Day 1-03 - Formation Evaluation - 1

Formation Evaluation
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

2
Objectives
Describe the information that can be obtained from a mud

log and from three types of core samples.
List six conventional openhole well logs and describe the
information that can be obtained from each.
List conventional cased hole well logs and describe the
information that can be obtained from each.
Calculate water saturation using Archie’s equation, given
well log readings.

3
Outline
Cores
Mud logging
Openhole Wireline logs Introduction
Cased-Hole Wireline logs Introduction
Detailed Analysis of common logging tools and its
importance

4
The Life Of A Reservoir
Since petroleum reservoirs are generally located many thousands of feet below the
surface, it is necessary to use sophisticated tools, such as wireline logs, to gather
important information about the reservoirs. This information is then interpreted by
highly trained industry professionals, using various mathematical and empirical
models, to determine fundamental reservoir properties, such as porosity and
permeability.
5
Gather All Data
Logs Borehole
Seismic
Information
from nearby 2D/3D
wells Surface
Operating Company Seismic
Core Regional
Data Geological Data
Data
It is important that an operating company collect as much information about the

reservoir as the economics of the project allows. In addition to seismic and wireline
logs, core data, geological data, regional data, and information from nearby wells
can be extremely valuable in making economic decisions. Obtaining this data
requires trained professionals from both the operating company and service
companies, such as Schlumberger, working together to get the best possible
interpretation.
Over the years, operating companies have found that service companies can offer
many of the processes once performed in house at a lower cost and at a highly
quality. For example, a Schlumberger wireline expert may have experience with a
wide range of reservoirs, as opposed to an operating company engineer who deals
only with a limited number of reservoirs. Of course, the operating company
engineer will have much more detailed information about his own reservoirs, so it is
necessary that the two work closely together.
6
Cores
Allow direct measurement of reservoir properties
Used to correlate indirect measurements, such as

wireline/LWD logs with direct measurements
Cores from the reservoir allow direct measurements of important reservoir

properties. It is important to gather cores from a representative part of the reservoir,
as reservoir properties vary horizontally and vertically. If a reservoir is known to be
highly heterogeneous, many core samples will be required to describe the reservoir
accurately.
7
Information from Cores
Standard Routine Core Analysis Special Core Analysis

Porosity Relative permeability
Horizontal permeability to air Capillary pressure
Grain density Cementation exponent (m) and
saturation exponent (n)
Definitions:
Porosity: Fraction (or percentage) of formation that is pore space
Horizontal permeability to air: A measure of the ease with which air flows
through a core plug in the horizontal direction
Grain density: The density of grains that comprise the rock matrix
Vertical permeability to air: A measure of the ease with which air flows
through a core plug in the vertical direction.
Relative permeability: Permeability to one phase in the presence of one or
more other phases divided by the permeability when the core is completely
saturated with a single phase
Capillary pressure: Pressure difference across an interface separating two
different phases. Causes capillary rise of water into formation far above a
water-oil or water-gas contact.
Cementation exponent, m: Empirical constant used in Archie’s law, which
allows us to determine water saturation from log measurements
Saturation exponent, n: Empirical constant used in Archie’s law
8
CORING ASSEMBLY AND CORE BIT
Drill collar
connection
PDC Cutters
Thrust bearing
Outer barrel
Inner barrel
Fluid
vent
Core retaining
ring
Core bit
Unlike a normal drill bit, which crushes the rock into small pieces, a core bit can be
visualized as a hollow cylinder with cutters on the outside. The cylinder of rock
that is cut by the bit is retained within the core barrel by an arrangement of steel
fingers or slips. Core diameters are typically from three to seven inches and are
usually about 90 feet long.
Once the core is retrieved from the well, it is common to do a lithologic description
at the wellsite. In addition, to keep the core from drying out, it is sometimes sealed
in a coating of hot wax and foil.
At the laboratory, the core is photographed under normal and ultraviolet light. (UV
light will reveal the presence of hydrocarbons.) Routine and special core analysis
may then be conducted.
9
COMING OUT OF HOLE WITH CORE BARREL

10
WHOLE CORE
Whole Core Photograph,

Misoa “C” Sandstone,
Venezuela
Photo by W. Ayers

11
SIDEWALL SAMPLING GUN
Core bullets
Formation rock
Core sample
The sidewall sampling tool can be used to obtain small plugs from the formation.
The tool is run on a wireline after the hole has been drilled. Some 20 to 30 bullets
are fired from each gun at different depths. The hollow bullet will penetrate the
formation and a rock sample will be trapped inside the steel cylinder. When the tool
is pulled upwards, wires connected to the gun pull the bullet and sample from the
borehole wall.
Sidewall cores are useful for identifying hydrocarbons zones, when viewed under
UV light. Qualitative inspection of porosity is possible; however, the cores may
have been crushed during the collection process, so quantitative sampling of
porosity is questionable.
12
SIDEWALL CORING TOOL
Coring bit
Samples
A newer wireline tool actually drills a plug out of the borehole wall, thus avoiding
crushing of the sample. Up to 20 samples can be individually cut and are stored
inside the tool.
13
WHOLE CORE ANALYSIS vs.

PLUGS OR SIDEWALL CORES
WHOLE CORE
Provides larger samples
Better and more consistent representation of formation
Better for heterogeneous rocks or for more complex

lithologies

14
WHOLE CORE ANALYSIS vs.

Smaller samples
Less representative of heterogeneous formations
Within 1 to 2% of whole cores for medium-to high-porosity
formation
In low-porosity formations, φ from core plugs tends to be much
greater than φ from whole cores

15
Mudlog
Drilling Rate Hydrocarbon Analysis
Interpreted
Visual Porosity
Chromotograph PPM
Lithology
Depth (m)
M. per Hr. Cuttings Continuous Total Analysis
Lithology Gas in air % Methane--- Ethane--- Remarks
Propane--- Butane---
Pentane---
20 15 10 5 1 10 PPM 1 K 10 K
LS: wht, dk, br, vf, xin, cin, hd
w tr foss
SH: dk gy, gy, frm, occ sft,

occ sity
SS: lt gy, cir, xin, sb ang, sb,

rnd, m grn, oil stn, bri yel
flour, bri gid stng cut

occ sity
SS: lt gy, cir, xin, sb ang, sb,

rnd, m grn, oil stn, bri yel
flour, bri gid stng cut
occ sity
Mudlogging is one of the first direct evaluation methods available during the
drilling of a well. As such, the mudlog remains an important (but often under-used)
source of original information.
The rate at which the drill bit penetrates the formation gives qualitative information
about the lithology being drilled. For example, in a hard shale the rate of
penetration will be slower than in a porous sandstone.
The formation cuttings that are chipped off by the bit travel upward with the mud
and are caught and analyzed at the surface. This provides information about the
lithology and qualitative indications of the porosity.
If hydrocarbons are present in the formation that is being drilled, they will show in
the cuttings as oil stains, and in the mud as traces of oil or gas. The gas in the mud
is continuously monitored by means of a gas detector. This is often a relatively
simple device detecting the total combustible gas content. The detector can be
supplemented by a gas chromatograph, which analyzes the composition of the gas.
16
Mud Logging
First information during drilling

Mud weight
Rotary speed
Weight on bit
Cuttings analysis
Gas content
pH
Mud salinity

17
Openhole Log Evaluation
Well Log
SP Resistivity
This figure depicts the basic setup of the logging process. A wireline truck with a
spool of logging cable is setup so that the sonde (measuring equipment) can be
lowered into the wellbore. The logging tools measure different properties, such as
spontaneous potential and formation resistivity, as the sonde is brought to the
surface. The information is processed by a computer in the logging vehicle, and is
interpreted by an engineer or geologist.
18
Increasing Increasing Increasing

radioactivity resistivity porosity
Shale
Oil sand
Shale
Gamma Resisitivity Porosity

ray
An engineer or geologist can interpret the log readings to reach certain conclusions
about the formation. For example, a decrease in radioactivity from the gamma ray
log could indicate the presence of a celan formation. An increase in resistivity may
indicate the presence of hydrocarbons. And, an increase in a porosity log might
indicate that the formation has porosity and is permeable.
19
Openhole Well Logs
Passive measurements
– Gamma ray: Indicates lithology
– Spontaneous potential: Indicates
lithology
– Caliper: Hole condition
Active measurements
– Resistivity: Fluid saturation, fluid
Cap rock type
Oil
– Porosity: Rock properties, quantity
of hydrocarbon
– Density: Rock properties, seismic
response
– Sonic log: Rock properties, seismic
Reservoir rock Source rock response
As mentioned previously, well logs are used to estimate important reservoir

properties, such porosity, water saturation, and permeability. The logs can be
conveniently grouped into Passive and Active categories.
Passive logs simply measure an existing force or electrical current. For example,
the SP log measures a natural electrical current produced when a well full of
conductive fluids is drilled through a formation.
Active logs, on the other hand, must initiate a response from the formation. For
example, the neutron tool bombards the formation with neutrons, which produces a
response that can be measured. The sonic log produces an audio signal; the travel
time of this signal is measured, and reservoir properties can be inferred.
20
Well Log Interpretation
Logs provide detailed essential information on wells and

reservoirs
Well
• Rock type
Sandstone
• Porosity
Depth • Permeability
Claystone
• Fluid type
Limestone
• Fluid volume
• Formation tops
• Fractures
Shale
Granite
Well log interpretation can be quite simple, as in the case of thick, clean sandstone,
or it can be very complicated, as in the case of a formation containing several
different lithologies and various minerals, or when the bed boundaries are very
close together.
Usually, well logs are analyzed by a computer program, which has been designed to
correct the raw data for borehole, bed boundary, and fluid effects. Complex well
logs require the attention of an expert to be interpreted properly.
Often, logs are used in combination to arrive at an interpretation. For example, a

density-neutron “crossplot” will give far more information than can be obtained by
either log alone.
21
Common Types of Logs
Gamma (GR)
Spontaneous Potential (SP)
Sonic (DT)
Density (RHOB)
Neutron (CNT)
Resistivity (LLD)
The logs listed above are routinely found in modern log suites. On following slides,
each log will be discussed briefly.
22
Cased-Hole Log Evaluation
Well Log
GR Sigma
lowered into the wellbore. The logging tools measure different properties through
casing, such as gamma ray and formation sigma, as the sonde is brought to the
23
Formation Properties From Cased-Hole Logs
Porosity
Saturation
Permeability
Reservoir geometry
Temperature and pressure
Many petrophysical properties can be measured through casing. These properties

include the thermal decay time, the natural radioactivity, the hydrogen content, the
elemental yields, and, in some cases, the interval transit time of the rock.
Since the petrophysical properties of the formation beyond the wellbore are usually
needed, the well logging tool must be able to “see” beyond the casing and cement
into the formation, or interpretation techniques must be able to compensate for these
environmental effects.
24
Why Log Cased Wells?
To monitor production:
Fluid contact detection and movement
Other water/gas movement
Injection front advance
Water salinity

25
Common Cased-Hole Logs
Gamma ray log

Natural gamma ray spectrometry log
Neutron log
Sonic log
Thermal decay time log
Information from cased hole logs:

Gamma Ray Log - same as open hole log; Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry Log -
used to identify clay types and clay volumes, and is a better shale indicator than GR;
Neutron Logs - same as open hole log; Long Spaced Sonic tool: longer spacing
makes sound waves conducted by casing negligible; Thermal Decay Time log -
similar to resistivity logs in open hole.
26
Openhole Log Evaluation
Well Log
SP Resistivity
lowered into the wellbore. The logging tools measure different properties, such as
spontaneous potential and formation resistivity, as the sonde is brought to the
27
Variables Determined From Wireline Logs
1/ n
 a Rw 
S w =  m 
 φ Rt 
φ = Porosity, decimal
Rt = True formation resistivity, ohm-m
Rw = Formation water resistivity, ohm-m
m = Cementation exponent
The objectives of this course are to show you how to determine porosity, true
formation resistivity, formation water resistivity and cementation exponent using
well logs. In other words, we are trying to show you how a log analyst calculates
water saturation or determines which zones have hydrocarbons in them. Because
the logs do not directly measure any of the properties required in Archie’s equation,
we need to understand what exactly each log is measuring. Knowing this, we can
then accurately infer porosity, formation water resistivity, and other variables
required for Archie’s equation.
28
Quantifying Hydrocarbons
OGIP =
43,560 h φ
 (1− S w )A / rcf 

Bg (rcf/scf )
7758 h φ (1− Sw ) A
OOIP =
Bo (RB/STB )
OOIP = Original oil in place in STB.

Bo = Oil formation volume factor in RB/STB
h = net pay thickness.
φ = Porosity
Sw = Water saturation (in fraction)
A = Drainage area in acres
Bg = Gas formation volume factor in rcf/scf
OGIP = original gas in place in standard cu ft
The numerator in both equations quantifies the reservoir volume of hydrocarbons,

and the formation volume factor for oil or gas converts that volume at reservoir
conditions to surface conditions.
29
Quantifying Hydrocarbons
Openhole well logs can be used to determine:

h = Net pay thickness
φ = Porosity
Sw = Water Saturation
Openhole well logs can be used to determine net pay thickness, porosity, and water
saturation in the volume of reservoir around the wellbore which is a very minor
fraction of the overall reservoir. Openhole logs do not quantify drainage area.
However, mud log analysis, cuttings analysis, and openhole logs can help the
geologist understand the environment of deposition from which drainage area or
lateral extent of a particular reservoir can be inferred.
30
Archie’s Equation
Empirical constant
(usually near unity) Resistivity of
a Rw formation water, Ω-
Sw = n
m
φR
Water
saturation,
m Cementation
exponent (usually
fraction near 2)
Saturation
exponent (also t
usually near 2) Resistivity of
Porosity, uninvaded
fraction formation, Ω-m
Archie’s equation is the basic equation used by petrophysicists to determine

whether a formation has water or hydrocarbons in the pore space. As you can see,
the water saturation is a function of several variables: the resistivity of the water in
the pore space, the total composite formation resistivity, porosity, and several other
variables that are a function of the rock.
31
How Archie’s Equation Works
Archie’s equation is based on the following relationships

1000
Rock type 1
100
FR 10 Rock type 2
1
When water saturation is 100% .01 .1 1.0
φ
Note: When φ = 100%, Ro must equal Rw; thus, a = 1.0 (if a is constant)
Ro a
F = = φ
R is the resistivity of a formation 100% saturated with water. If we think about a core
m
sample, there is only oneR
o
major
w component that conducts electricity, and that is the water in
the pore space. The magnitude of the resistivity is a function of the amount of fluid
(porosity and water saturation), the resistivity of the saturating fluid, and the
interconnectedness of the pore space. The graph above illustrates that there is a relationship
between the formation factor and porosity. The slope of the line is a function of the pore
structure (or tortuosity) which is called the cementation exponent. The cementation
exponent is a measure of the degree of interconnectivity of the pore space.
32
How Archie’s Equation Works
1000
Rock type 1
100
R0
Rt
IR =
Rock type 2
10
1
.01 .1 1.0
When φ is constant Sw
Rt 1
Note: When Sw = 100%, Rt must equal Ro
= n
As we statedR
earlier,
o the Sresistivity of a formation is controlled by the water in the
w
formation. It is a function of the amount of water, the resistivity of that water, and
the interconnectivity of the pore space. Both porosity and water saturation control
the amount of water in the pore space. When porosity is constant, the resistivity
relationships are solely affected by water saturations. The figure above clearly
shows that the ratio of resistivities is a strong function of water saturation where the
saturation exponent is a measure of the interconnectivity of the fluids in the pore
space (which is related to capillary pressure and relative permeability). Saturation
exponent is related to the cementation exponent discussed in the previous slide.
33
Solving for Ro
Ro a
= m when Sw = 100%
Rw φ
Rt 1
= n when φ = constant
Ro Sw
a Rw
S =
φ
w n m
Rt
34
Archie’s Equation in Terms of Conductivity
C T = S w φm C w
n
Log analysts often like to refer to Archie’s equation in terms of conductivity rather
than resistivity. The conductivity is merely the inverse of resistivity. Written as
above, one can clearly show that the total conductivity of a formation or core
sample is a function of water saturation, porosity, and the conductivity of the water
in the pore space. As previously discussed, both water saturation and porosity as
well as the saturation exponent and the cementation exponent influence the total
conductivity of a formation.
35
Properties Logs Actually Measure
Natural radioactivity
Electron density
Acoustic travel time
Hydrocarbon index
Photoelectric absorption
Standard gamma ray logs measure the total natural radioactivity of a formation.
Special gamma rays logs called spectral gamma rays can determine the amount of
gamma rays from potassium, uranium, and thorium. Although these logs are not
commonly run, they are often useful for the geologist when trying to correlate
various shales. The standard gamma ray log can be used to calculate the fraction of
the reservoir that is shale by using a straight line calculation.
36
Example Log
001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
10700
10800
10900
You will find a large log for your use at the end of this section.
Correlation curves
Gamma ray
Spontaneous potential
Resistivity curves
Shallow
Medium
Deep
Porosity logs
Bulk density
Neutron
Acoustic
37
Gamma Ray Log
Measures natural radioactivity of formation

– Potassium (K)
– Uranium (U)
– Thorium (Th)
Indicates shale present
Generally, a gamma ray log indicates the amount of shale present
Low Natural Radioactivity

Sandstone
Limestones
Dolomites
High Natural Radioactivity

Shales
Gamma ray logs can be run in both openhole and cased-hole environments.
Although the overall reading of the gamma ray is affected by the casing, the
character of the log is not so that the cased-hole gamma ray can be used to correlate
with the openhole gamma ray.
38
Example GR Log
001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
GRC ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
0 150
10700
10800
GR
Log
10900

39
Caliper Log
001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
10700
ACAL
6 16
10800
Caliper
Log
10900
You will find a large log for your use at the end of this section.
Correlation curves
Gamma ray
Spontaneous potential
Resistivity curves
Shallow
Medium
Deep
Porosity logs
Bulk density
Neutron
Acoustic
40
Spontaneous Potential (SP)
Measures the electrical potential in the formation caused by

the salinity difference between the drilling mud and the
formation water
SP is generally an indicator of permeability
The SP log must be run in a conductive drilling mud. It cannot be run in oil-base
mud or in wells drilled and logged with air. The direction of deflection is
dependent upon the salinity contrast between the drilling mud and the formation
water. When the well is drilled with a freshwater drilling fluid, the deflection on the
SP will be negative, and when the drilling fluid is more saline than the formation
water, the SP deflection will be positive.
The SP log measures the electrical potential in the formation. This is a relative
measurement. The deflection on the SP log is measured from the shale to the sand.
The amount of deflection that you see between the shale and the sand is a relative
amount of deflection. The log analyst does not read the value of the SP log directly
from the log. Rather, it is the difference between the shale reading and the sand
reading.
41
SP Log
001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
SPC
10700
-160 MV 40
10800
SP
Log
10900

42
SP Log Response
SP
Shale
Impervious
nonshale
Reservoir
bed
Impervious
nonshale
Reservoir
bed
Shale

43
Resistivity Logs
Measure the resistivity (conductivity) of the formation

Two types available
– Induction logs: run in nonconductive or low-conductivity muds
– Laterologs: run in highly conductive muds (salt based)

44
Borehole Effects on Resistivity Logs
Mud
Resistivity of zone
Rm
Resistivity of the water in the zone Adjacent bed
Water saturation in the zone
Rs
Uninvaded
hmc Flushed zone
zone Zone of
Rmc Rt
transition
(Bed dh or
Rw
thickness) annulus
Mudcake Rxo
Sw
h Rmf
Sxo
Rs
di
dj
Adjacent bed
(Invasion diameters)
∆rj
dh
Hole
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved diameter
Resistivity logs can be significantly affected by invasion. “Tornado” charts can be

used to correct for the impacts of invasion. Tornado charts assume a step-invasion
profile.
45
Step-Invasion Profile
Rxo
Step
Formation resistivity
Normal
Rt
Annulus
df di dj
0
Distance from borehole wall
In many cases, the deep resistivity log can be used without correction to estimate
RT.
In oil-bearing zones, it is possible for the filtrate to flush connate water to the lead
of the invading front by miscible drive processes, thereby creating a conductive ring
around the more resistive flushed zone. Beyond the conductive annulus ring is the
higher resistivity oil-bearing virgin zone.
46
Example Log With Resistivity

001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15 ILDC
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200 0.2 200
10700
SNC
0.2 200
MLLCF
0.2 200
10800
10900
Resistivity
Log

47
Porosity Logs
3 main types
Bulk density
Compensated neutron
Sonic (acoustic)
None of these logs measures porosity directly. Also, to accurately calculate

porosity from each of these logs, the log analyst must know formation lithology
and pore fluid saturations in flushed zone.
48
Density Logs
Uses radioactive source to generate gamma rays

Gamma ray collides with electrons in formation, losing
energy
Detector measures reduced intensity of gamma rays

49
Density Logs
Response of density tools is a function of the formation’s

electron density
Electron density is a measure of bulk density

50
Density Logs
Bulk density, ρb, is dependent upon:

Rock lithology
Formation porosity
Density and saturation of fluids in pore space

51
Density Log
GR RHOB
0 API 200 2 G/C3 3
CALIX DRHO
6 IN 16 -0.25 G/C3 0.25
CALIY
6 IN 16
4100
Gamma ray Density
Density
correction
4200
Caliper

52
Mud cake
ρmc + hmc)
(ρ
ρb)
Formation (ρ
Long spacing
detector
Short spacing
detector
Source
To minimize the influence of the mud column, the source and detector, mounted on
a skid, are shielded. The openings of the shields are applied against the wall of the
borehole by means of an eccentering arm. The force exerted is substantial, and the
skid has a plow shaped leading edge. Therefore, it is able to cut through soft mud
cakes usually encountered at medium and shallow depths. Some mud cake may
remain, however, and is “seen” by the tool as part of the formation. This must be
accounted for.
A correction is needed when the contact between the skid and the formations is not
perfect (due to mud cake or roughness of the borehole wall). In unfavorable cases,
this correction can be fairly large. If only one detector is used, the correction is not
easy to determine, as it depends on the thickness, the weight, and even the
composition of the mud cake or mud interposed between the skid and formation.
Using two detectors, a correction can be made for unfavorable conditions.
53
Bulk Density
ρ b = ρ ma (1 − φ ) + ρ f φ
Matrix Fluids in
flushed zone
• Measures electron density of a formation

• Strong function of formation bulk density
• Matrix bulk density varies with lithology
– Sandstone 2.65 g/cc
– Limestone 2.71 g/cc
– Dolomite 2.87 g/cc
54
Porosity From Density Log
Porosity equation
ρma − ρb
φ=
ρma − ρ f
The fluid density equation
ρ f = ρmf Sxo + ρh (1 − Sxo )
We usually assume the fluid density (ρf) is between 1.0 and 1.1. If gas is present, the
actual ρf will be < 1.0.
ρmf is the mud filtrate density, g/cc
ρh is the hydrocarbon density, g/cc
Sxo is the saturation of the flush/zone, decimal
We usually assume the fluid density (ρf) is between 1.0 and 1.1. If gas is present, the actual
ρf will be < 1.0 and the calculated porosity will be too high.
ρmf is the mud filtrate density, g/cc
ρh is the hydrocarbon density, g/cc
Sxo is the saturation of the flush/zone, decimal
The bulk density log is a pad device. This means that the log must be in constant contact
with the borehole wall. This is accomplished through the use of a caliper arm on the back
side of the density device. When the pad loses contact with the formation either through
rugosity or washouts, the bulk density reading is affected. The reading from the density log
is always too low in the presence of rugosity or washout. This results in a calculated
porosity that is much too high, because the density log is reading in essence the porosity of
the washout or the gap between the porosity, pad, and the borehole wall. Although density
logs are compensated for the presence of mudcake, this compensation is often inadequate to
account for all of the effects of borehole breakouts, washouts, and rugosity.
55
Bulk Density Log

001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
RHOC
10700
1.95 2.95
10800
Bulk Density
10900
Log

56
Density Logs
Working equation
ρb = φ S xo ρmf + φ (1 − S xo ) ρhc
+ Vsh ρsh + (1 − φ − Vsh ) ρma
ρb = Recorded parameter (bulk volume)

φ Sxo ρmf = Mud filtrate component
φ (1 - Sxo) ρhc = Hydrocarbon component
Vsh ρsh = Shale component
1 - φ - Vsh = Matrix component
57
Density Logs
If minimal shale, Vsh ≈ 0

If ρhc ≈ ρmf ≈ ρf, then
ρb = φ ρf + (1 - φ) ρma
ρma − ρb
φ = φd =
ρma − ρ f
φd = Porosity from density log, fraction

ρma = Density of formation matrix, g/cm3
ρb = Bulk density from log measurement, g/cm3
ρf = Density of fluid in rock pores, g/cm3
ρhc = Density of hydrocarbons in rock pores, g/cm3
ρmf = Density of mud filtrate, g/cm3
ρsh = Density of shale, g/cm3
Vsh = Volume of shale, fraction
Sxo = Mud filtrate saturation in zone invaded by mud
filtrate, fraction
58
Factors Affecting Density Log Response
Borehole and mud filtrate effects

ρmf can be measured
Sxo can be calculated from shallow resistivity logging tool

59
Factors Affecting Density Log Response
Shales and clays

Vsh and ρsh can be obtained from log readings in shale zones
Hydrocarbons
In oil zones, ρhc = ρo which can be measured from fluid
samples
In gas zones, ρhc = ρg which can be measured or calculated
using gas properties
ρo = Density of oil
ρg = Density of gas
60
Bulk Density Log Example

001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
10700
Bulk Density
Log
10800
10900
1. Calculate the density porosity, assuming a sandstone matrix, for the following
intervals.
Intervals__
10,720 - 10,730
10,810 - 10,820
10,850 - 10,860
10,900 - 10,910
10,942 - 10,946
3. Recalculate the porosity assuming a limestone matrix. How does this affect the
answer?
3. Recalculate the porosity assuming a dolomite matrix. How does this affect the
answer?
61
Example Solution Density Log

001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC DPHI
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
10700
DPHI
10800
10900
Interval ρb (g/cc) φss% φls% φdolL%

10,720 – 10,730 2.20 27.3 30.2 35.8
10,810 – 10,820 2.51 8.5 12.2 19.3
10,850 – 10,860 2.25 24.2 26.9 33.2
10,900 – 10,910 2.23 25.5 28.5 34.2
10,942 – 10,946 2.46 11.5 15.2 21.9
2.65 − 2.46
φ= = 11.5%
2.65 − 1.0
The porosity difference can be 8 - 11% so lithology of matrix has to be known to get
correct porosity from density log.
62
Neutron Log
Logging tool emits high energy neutrons into formation

Neutrons collide with nuclei of formation’s atom
Neutrons lose energy (velocity) with each collision

63
Neutron Log
Most energy lost when colliding with a hydrogen atom

nucleus
Neutrons are slowed sufficiently to be captured by nuclei
Capturing nuclei become excited and emit gamma rays

64
Neutron Log
Depending on type of logging tool either gamma rays or

neutrons emitted are captured
Log records porosity based on neutrons captured by
formation
If hydrogen is in pore space, porosity is related to the ratio of
neutrons emitted to those counted

65
Neutron Log
Theoretical equation
φN = φ S xo φNmf + φ (1 −S xo ) φNhc
+ Vsh φsh + (1 − φ − Vsh ) φNma
φN = Recorded parameter
φ Sxo φNmf = Mud filtrate portion
φ (1 - Sxo) φNhc = Hydrocarbon portion
Vsh φNsh = Shale portion
(1 - φ - Vsh) φNhc = Matrix portion
where
φ = True porosity of rock
φN = Porosity from neutron log measurement,
fraction
φNma = Porosity of matrix fraction
φNhc = Porosity of formation saturated with
hydrocarbon fluid, fraction
φNmf = Porosity saturated with mud filtrate,
fraction
Vsh = Volume of shale, fraction
Sxo = Mud filtrate saturation in zone invaded
by mud filtrate, fraction
66
Porosity From Neutron Log

001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
CNLLC
10700
0.45 -0.15
10800
Neutron
10900
Log
Uses a radioactive source to bombard the formation with neutrons
For a given formation, amount of hydrogen in the formation (I.e. hydrogen index)
impacts the number of neutrons that reach the receiver
A large hydrogen index implies a large liquid-filled porosity (oil or water). The
hydrogen index is calibrated to limestone porosity. If the lithology is sandstone or
dolomite, the following chart can be used to correct the porosity.
67
Chart Correcting Neutron porosity to lithology

68
Factors Affecting Porosity Tool Log Responses
Porosity of formation
Lithology of formation
Fluid content
• If appropriate matrix lithology parameters are known, correct porosity values

can be determined from responses of density, sonic, or neutron logs
• Lithology is frequently unknown or consists of multiple components
69
Example Compensated Neutron Log

001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
10700
Neutron
Log
10800
10900
1. Calculate the neutron porosity, assuming a sandstone matrix, for the following
intervals.
Intervals__
10,720 - 10,730
10,810 - 10,820
10,850 - 10,860
10,900 - 10,910
10,942 - 10,946
answer?
answer?
70
Example Problem Neutron Log

001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
10700
CNLLC
10800
10900
Interval φNLS % φNSS % φNDL %

10,720 – 10,730 13.8
10,810 – 10,820 6.9
10,850 – 10,860 24.5
10,900 – 10,910 25.0
10,942 – 10,946 11.8
71
Example Solution Neutron Log

001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
10700
CNLLC
10800
10900
Interval φNLS % φNSS % φNDL %

10,720 – 10,730 13.8 18.0 6.5
10,810 – 10,820 6.9 11.0 1.8
10,850 – 10,860 24.5 29.0 17.5
10,900 – 10,910 25.0 29.5 17.8
10,942 – 10,946 11.8 15.8 5.0
true porosity
72
Acoustic (Sonic) Log
Tool usually consists of one

sound transmitter (above) and
two receivers (below)
Sound is generated, travels
Upper
through formation transmitter
Elapsed time between sound
R1
wave at receiver 1 vs receiver 2 R2
is dependent upon density of R3
medium through which the R4
sound traveled
Lower
transmitter
Sonic tools are usually borehole compensated (BHC), which substantially reduces
spurious effects at hole size changes as well as errors due to sonde tilt.
As shown in the figure, the BHC system uses two transmitters, one above and one
below a pair of sonic receivers. When one of the transmitters is pulsed, the sound
wave enters the formation, travels along the wellbore and triggers both of the
receivers; the time elapsed between the sound reaching each receiver is recorded.
The speed of sound in the sonic sonde and mud is less than that in the formations.
Accordingly, the first arrivals of sound energy the receivers corresponds to the
sound-travel paths in the formation near the borehole wall.
The BHC tranmitters are pulsed alternately, and the delta t readings are averaged.
In this way, the tool is compensated for tilt.
If the travel time for the matrix is known, then porosity can be calculated.
73
Working equation
∆t L = φ S xo ∆t mf + φ (1 − S xo ) ∆t hc
+ Vsh ∆t sh + (1 − φ − Vsh ) ∆t ma
∆tL = Recorded parameter, travel time

read from log
φ Sxo ∆tmf = Mud filtrate portion
φ (1 - Sxo) ∆thc = Hydrocarbon portion
Vsh ∆tsh = Shale portion
(1 - φ - Vsh) ∆tma = Matrix portion
74
If Vsh = 0 and if hydrocarbon is liquid (i.e. ∆tmf ≈ ∆tf), then

∆tL = φ ρf ∆tf + (1 - φ) ∆tma
or
∆t L − ∆t ma
φs = φ =
∆t f − ∆t ma
φs = Porosity calculated from sonic log reading, fraction

∆tL = Travel time reading from log, microseconds/ft
∆tma = Travel time in matrix, microseconds/ft
∆tf = Travel time in fluid, microseconds/ ft
75

GR DT
0 API 200 140 USFT 40
CALIX SPHI
6 IN 16 30 % 10
4100
Sonic travel time

Gamma
Ray
Sonic
porosity
4200
Caliper

76
Sonic Log
The response can be written as follows:
t log = t ma (1 − φ) + t f φ
t log − t ma
φ=
t f − t ma
Sonic log - measures the slowness of a compressional wave to travel in the formation.
where t is travel time (slowness)
tlog is log reading, µsec/ft
tma is the matrix travel time, µsec/ft
tf is the fluid travel time, µsec/ft
φ is porosity
Matrix travel time (tma) is a function of lithology
tma = 53 µsec/ft sandstone
tma = 46 µsec/ft limestone
tma = 41 µsec/ft dolomite
The sonic log measures the compressional arrival. There are several more sophisticated sonic logs
that couple a different type of log and a more sophisticated processing algorithm to determine both
the shear wave arrival and the compressional wave arrival. Using both the shear and compressional
times, the log analyst can determine rock properties such as Poisson’s ratio, Young’s modulus, and
bulk modulus. These values are very important when designing hydraulic fracture treatments or
when trying to determine when a well may start to produce sand.
77
Sonic Log
001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
DT
10700
150 us/f 50
10800
Sonic
Log
10900

78
Common Lithology Matrix

Travel Times Used
Lithology Typical Matrix Travel Time,
∆tma, µsec/ft
Sandstone 55.5
Limeston 47.5
Dolomite 43.5
Anydrite 50.0
Salt 66.7

79
Example Sonic Log

001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
10700
Sonic
Log
10800
10900
1. Calculate the sonic porosity, assuming a sandstone matrix, for the following
intervals.
Intervals__
10,720 - 10,730
10,810 - 10,820
10,850 - 10,860
10,900 - 10,910
10,942 - 10,946
answer?
answer?
80
Example Solution Sonic Log

001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC SPHI
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15 45 ss -15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
10700
10800
SPHI
10900
Interval tlog µsec/ft φss% φls% φdol%

10,720 – 10,730 87.0 25.0 28.7 31.1
10,810 – 10,820 65.7 9.3 13.8 16.7
10,850 – 10,860 90.2 27.4 30.9 33.2
10,900 – 10,910 89.6 26.9 30.5 32.8
10,942 – 10,946 71.8 13.8 18.0 20.8
81
Factors Affecting Sonic

Log Response
Unconsolidated formations
Naturally fractured formations
Hydrocarbons (especially gas)
Rugose salt sections

82
Responses of Porosity Logs
The three porosity logs

– Respond differently to different matrix compositions
– Respond differently to presence of gas or light oils
Combinations of logs can imply composition of matrix and
type of hydrocarbon in pore space

83
Gas Effect
Density φ is too high

Neutron φ is too low
Sonic φ is not significantly affected by gas
Remember that the density log, the neutron log, and the sonic logs do not measure
porosity. Rather, porosity is calculated from measurements such as electron
density, hydrogen index and sonic travel time. The calculated density porosity is
too high only because in the calculation we typically don’t account for the fluid
density change. In other words, we assume the fluid density is 1 (or completely
liquid filled) even though with gas that value is lower, which causes the calculated
porosity to be too high. The neutron porosity is too low because the hydrogen index
or the hydrogen density of gas is lower; therefore, the liquid-filled porosity is what
the neutron log sees. So when gas is present, that value is lower than the actual
porosity. And finally, the sonic log is not significantly affected by gas because it
reads very near the wellbore and small gas saturations do not impact the overall
travel time significantly.
84
Crossplot Porosity
φdphi
2
+ φnphi
2
φ=
2
Porosity when impacted by gas

Can calculate φ in gas interval using a chartbook or the equation shown.
The neutron “sees” deeper into the formation than this density log. Thus, the
neutron log is usually more affected by the presence of gas.
85
Formation Water Resistivity
Empirical constant
(usually near unity) Resistivity of
a Rw formation water, Ω-
Sw = n
m
φR
Water
saturation,
m Cementation
exponent (usually
fraction near 2)
Saturation
exponent (also t
usually near 2) Resistivity of
Porosity, uninvaded
fraction formation, Ω-m
Archie’s equation is the basic equation used by petrophysicists to determine

whether a formation has water or hydrocarbons in the pore space. As you can see,
the water saturation is a function of several variables: the resistivity of the water in
the pore space, the total composite formation resistivity, porosity, and several other
variables that are a function of the rock.
86
Determining Rw
Directly: from measured water sample

Indirectly: from openhole well logs
– SP logs
– Pickett plots
– Rwa technique

Day 1-03 - Formation Evaluation - 1

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Formation Evaluation

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Describe the information that can be obtained from a mud

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The Life Of A Reservoir

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Gather All Data

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It is important that an operating company collect as much information about the

Allow direct measurement of reservoir properties

Used to correlate indirect measurements, such as

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Cores from the reservoir allow direct measurements of important reservoir

Information from Cores

Standard Routine Core Analysis Special Core Analysis

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CORING ASSEMBLY AND CORE BIT

COMING OUT OF HOLE WITH CORE BARREL

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Whole Core Photograph,

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SIDEWALL SAMPLING GUN

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SIDEWALL CORING TOOL

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WHOLE CORE ANALYSIS vs.

Provides larger samples

Better and more consistent representation of formation

Better for heterogeneous rocks or for more complex

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WHOLE CORE ANALYSIS vs.

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Drilling Rate Hydrocarbon Analysis

SH: dk gy, gy, frm, occ sft,

SS: lt gy, cir, xin, sb ang, sb,

SH: dk gy, gy, frm, occ sft,

SS: lt gy, cir, xin, sb ang, sb,

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First information during drilling

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Openhole Log Evaluation

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Increasing Increasing Increasing

Gamma Resisitivity Porosity

Openhole Well Logs

As mentioned previously, well logs are used to estimate important reservoir

Well Log Interpretation

Logs provide detailed essential information on wells and

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Often, logs are used in combination to arrive at an interpretation. For example, a

Common Types of Logs

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Cased-Hole Log Evaluation

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Formation Properties From Cased-Hole Logs

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Many petrophysical properties can be measured through casing. These properties

Why Log Cased Wells?

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Common Cased-Hole Logs

Gamma ray log

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