organs to protect them from being destroyed by
•• These are non-functional organs. which animals, fungi and other plants.
were functional earlier. Eg- Vermiform •• Organisms within Kingdom Plantae
appendix. are multicellular, eukaryotic and
Intermediate Link between two autotrophic.
groups of Organisms •• They lack motility.

Organism Connecting Link

Between
PTERIDOPHYTES
1. Proterospongia Protozoa and
(Protozoa) Porifera
2. Euglena Plants and animals
(Protozoa)

Vitamin B complex is a dietary supplement that delivers all eight of the B vitamins.
 GK-74
Bryophytes
•• Bryophytes are also called amphibians
of the plant kingdom because these
plants can live in soil but are dependent
on water for sexual reproduction. They
usually occur in damp, humid and
shaded localities.
•• Species of Sphagnum, a moss, provide
peat that have long been used as fuel,
and because of their capacity to hold
water they are used as packing material
for trans-shipment of living material.
Pteridophytes
•• Evolutionarily, they are the first
terrestrial plants to possess vascular
tissues – xylem and phloem.
•• The main plant body is a sporophyte
which is differentiated into true root,
stem and leaves. These organs possess
well-differentiated vascular tissues
Examples are Psilotum, Equisetum,
Dryopteris, Marsilea, etc.
Gymnosperms
•• G ymnosperms are plants which bear
naked seeds i.e. the ovules and the
seeds that develop from these ovules
after fertilization are not enclosed in
fruit wall.
•• Roots have fungal association in the form
of mycorrhiza (Pinus), while in some
other (Cycas) small specialised roots
called coralloid roots are associated
with N2– fixing cyanobacteria.
Angiosperms (Flowering Plants)
••
Angiosperms are
Animal Kingdom
Unicellular Animals
Protozoa
It lacks cell wall,
egs. Amoeba,
Euglena,
Trypanosoma,
Giardia,
Paramecium,
Plasmodium
All humans develop a tail in the womb that eventually dissolves.
GENERAL SCIENCE
flowering vascular plants in which
seeds are enclosed in fruits.
•• The flower is the most characteristic
structure of the angiosperms. The male
sex organ in a flower is the stamen.
Each stamen consists of a slender
filament with an anther at the tip. The
anthers, following meiosis, produce
pollen grains.
•• The female sex organ in a flower is the
pistil or the carpel. Pistil consists of
an ovary enclosing one to many ovules.
Within ovules are present highly
reduced female gametophytes termed
as embryo sacs.
•• Each embryo-sac has a seven-celled
egg apparatus – one egg cell and two
synergids, three antipodal cells and
two polar nuclei. The polar nuclei
eventually fuse to produce a diploid
secondary nucleus.
•• Pollen grain, after dispersal from the
anthers, are carried by wind or various
other agencies to the stigma of a pistil.
This is termed as pollination.
•• The pollen tubes enter the embryo-
sac where two male gametes are
discharged. One of the male gametes
fuses with the egg cell to form a zygote
(syngamy).
•• The other male gamete fuses with the
diploid secondary nucleus to produce
the triploid primary endosperm
nucleus (PEN). Because of the
involvement of two fusions, this event
is termed as double fertilisation, and
seed bearing, event unique to angiosperms.
KINGDOM ANIMALIA
Multicellular Animals
Metazoa
Invertebrates Vertebrates
(No Backbone) (Backbone)
Sponges Fishes
Coelenterates Amphibians
Worms Reptiles
Anthropods Birds
Mollusca Mammals
Echinoderms
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-75

Introduction Phylum-Mollusca
Animals are the most diverse groups •• T hey are aquatic (marine or fresh
of organisms. They are Multicellular, water), or terrestrial having an organ-
system level of organisation.
heterotrophs characterised by mobility, •• Ex. Pila, Octopus (devil fish), Loligo (sea
sensory and nervous systems. squid).
Phylum-Porifera Phylum-Echinodermata
•• S ponges are aquatic, mostly marine, •• A ll existing echinoderms are marine,
solitary or colonial and sessile. generally live at sea bottom.
•• Ex. Asterias (star fish), Cucumaria
•• Examples of some sponges are : Sycon
(commonly called as sea cucumber),
(scypha), Spongilla (fresh water Antedon (water lily or feather star).
sponge) and Euspongia (bath sponge).
Phylum-Hemichordata
Phylum-Coelenterata (Cnidaria) •• They are bilaterally symmetrical,
•• All are aquatic and are mostly marine triploblastic, and enterocoelous animals.
(exception-Hydra are found in fresh- •• Ex. Balanoglossus (acorn worm or
water), solitary or colonial, sessile, tongue worm), Saccoglossus.
or free-swimming and radially
symmetrical animals. Phylum-Chordata
•• Example-Physalia (Portuguese man •• T he fundamental four characters
of war), Adamsia (Sea anemone), of phylum chordata are presence of
Pennatula (Sea-pen), Gorgonia (Sea- notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve
fan) and Meandrina (Brain coral). cord, paired pharyngeal gill slits and
post anal tail either in the embryonic or
Phylum-Ctenophora adult stage.
•• These are diploblastic, radial symmetrical •• Examples: Herdmania (sea squirt),
animals with tissue level of organization. Branchiostoma.
•• Examples–Hormiphora (sea walnut), Subphylum Vertebrata is Divided
Pleurobranchia (sea gooseberry), Cestum
(venus girdle), Beroe. into Two Sections
Phylum-Platyhelminthes Section 1 Agnatha (jawless
•• T hese are mostly endoparasites, bilateral vertebrates)
symmetrical, triploblastic and acoelomate Class : Cyclostomata
animals with organ level of organisation. •• M outh jawless suctorial and round.
•• Examples– Taenia (Tape worm), Fasciola •• All living members are ectoparasites on
(liver fluke).
some fishes.
Phylum-Aschelminthes •• Ex. Petromyzon (lamprey), Myxine (hag
•• T
hey may be free-living, aquatic and fish).
terrestrial or parasitic in plants and Section 2 Gnathostomata (jawed
animals. vertebrates)
•• Examples: Ascaris (Round worm), Wuchereria
(filarial worm), Ancylostoma (Hook worm), Superclass : Pisces (Bear fins)
Enterobius (Pin worm). Class : Chondrichthyes
Phylum-Annelida •• They have a cartilagenous skeleton.
•• It is characterised by metameric •• Some of them possess electric organs
segmentation forming ring like segments. e.g. Torpedo.
•• Example: Neries, Pheretima (Earthworm) •• Examples: Scoliodon (Dog fish), Trygon
and Hirudinaria (Blood sucking leech). (Sting ray).
Phylum-Arthropoda Class : Osteichthyes
•• T hey are bilateral symmetry, triploblastic •• T hey have a bony skeleton.
animals, which have organ-system level •• Examples : Marine – Exocoetus (Flying
of organisation. fish), Hippocampus (Sea horse), Lophius
•• Example: Apis (Honey bee), Bombyx (Angler fish), Fresh water fishes – Labeo
(Silkworm), Laccifer (Lac insect). (Rohu), Catla (Katla).
Cigarette smoke contain chemicals that interfere with the filtering of air as it produces mucus and toxic substances resulting in congestion of the lungs.
 GK-76 GENERAL SCIENCE
Superclass : Tetrapoda (Bear Limbs) Class: Aves
Class : Amphibia irds are bipedal feathered animals.
•• B
•• Adapted for both water and land life. •• E
ndoskeleton is fully ossified (bony) and
•• They are oviparous and development the long bones are hollow with air cavities
(pneumatic).
is indirect through distinct larval stage Examples : Corvus (crow), Pavo (Peacock).
called tadpole. Exambles : Bufo (Toad),
Rana (Frog), Hyla (Tree frog), Salamandra Class: Mammalia
(Salamander), Ichthyophis (Limbless •• T hese are warm blooded (homio-
amphibia). thermous) animals having hair and
Class: Reptilia mammary glands.
•• T
he class name refers to their creeping •• They are viviparous with few
or crawling mode of locomotion. exceptions and development is direct.
•• They are oviparous; Development is Example : Oviparous – Tachyglossus =
direct. Echidna (spiny Anteater). Viviparous –
Examples: Crocodilus (Crocodile), Pteropus (Flying fox), Camelus (Camel).
Bangarus (Krait)
Disease and Defence Mechanism
DISEASES CAUSED BY PROTOZOA:
Disease Affected organ Parasites Carrier Symptoms
1. Malaria RBC & Liver Plasmodium Female Anopheles Fever with shivering
Sleeping
2. Brain Trypanosoma Tse-Tse flies Fever with severe sleep
sickness
Mucous & diarrhoea with
3. Diarrhoea Intestine Entamoeba histolytica –
blood
4. Kala-azar Bone marrow Leishmania donovani Sandfly High fever
Diarrhoea,
5. Giardiasis Small intestine Giardia lambia –
abdominal pain
Entamoeba Abdominal pain,
6. Amoebiasis Large intestine –
histolytica diarrhoea
FUNGAL DISEASES Disease Pathogen
Disease Pathogen Ringworm Trichophyton
Aspergillosis Aspergillus fumigatus Blastomycosis Blastomyces dermatitidis
Candidiasis Candida albicans Sporotrichosis Sporothrix Schenckii

DISEASES CAUSED BY BACTERIA:

Disease Affected organ Name of Bacteria Symptoms
Tetanus Nervous system Clostridium Tetani High fever, spasm in body,
Closing of jaws etc.
Cholera Intestine Vibrio cholerae Continuous stool and vomiting
Typhoid Intestine Salmonella typhi High fever, headache

Tuberculosis Lungs Mycobacterium Repeated coughing

tuberculosis
Diphtheria Respiratory tube Corynebacterium Difficulty in respiration and
diphtheriae suffocation
Plague Lungs, area between Pasteurella pestis Very high fever, eruptions on
the two legs the body
In chloride shift exchange of chloride and carbonate occurs between the plasma and the erythrocytes during exchange
of O2 and CO2 .
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-77

Whooping Respiratory system Bordetella pertussis Continuous coughing

cough
Pneumonia Lungs Diplococcus High fever, swelling in lungs
pneumoniae
Leprosy Nervous System, Skin Mycobacterium leprae Spots on body, nerves affected

DISEASES CAUSED BY VIRUSES

Disease Affected organ Name of Virus Symptoms
1. AIDS Defensive system HIV Immune system of body
(WBC) become weak
2. Dengue fever Whole body particularly Dengue virus Pain in eyes, muscles, head
head, eyes and joints and joints
3. Polio Throat, backbone nerve Piliovirus Fever, body pain, backbone
and intestine cells are
destroyed
4. Influenza (flu) Whole body Influenza virus Suffocation, sneezing,
restlessness
5. Chicken pox Whole body Varicella Zoster Fever, reddish eruption on
body
6. Small pox Whole body Variola virus High fever, eruption of rash
on body
7. Measles Whole body Rubeola virus Reddish eruptions on body
8. Rabies Nervous system Rabies virus The patient becomes mad
with sever headache and
high fever
9. Herpes Skin Herpes Swelling of skin
10. Avian flu Whole body H5N1 Virus Pain in muscle, fever,
running nose
11. Swine flu Respiratory system H1N1 Cough, fatigue, headache
12. German Whole body Rubella Virus Red rash, fever, headache
measles
Immunity during life is known as acquired
he term immunity refers to the
•• T immunity.
specific resistance exhibited by the host Antibody Mediated Immunity
towards infections by micro-organisms •• B
cells produce specialized proteins
(pathogens) and their products.
called antibodies (immunoglobulins)
Innate or Natural Immunity which are glycoproteins.
•• Innate immunity is developed in an Classification of Antibodies :
individual without having the disease (a) Ig A – Protects from inhaled or ingested
or immunization, e.g., sweat glands pathogens.
contain certain chemical substances (b) Ig D – Present on lymphocyte surface as
which prevent the entry of micro- receptors, activation of B cells.
organisms. (c) Ig E – Mediator in allergic response.
•• It is present from birth.
(d) Ig G – Stimulation of phagocytes and
Acquired Immunity complement system, passive immunity
•• T
he resistance against infectious to foetus.
disease that an individual acquires (e) Ig M – Activation of B cells.
Synovial fluid is present in the cavities of synovial joints, reduces the friction between the synovial joints.
 GK-78
MERS : Middle East Respiratory Syn-
drome.
•• MERS is new viral disease related to
respiratory system.
•• Symptoms are fever, cough and
shortness of breath.
•• Affected countries in Middle East
include Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Kuwait,
Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia
and UAE.
SARS : Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
(SARS) is caused by coronavirus called,
SARS-CoV.
•• First time this disease was reported
in November 2002 in Guangdong
Province, China.
•• It begins with high fever, headache
and overall feeling of discomfort, and
bodyaches.
Ebola: Ebola hemorrhagic fever (Ebola
HF) is a severe & fatal disease in humans,
monkeys, gorillas, and chimpanzees.
•• It is caused by Ebola virus, named
after the Ebola River found in Congo.
Ebola spreads through direct contact
(through broken skin or unprotected
mucous membranes in, for example, the
eyes, nose, or mouth).
•• Symptoms are fever, headache, joint
and muscle aches, sore throat, and
weakness, followed by diarrhoea,
vomiting, and stomach pain.
Zika : Zika virus is a mosquito-borne virus
transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes.
•• The virus was first identified in 1947 in
Uganda and its name has been derived
from Zika Forest.
Transmission : Zika virus is transmitted by
Aedes aegypti mosquitoes.
Most common symptoms : Headache,
muscle and joint pain, mild fever, rash,
pinkeye and inflammation of the underside
of the eyelid.
Linkages: It causes neurological disorders and
foetal deformation known as Microcephaly
in which infants are born with abnormally
smaller heads that can cause brain damage.
AIDS :
•• Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS) is caused by Human Deficiency
Virus (HIV) which destroys the CD4
cells that are essential for the body
immune symptoms.
•• HIV is transmitted (spread) through the
blood, semen, genital fluids, or breast
milk of a person infected with HIV.
Cornea of the eye is an only tissue that don’t have blood.
GENERAL SCIENCE
•• Unprotected sex and sharing of drug
injection equipment with the person
infected with HIV are the most common
ways of HIV transmission.
•• It takes many years to develop the HIV
symptoms but the HIV infected person
can spread the virus at any stage of HIV
infection.
•• 1st December is also remembered as
World AIDS day globally people unite
together to fight against HIV showing
support to the people infected with HIV.
DIABETES
Diabetes is a long-term condition
caused by too much glucose (sugar) in
the blood. There are two main types of
diabetes
Type 1
Diabetes occurs when the body doesn’t
produce enough insulin to function
properly or the body cells don’t react
to insulin. This is known as insulin
resistance.
Type 2
Diabetes is a far more common than
type 1 diabetes, which occurs when the
body doesn’t produce any insulin at all.
Symptoms
Symptoms common to both types of
diabetes include
(i) Feeling very thirsty
(ii) Urinating frequently, particularly at
night
(iii) Feeling very tired
(iv) Weight loss and loss of muscle bulk
Rabies
Rabies is a viral disease which is endemic
in most African and Asian countries and it
affects the central nervous system of warm
blooded animals, including human.
•• This fatal zoonotic viral disease
transmitted to human through contact
(mainly bites and scratches) with
infected animals both domestic and
wild.
•• Clinical signs of rabies in animals vary
depending on the effect of the virus on
the brain.

GENERAL SCIENCE
•• Typical signs include sudden
behavioural changes and progressive
paralysis leading to death.
Dengue
Dengue fever occurs through 1 to 4 types of
dengue virus.
•• It is spread by the bite of an infected
dengue mosquito (Aedes aegypti).
•• It is characterized by high fever lasting
3-7 days, frontal headache, pain behind
the eyes and muscle joint pain and rash
on skin.
•• There is no specific treatment for
Dengue fever till now.
Chikungunya
Chikungunya fever is a viral illness caused
by an arbovirus transmitted by the Aedes
mosquitoes.
•• Chikungunya disease does not often
result in death, but the symptoms can be
severe and disabling. Symptoms appear
after 3-7 days after being infected by
the virus.
•• Most common symptom is fever, joint
pain and headache.
Common Heart Diseases
Coronary artery disease or arthro-
sclerosis: In this disorder the deposi-
tion of calcium, fat, cholesterol and fibrous
tissue occur in coronary arteries which
makes the lumen of arteries narrower and
thereby affect the blood supply.
Angina (angina pectoris): Angina is an
acute chest pain due to oxygen deficiency to
heart muscles. It also occurs due to oxygen
deficiency in heart muscles. It occurs due to
improper blood flow. It is common among
middle-aged and elderly person.
Heart Failure (congestive heart
failure): It is the condition in which heart
is not pumping blood enough to meet the
needs of the body. Congestion of the lung is
the main symptom.
Arteriosclerosis: It is the state of
hardening of arteries and arterioles due
to thickening of the fibrous tissue and
consequent loss of elasticity. It leads to
hypertension.
Common Lung Diseases
Asthma: It is a disease caused due to an
allergic reaction to foreign substances that
affect the respiratory tract.
Ear bone (auditory ossicle) consists of three bones namely malleus, incus and stapes. They are considered as smallest bone.
EBD_7242
GK-79
•• In people with asthma, the walls of these
airways become inflamed (swollen) and
oversensitive.
•• The airways overreact to things like
smoke, air pollution, mold, and many
chemical sprays.
•• Bronchioles can constrict (narrow)
because of muscle spasms.
Bronchitis (Inflammation of the
Bronchi): A condition where the bronchi
and bronchioles get inflamed and their
cavities become narrow so that air cannot
pass in and out of lungs easily.
•• The bronchial pathway gets blocked
with the accumulation of mucus on
the wall of bronchi due to which
inflammation of the wall occur.
•• Bronchitis occurs due to smoking and
exposure to air pollutant like carbon
monoxide.
Common Brain Diseases
Epilepsy: Epilepsy is a condition where
a person has recurrent seizures, abnormal
discharge of electrical activity in the brain
cells which may give rise to abnormal
behaviour such as involuntary muscle
movements, unusual perceptions and
disturbed level of consciousness.
•• Epilepsy can occur due to brain injury,
brain tumor, chemical abnormalities
and alcohol or drug effects.
Loss of Consciousness: Faintness
includes the sensation of dizziness
lightheadedness and weakness.
•• The majority of attack is due to altered
reflex affecting cardiac rate, vascular
tone and some time due to severe
cardiac disturbances.
Cancer : Cancer is a complex genetic disease
which occurs due to the environmental factors.
•• Cancer causing agent (carcinogen) may
be present in food and water, in air,
sunlight and in chemicals.
Nutrients
Carbohydrate
•• 50-75% energy is obtained by oxidation
of carbohydrate.
•• Types of carbohydrate :
(1) Monosaccharide : E.g, triose, tetrose
(2) Oligosaccharide : E.g, Maltose, sucrose
(3) Polysaccharide: E.g, starch, glycogen
 GK-80 GENERAL SCIENCE
Protein Fats
•• 15% of human body is made up of •• Adult person should get 20-30% of
protein energy from fat.
•• Nitrogen is essential for protein •• Types of fats: (1) Saturated – E.g,
synthesis. coconut oil.
•• 20 types of amino acid are necessary (2) Unsaturated – E.g., Fish oil,
for human body, out of which 12 are vegetable oil.
synthesized by body itself. •• 9.3 kilo caloric energy is liberated from
1 gram of fat.
BALANCE DIET CHART
Adult Male Adult Female Children Boy Girl

Edibles 1-3 4-6 10-18 10-16

N1 M2 Hard3 N1 M2 Hard3
yrs. yrs. yrs. yrs.
Grain
400 g 520 g 670 g 410 g 440 g 575 g 175 g 270 g 420 g 380 g
(wheat, rice)

Pulses 40 g 50g 60 g 40 g 45 g 50 g 35 g 35 g 45 g 45 g

Leafy
40 g 40 g 40 g 100 g 100 g 50 g 40 g 50 g 50 g 50 g
vegetables
Vegetables
60 g 70 g 80 g 40 g 40 g 100 g 20 g 30 g 50 g 50 g
(other)

Milk 150 g 200 g 250 g 100 g 150 g 200 g 300 g 250 g 250 g 250 g

Tuber root 50 g 60 g 80 g 50 g 50 g 60 g 10 g 20 g 30 g 30 g

Sugar 30 g 35 g 55 g 20 g 20 g 40 g 30 g 40 g 45 g 45 g

Fat and Oil 40 g 45 g 65 g 20 g 25 g 40 g 15 g 25 g 40 g 35 g

Note: N1 = Normal work, M2 = Medium work and H3 = Hard physical work

Calorie Need of a Human Being
Nature of work Male Female
1. Light worker 2000 calorie 2100 calorie
2. Hard worker 3600 calorie 3000 calorie
3. Eight hours worker 3000 calorie 2500 calorie

Biology in Human Welfare Poultry Farming

•• P
oultry is rearing of domesticated fowls,
Animal Husbandry ducks, geese, turkeys, guinea fowls and
It deals with the care, breeding & pigeons.
management of domesticated animals that ••
Poultry birds exclusively grown for
are useful to humans. meat are called broilers.

Diabetes costs $174 billion annually, including $ 116 billion in direct medical expenses.

GENERAL SCIENCE
•• Chickens raised for eggs are called
layers.
Fisheries
•• P isciculture is the rearing, breeding
and catching of fishes.
•• Aquaculture is rearing and management
of useful aquatic plants and animals like
fishes, oysters, and prawns etc.
Apiculture
•• A piculture is rearing and breeding
of honeybees for the production of
honey. It also produces beeswax and
bee pollen. Beeswax is used for the
preparation of cosmetics and polishes
of various kinds.
•• The commonest species of honeybee is
Apis indica.
Animal Breeding
Animal breeding is the production of
new breeds of domesticated animals
with improved traits. Breeding is the
Crop Variety
Wheat Himgiri
Cauliflower Pusa Snowball
K-1, Pusa Shubra
Brassica Pusa Swarnim (Karan rai)
Cowpea Pusa Komal
Chilli Pusa
Sadabahar
Table : Crop varieties bred by hybridization
and selection for disease resistance to fungi,
bacteria and viral disease.
•• Examples of insect pest resistance crops
bred by hybridization are
(i) Pusa Gaurav variety of Brassica is
resistant to aphids.
(ii) Pusa Sawani and Pusa A-4
varieties of Okra (Bhindi) are
resistant to shoot and fruit borer.
(iii) Pusa Sem 2 and Pusa Sem 3
varieties of flat bean are resistance
to aphids and fruit borer.
Biotechnology and its Application
•• I t deals with large scale production and
marketing of products and processes
using living organism cells or enzymes.
Humans lack the enzymes needed to digest cellulose.
EBD_7242
GK-81
modification of genotype of an organism to
make that organism more useful to human.
Inbreeding: Mating between the closely
related animals of same breed.
Out-breeding: Mating between the animals
which are not closely related.
Out-crossing: Mating between the animals
of the same breed which do not have a
common ancestor.
Cross-breeding: Mating between the
superior animals of different breeds of the
same species.
MOET (Multiple Ovulation Embryo
Transfer) technique is a programme
which improves the chances of successful
production of hybrids.
Plant Breeding
•• P
lant breeding refers to the modification
and improvement of genetic material
of plants resulting in the development
of crops which are more beneficial to
human beings.
Resistance to diseases
Hill bunt, leaf and stripe rust
Blight black rot, Black rot and curl
White rust
Bacterial blight
Chilly mosaic virus, tobacco mosaic
virus and leaf curl.
This technology has application in
agriculture, food processing industry,
bioremediation, medicine diagnostics,
waste treatment and energy production.
•• Biotechnology deals with:
¾¾ Microbe-mediated processes
(making curd, bread, wine etc.)
¾¾ In vitro fertilization (‘test tube’
baby programme)
¾¾ Synthesis and use of gene
¾¾ Preparation of a DNA vaccine
¾¾ Correcting a defective gene
Medical Discoveries
Discovery Discoveres
Antibiotic (Penicillin) Alexander Fleming
Antiseptic Joseph Lister
 GK-82 GENERAL SCIENCE
Aspirin Dr Felix Hoffmann Heart Transplant Christian Barnard
Blood Circulation William Harvey Kidney Machine W. J. Kolff
Blood Group K. Landsteiner Malaria Germs A. Laveran
Blood Transfusion Jean-Baptiste Denys Organ Transplant John P. Merril
Cholera and TB Germs Robert Koch
Scan (CAT) Godfrey Hounsfield
Diphtheria Germs Klebs and Loffler
Sphygomomanometer Scipione Riva-Rocci
Electro cardiogram William Einthoven
(ECG) Stethoscope Rene Laennec
Heart-Lung Machine John Heysham Thermometer (Clinical) Sir Thomas Allbutt
Gibbon
Ultrasound Ian Donald
Hypodermic Syringe Alexander Wood
X-ray W. Roentgen

VACCINES AND THEIR DOSES

Age Vaccination Dose

1. 16 years Tetanus, TAB Booster dose
2. 10 years Tetanus, TAB (typhoid) Booster dose
3. 5-6 years `` DT (Bivalent Vaccine against `` Booster dose
diphtheria and tetanus) `` Tow doses at
`` TAB (vaccine against Salmonella intervals of 1-2
typhi, S. paratyphi A and S paratyphi months
B) or Typhoid Paratyphoid vaccine
4. 8-24 `` DPT `` Booster dose
months `` Polio (oral) `` Booster dose
`` Cholera vaccine (can be repeated `` One
every year before summer)
5. 9-15 `` Measles vaccine (MMR or Measles, `` One dose
months Mumps and Rubella)
6. Birth `` DPT (triple vaccine, against diptheira, `` Three doses
to 12 whooping cough/pertussis and (commonly oral)
months tetanus) at intervals of 4-6
`` Polio (Sabin’s oral, previously Salk’s weeks.
injectible) `` Three doses at
`` BCG (Bacillus Calmette Guerin) intervals of 4-6
weeks.
`` Intradermal and
one vaccine

SOME ANTIBIOTICS WITH THEIR SOURCE AND ACTION

Antibiotics Source Action

1. Nystatin Streptomyces noursei Antifungal for Candidiasis and
overgrowth of intestinal Fungi
during excessive antibiotic
treatment.
2. Griseofulvin Penicillium griseofulvum Antifungal especially for
Ringworm.

Pigs don’t have sweat glands, so they roll in mud to stay cool.
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-83

3. Penicillin Penicillium Tonsilitis, Sore Throat, Gonorrhea,

chrysogenum, P notatum Rheumatic Fever, some
+ Phenyl Acetic Acid Pneumonia types
4. Hamycin Streptomyces pimprina Antifungal Antibiotic
5. Fumagillin Aspergillus fumigatus Broad spectrum antibacterial
especially against Salmonella and
Shigella
6. Bacitracin Bacillus licheniformis Syphilis, Lymphonema or
Reticulosis
7 Streptomycin Streptomyces griseus Meningitis, Pneumonia,
Tuberculosis and Local Infection.
8. Chloramphenical Streptomyces Typhoid, Typhus, Whooping
Chloromycetin venezuelae, S. cough. Atypical Pneumonia,
lavendulae Bacterial Urinary Infections.
9. Tetracyclines/ Streptomyces Viral pneumonia, Osteomyelitis,
Aureomycin aureofaciens Whooping Cough. Eye infections.
10. Oxytetracycline/ Chlorotetracycline Intestinal and Urinary Infections
Terramycin Hydrogenation (Spirochaetes, Rickettsia, Viruses)
Streptomyces rimosus
11. Erythromycin Streptomyces erythreus Typhoid, Common Pneumonia,
Diphtheria, Whooping Cough, etc.
12. Gentamycin Micromonospora Effective against Gram (+)
purpurea bacteria
13. Polymixin Bacillus Polymyxa Antifungal

SOME ORGANIC ACIDS AND THEIR SOURCE

S.No. Micro organism Organic Acid
1. Acetic acid (vinegar) Acetobactor aceti
2. Lactic acid Lactobacillus delbreukii, L bulgaricus, Streptococcus
lactis
3. Citric acid Aspergillus niger, Penicillium sp and Mucor sp.
4. Gluconic acid Aceobacter aceti, Aspergillus niger
5. Propionic acid Propionibacterium
6. Butyric acid Clostridium acetobutylicum
7. Oxalic acid Aspergillus sp.
8. Gallic acid Aspergillus niger
9. Some amino acids Escherichia coli

Edward Jenner discovered vaccination and Pasteur invented vaccines

 GK-84 GENERAL SCIENCE
BRANCHES OF SCIENCE
Branch Study Branch Study
Acarology study of mites Emetology study of vomiting
Adenology study of glands Emmenology the study of
Angiology study of blood flow and menstruation
lymphatic system Endocrinology study of ductless glands
Apiology study of bees Entomology study of insects
Arthrology study of joints Entozoology study of parasites
Astheniology study of diseases of that live inside larger
weakening and aging organisms
Auxology science of growth Epidemiology study of diseases;
epidemics
Barology study of gravitation
Euthenics science concerned
Biometrics study of biological
with improving living
measurement
conditions
Bromatology study of food
Geochemistry study of chemistry of
Ctetology study of the
the earth’s crust
inheritance of acquired
Geogony study of formation of
characteristics
the earth
Cacogenics study of racial
Geology study of earth’s crust
degeneration
Geoponics study of agriculture
Carcinology study of cards and
Graminology study of grasses
other crustaceans
Gynaecology study of women’s
Carpology study of fruits and seeds physiology
Catacoustics science of echoes or Halieutics study of fishing
reflected sounds Helminthology study of worms
Cetology study of whales and Hematology study of blood
dolphins Hepatology study of liver
Chemistry study of properties of Herpetology study of reptiles and
substances amphibians
Chirography study of handwriting or Histology study of the tissues of
penmanship organisms
Cosmology study of the universe Horology science of time
Craniology study of the skull measurement
Dactylography the study of fingerprints Horticulture study of gardening
Dactylology study of sign language Hyetology science of rainfall
Demography study of population. Hygienics study of sanitation;
Demology study of human health
behaviour Hygiastics science of health and
Dermatology study of skin hygiene
Ecology study of environment Hypnology study of sleep; study of
Edaphology study of soils hypnosis

Male produce the smallest human cell – the sperm and female produce the largest human cell → the egg or ovum.
 EBD_7242
GENERAL SCIENCE GK-ϴϱ

Branch Study Branch Study

Insectology study of insects Neonatology study of newborn
Ichthyology study of fish babies
Irenology the study of peace Nephology study of clouds
Kalology study of beauty Nephrology study of the kidneys
Kinematics study of motion Obstetrics study of midwifery
Kinetics study of forces Odontology study of teeth
producing or changing Oncology study of tumours
motion Oology study of eggs
Karyology study of cell nuclei Optics study of light
Laryngology study of larynx Ornithology study of birds
Lepidopterology study of butterflies and Osteology study of bones
moths Otology study of the ear
Leprology study of leprosy Paedology study of children
Magnanerie art of raising silkworms Palaeontology study of fossils
Magnetics study of magnetism Parasitology study of parasites
Malacology study of molluscs Pathology study of disease
Malariology study of malaria Pharmacology study of drugs
Mammalogy study of mammals Physiology study of processes of
Mastology study of mammals or life
mammary glands or Psychology study of mind
breast diseases Pyretology study of fevers
Meteoritics study of meteors Rheumatology study of rheumatism
Meteorology study of weather Radiology study of X-rays and their
Metrology science of weights and medical applications.
measures Seismology study of earthquakes
Microbiology study of microscopic Sociology study of society
organisms Tectonics science of structure of
Microclimatology study of local climates objects, buildings and
Microphytology study of very small land forms
plant life Toxicology study of poisons
Morphology study of forms and Urology study of urine; urinary
the development of tract
structures Virology study of viruses
Myology study of muscles Xylology study of wood
Magirics art of cookery Zoiatrics veterinary surgery
Nasology study of the nose Zoology study of animals

Fertilization is most possible when the female is at the middle of her menstrual cycle. It is when the hormones promoting pregnancy
are at their peak.
 GK-86
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
•• Why on mixing salt to water the level
of water remain same?
The matter is made up of particle. When
we dissolve particle of salt it occupies
the space between the particles of water.
••
Why is carbon dioxide used in
extinguishing fire?
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is heavier than
oxygen, (O2). So it makes a blanket and
do not allow oxygen to come in contact
for combustion.
••
Evaporation takes place at lower
temperature around 60°C & above,
but boiling takes place at 100°C. why?
Evaporation is a surface phenomenon,
occurs only in the upper part of water
but boiling is a bulk phenomenon.
•• Why number of (white blood cell or
WBC) should be maintained?
Normally the count of WBC in normal
human body is 4500 to 11000 per mg.
But its increase will lead to leukaemia
and decrease may decrease the
immunity which may lead to HIV.
•• Why head injury is more vulnerable?
The head cells are basically neuron
cells, which are specialized cells, which
do not regenerate.
•• Who will possibly learn swimming
faster-a fat person or thin person ?
The fat person displaces more water
which will help him float much more
freely compared to a thin person.
•• Why is a flash of lightning seen
before thunder?
As light travels faster than sound, it
reaches the Earth before the sound of
thunder.
•• Why cannot a fire caused by petrol
be extinguished by water?
Water, which is heavier than petrol,
slips down permitting the petrol to
rise to the surface and continue to
burn. Besides, the existing temperature
is so high that the water poured on
GENERAL SCIENCE
the fire evaporates even before it can
extinguish the fire. The latter is true if
a small quantity of water is poured.
•• Why does water remain cold in an
earthen pot?
There are pores in an earthen pot which
allow water to percolate to the outer
surface. Here evaporation of water
takes place thereby producing a cooling
effect.
•• Why do we place a wet cloth on the
forehead of a patient suffering from
high fever?
Because of the body temperature,
water evaporating from the wet cloth
produces a cooling effect and brings the
temperature down.
•• When a needle is placed on a small piece
of blotting paper which is placed on
the surface of clean water, the blotting
paper sinks after a few minutes but the
needle floats. However, in a soap
solution the needle sinks. Why?
The surface tension of clean water
being higher than that of a soap
solution, it can support the weight
of a needle. By addition of soap, the
surface tension of water reduces,
thereby resulting in the sinking of the
needle.
•• To prevent multiplication of mosquitoes,
it is recommended to sprinkle oil in
the ponds with stagnant water. Why?
Mosquitoes breed in stagnant water.
The larvae of mosquitoes keep floating
on the surface of water due to surface
tension. However, when oil is sprinkled,
the surface tension is lowered resulting
in drowning and death of the larvae.
•• How does oil rise on a cloth tape of
an oil lamp?
The pores in the cloth tape suck oil due
to the capillary action of oil.
•• How are ventilators in a room always
made near the roof?

GENERAL SCIENCE
The hot air being lighter in weight
tends to rise above and escape from the
ventilators at the top. This allows the
cool air to come in the room to take its
place.
•• How does ink get filled in a fountain
pen?
When the rubber tube of a fountain pen
is immersed in ink it is pressed, the air
inside the tube comes out and when the
pressure is released the ink rushes in to
fill the air space in the tube.
•• Why are air coolers less effective
during the rainy season?
During the rainy reason the atmospheric
air is saturated with moisture. Therefore,
the process of evaporation of water from
the moist pads of the cooler slows down
thereby not cooling the air blown out
from the cooler.
•• Why does grass gather more dew in
nights than metallic objects such as
stones?
Grass being a good radiator enables
water vapour in the air to condense
on it. Moreover, grass gives out water
constantly (transpiration) which
appears in the form of dew because the
air near grass is saturated with water
vapour and slows evaporation. Dew
is formed on objects which are good
radiators and bad conductors.
•• If a lighted paper is introduced in a jar
filled with carbon dioxide, its flame is
extinguished. Why ?
Because carbon dioxide does not help
in burning. For burning oxygen is
required.
•• Why does the mass of an iron rod
increase on rusting? Because the air in between two ice walls
Because rust is hydrated ferric oxide
which adds to the mass of the iron rod.
The process of rusting involves addition
of hydrogen and oxygen elements to
iron.
•• Why does milk curdle?
Lactose (milk sugar) content of milk
undergoes fermentation and changes
EBD_7242
GK-ϴϳ
into lactic acid which on reacting with
milk protein (caesin), forms curd.
•• Why does hard water not lather soap
profusely?
Hard water contains sulphates and
chlorides of magnesium and calcium
which forms an insoluble compound
with soap. Therefore, soap does not
lather with hard water.
•• Why is it dangerous to have charcoal
fire burning in a closed room?
When charcoal burns it produces
carbon monoxide which is suffocating
and can cause death.
•• Why is it dangerous to sleep under
trees at night?
Plants respire at night and give out
carbon dioxide which reduces the
oxygen content of air under the trees
required for breathing.
•• Why does ENO’s salt effervesce on
addition of water?
It contains tartaric acid and sodium
bicarbonate. On adding water, carbon
dioxide is produced which when released
into water causes effervescence.
•• Why does milk turn sour?
The microbes react with milk and grow.
They turn lactose into lactic acid which
is sour in taste.
•• Why is a new quilt warmer than an
old one?
In the new quilt the cotton is not
compressed and it encloses more
air which is bad conductor of heat.
Therefore, it does not allow heat to
pass.
•• Eskimos live in double-walled ice
houses. Why?
does not allow heat to pass. Ultimately
they feel warmer in it compared to
environment
•• Curved rail tracks or curved roads
are banked or raised on one side.
Why?
Because a fast moving train or vehicle
leans inwards while taking turn and
 GK-88
the banked or raised track provides
required centripetal force to enable it to
move round the curve.
•• How do bats fly in dark?
When bats fly they produce ultrasonic
sound waves which are reflected back
to them from the obstacles in their
way and hence they can fly without
difficulty.
•• Water pipes often burst at hill
stations on cold frosty nights. Why?
The temperature at hill stations may
fall below 0°C during cold frosty nights
which converts the water inside the
pipes into ice, resulting in an increase
in volume. This exerts great force on the
pipes and as a result, they burst.
•• Why are white clothes more comfortable
in summer than dark or black ones?
White clothes are good reflectors and
bad absorbers of heat, whereas dark
or black clothes are good absorbers of
heat. Therefore, white clothes are more
comfortable because they do not absorb
heat from the sun rays.
•• Why does a rose appear red and
grass green in daylight?
Rose absorbs all the constituent colours
of white light except red which is
reflected to us. Similarly, grass absorbs
all colours except green which is
reflected to us.
•• Why does a ship rise as it enters the
sea from a river?
The density of sea water is high due
to impurities and salts compared to
river water. As a result, the upthrust
produced by the sea water on the ship
is more than that of river water.
•• Why are fuses provided in electric
installations?
A safety fuse is made of a wire of metal
having a very low melting point. When
excess current flows in, the wire gets
heated, melts and breaks the circuit.
By breaking the circuit it saves electric
equipment or installations from
damage by excessive flow of current.
GENERAL SCIENCE
•• Why is it easier to lift a heavy object
under water than in air?
Because when a body is immersed in
water, it experiences an upward thrust
(Archimedes’ Principle) and loses
weight equal to the weight of the water
displaced by its immersed portion, and
hence, is easier to lift objects.
•• If a highly pumped up bicycle tyre
is left in the hot sunlight, it bursts.
Why?
The air inside the tube increases in volume
when heated up. As sufficient space for
the expansion of the air is not available
because the tube is already highly
pumped, it may result in bursting of the
tyre.
•• What will be the colour of green
grass in blue light?
Grass will appear dark in colour
because it absorbs all other colours of
the light except its own green colour.
The blue light failing on grass will be
absorbed by it, and hence, it will appear
dark in colour.
•• Why do two eyes give better vision
than one?
Because two eyes do not form exactly
similar images and the fusion of these
two dissimilar images in the brain gives
three dimensions of the stereoscopic
vision.
•• Why do we bring our hands close
to the mouth while shouting at
someone far away?
By keeping hands close to mouth the sound
is not allowed to spread (phenomenon of
diffraction of sound) in all directions but
is directed to a particular direction and
becomes louder.
•• Why does a corked bottle filled with
water burst if left out on a frosty
night?
Because of low temperature the water
inside the bottle freezes. On freezing it
expands, thereby its volume increases
and pressure is exerted on the walls.

GENERAL SCIENCE
•• Why is a small gap left at the joint
between two rails?
To permit expansion of rails due to heat
generated by friction of a moving train.
•• Why cannot a copper wire be used to
make elements in electric heater?
Copper melts at 108.3°C and forms a black
powder on reacting with atmospheric
oxygen. For heater elements a metal
should have more resistance to produce
•• Why are water or mercury droplets
always round when dropped on a
clean glass?
The surface of a liquid is the seat of
a special force as a result of which
molecules on the surface are bound
together to form something like a
stretched membrane. They tend to
compress the molecules below to
the smallest possible volume which
causes the drop to take a round shape
as for a given mass the sphere has
minimum volume.
•• Why does a balloon filled with
hydrogen rise in air?
Weight of hydrogen is less than the
weight of air displaced by it. In balloons
hydrogen is normally filled because it is
lighter than air.
•• Why do we lean forward while
climbing a hill?
In order to keep the vertical line passing
through our centre of gravity always
between our feet, which is essential to
attain equilibrium or stability.
•• Why does smoke curl up in the air?
Smoke contains hot gases which being
lighter in weight, follows a curved path
because of the eddy currents that are
set up in the air.
•• Why does an electric bulb explode
when it is broken?
The bulb encompasses partial vacuum
and as it breaks, air rushes in causing a
small explosion.
•• Why does a man fall forward when
he jumps out of a running train or
bus?
EBD_7242
GK-89
He is in motion while in the train or bus.
When he jumps out, his feet comes to rest
while touching the ground but his upper
portion which is still in motion propels
him forward.
•• Why does an ordinary glass tumbler
crack when very hot tea or milk is poured
in it?
When a hot liquid is poured into a
tumbler, the inner layer of the tumbler
gets heated, it expands before the outer
layer and an unequal expansion of both
layers causes the tumbler to crack.
•• Why is a compass used as an indicator
of direction?
The magnetic needles of a compass under
the influence of the earth’s magnetic field
lie in a north-south direction. Hence, we
can identify direction.
•• Why is water from a hand pump
warm in winter and cold in summer?
In winter the outside temperature is
lower than that of water flowing out of
the pump, and therefore, the water is
warm. Whereas, in summer, the outside
temperature is higher than the water of
the pump, and therefore, it feels cold.
•• Why is a rainbow seen after a
shower?
After a shower the clouds containing
water droplets act like a prism through
which the white light is dispersed
producing a spectrum.
•• Why does a swimming pool appear less
deep than it actually is?
The rays of light coming from the bottom
of the pool pass from a denser medium
(water) to a rarer medium (air) and are
refracted (bend away from the normal).
When the rays return to the surface they
form an image of the bottom of the pool
at a point which is little above the real
position.
•• Why is one’s breath visible in winter
but not in summer?
In winter, water vapour contained in the
breath condenses into small droplets
which become visible but in summer
they are quickly evaporated and not seen.
 GK-90
•• Why the electric filament in an electric
bulb doesn’t burn up?
Firstly, because it is made of tungsten
which has a very high melting point
(3410°C) whereas the temperature of the
filament required to glow is only 2700°C.
Secondly, oxygen is absent since the bulb
is filled with an inert gas which does not
help in burning.
•• Why does blotting paper absorb ink?
Blotting paper has fine pores which
act like capillaries. When a portion of
blotting paper is brought in contact with
ink, ink enters the pores due to surface
tension (capillary action of liquids) and
is absorbed.
•• Why does a small ball of iron sink in
water but a large ship float?
The weight of water displaced by an
iron ball is less than its own weight,
whereas water displaced by the
immersed portion of a ship is equal to
its weight (Archimedes’ Principle).
•• Why does ice float on water?
The weight of the ice block is equal to
the weight of the liquid displaced by the
immersed portion of the ice
•• Why does moisture gather outside a
tumbler containing cold water?
The water vapour in the air condenses on
cooling and appears as droplets of water.
•• Why does kerosene float on water?
Because the density of kerosene is less
than that of water. For the same reason
cream rises in milk and floats at the top.
•• Why is the water in an open pond cool
even on a hot summer day?
As the water evaporates from the open
surface of a pond, heat is taken away in
the process, leaving the surface cool.
•• Why is it less difficult to cook rice or
potatoes at higher altitudes?
Atmospheric pressure at higher
altitudes is low and boils water below
100°C. The boiling point of water is
directly proportional to the pressure on
its surface.
GENERAL SCIENCE
•• W
hy is it difficult to breathe at higher
altitudes?
Because of low air pressure at higher
altitudes the quantity of air is less, and
so also that of oxygen.
•• Why are winter nights and summer
nights warmer during cloudy weather
than when the sky is clear?
Clouds being bad conductors of heat
do not permit radiation of heat from
land to escape into the sky. As this heat
remains in the atmosphere, the cloudy
nights are warmer.
•• Why is a metal tyre heated before it
is fixed on wooden wheels?
On heating, the metal tyre expands by
which its circumference also increases
This makes fixing the wheel easier and
thereafter cooling down shrinks it; thus
fixing the tyre tightly.
•• Why is it easier to swim in the sea
than in a river?
The density of sea water is higher;
hence the upthrust is more than that of
river water.
•• A man with a load jumps from a
high building. What will be the load
experience by him ?
Zero, because while falling, both the
man and the load are falling at the same
acceleration i.e. acceleration due to
gravity.
•• A piece of chalk when immersed in
water, emits bubbles. Why?
Chalk consists of pores forming
capillaries. When it is immersed in
water the water begins to rise in the
capillaries and air present there is
expelled in the form of bubbles.
•• Why does a liquid remain hot or
cold for a long time inside a thermos
flask?
The presence of air, a poor conductor of
heat, between the double glass wall of
a thermos flask, keeps the liquid hot or
cold inside a flask for a long time.
•• Why does a ball bounce upon falling?
When a ball falls, it is temporarily
deformed. Because of elasticity, the ball

GENERAL SCIENCE
tends to regain its original shape for
which it presses the ground and bounce
up (Newton’s Third Law of Motion).
•• Why is standing on boats or double
decker buses not allowed, particularly
on the upper deck of buses?
On tilting the centre of gravity of the
boat or bus is lowered and it is likely to
overturn.
•• Why is it recommended to add salt to
water while boiling dal?
By addition of salt, the boiling point
of water gets raised which helps in
cooking the dal sooner.
•• Why is the boiling point of sea water
more than that of pure water?
Sea water contains salt, and other
impurities which cause an elevation in
its boiling point.
•• Why is it easier to spray water to
which soap is added?
Addition of soap decreases the surface
tension of water. The energy for
spraying is directly proportional to
surface tension.
•• Which is more elastic, rubber or
steel?
Steel is more elastic for the same stress
produced compared with rubber.
•• Why is the sky blue?
Violet and blue light have short waves
which are scattered more than red
light waves. While red light goes almost
straight through the atmosphere.
Blue and violet light are scattered by
particles in the atmosphere. Thus, we
see a blue sky.
•• Why does ink leak out of partially
filled pen when taken to a higher
altitude?
As we go up, the pressure and density
of air goes on decreasing. A partially
filled pen leaks when taken to a higher
altitude because the pressure of air
acting on the ink inside the tube of the
pen is greater than the pressure of the
air outside.
EBD_7242
GK-91
•• On the Moon, will the weight of a
man be less or more than his weight
on the Earth?
The gravity of the moon is one-sixth
that of the earth; hence the weight of a
person on the surface of the moon will
be one-sixth of his actual weight on
earth.
•• Why do some liquids burn while
others do not?
A liquid burns if its molecules can
combine with oxygen in the air with the
production of heat. Hence, oil burns but
water does not.
•• Why can we see ourselves in a
mirror?
We see objects when light rays from
them reach our eyes. As mirrors have a
shiny surface, the light rays are reflected
back to us and enter our eyes.
•• Why does a solid chunk of iron sink
in water but floats in mercury?
Because the density of iron is more
than that of water but less than that of
mercury.
•• Why is cooking quicker in a pressure
cooker?
As the pressure inside the cooker
increases, the boiling point of water is
raised. Hence, the cooking process is
quicker.
•• When wood burns, it crackles.
Explain.
Wood contains a complex mixture of
gases and tar forming vapours trapped
under its surface. These gases and tar
vapours escape, making a crackling
sound.
•• Why do stars twinkle?
The light from a star reaches us after
refraction as it passes through various
layers of air. When the light passes
through the earth’s atmosphere, it is
made to flicker by the hot and cold
ripples of air and it appears as if the
stars are twinkling.
 GK-92
•• W hy is it easier to roll a barrel than
to pull it?
Because the rolling force of friction is
less than the dynamic force of sliding
friction .
•• If a feather, a wooden ball and a steel
ball fall simultaneously in a vacuum,
which one of these would fall faster?
All will fall at the same speed in vacuum
because there will be no air resistance
and the earth’s gravity will exert a
similar gravitational pull on all.
•• When a man fires a gun, he is pushed
back slightly. Why?
As the bullet leaves the nozzle of the
gun’s barrel with momentum in a
forward direction, as per Newton’s
Third Law of Motion, the ejection
imparts to the gun an equal momentum
in a backward direction.
•• Ice wrapped in a blanket or saw dust
does not melt quickly. Why?
Both blanket and saw dust are bad
conductors of heat. They do not permit
heat rays to reach the ice easily.
•• Why do we perspire on a hot day?
When the body temperature rises, the
sweat glands are stimulated to secrete
perspiration. It is nature’s way to keep
the body cool. During the process of
evaporation of sweat, body heat is taken
away, thus, giving a sense of coolness.
•• Why does ice float on water but sink
in alcohol?
GENERAL SCIENCE
Because ice is lighter than water it
floats on it. However, ice is heavier than
alcohol and therefore it sinks in alcohol.
•• Why do we perspire before rainfall?
Before the rainfall, the atmosphere gets
saturated with water vapour, as a result,
the process of evaporation of sweat is
delayed.
•• Why does a thermometer kept in
boiling water show no change in
reading after 100°C?
The boiling point of water is 100°C.
Once water starts boiling at this
temperature, thermometer records no
change in temperature. The quantity of
heat supplied is being utilized as latent
heat of evaporation to convert the water
at boiling point into vapour.
•• TB patients are suggested to live in
sanatorium.
At high altitude count of RBC
(haemoglobin) increases.
•• Rate of breathing in fish is higher
than human being.
Fish lives in water, where amount of
dissolved oxygen in water is less, so fish
breaths at higher rate to get adequate
oxygen for respiration.
•• Cornea transplant does not need
blood match.
Cornea does not have blood vessel. It
takes oxygen directly from atmosphere.
•• Clay layers are poor aquifers.
Clay minerals are dense impermeable
material and act as an aquifers i.e a layer
of material that is almost impermeable
to water.