Day 3-02 - Reservoir Drive Mechanisms & MB

Reservoir Drive Mechanisms and Material Balance
Reservoir Drive Mechanisms and

Producing Characteristics
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

2
Instructional Objectives
Name reservoir drive mechanisms

Identify sources of reservoir energy
Describe production characteristics
Estimate average recovery factors
Recognize reservoir properties related to hydrocarbon
recovery
• Be able to name major reservoir drive mechanisms for oil and gas reservoirs.
• Be able to state main source(s) of reservoir energy for each of the reservoir
drive mechanisms.
• Be able to describe typical production characteristics for the major drive
mechanisms. Similarly, be able to identify the drive mechanisms by their
production characteristics.
• Be able to determine the range of average recovery factors for each drive
mechanism.
• Be able to calculate recovery factors using provided empirical formulas.
• Become familiar with the reservoir properties that strongly influence
hydrocarbon recovery for each of the reservoir drive mechanisms.
3
Oil Reservoir Drive Mechanisms
Solution-gas drive
Gas-cap drive
Water drive
Combination drive
Gravity-drainage drive

4
Gas Reservoir Drive Mechanisms
Volumetric reservoir (gas expansion drive)

Water drive

5
Reservoir Energy Sources
Liberation, expansion of solution gas

Influx of aquifer water
Expansion of reservoir rock and compression of pore volume
Expansion of original reservoir fluids
– Free gas
– Interstitial water
– Oil, if present
Gravitational forces
These are major sources of reservoir energy.

6
Solution-Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Oil producing wells
Oil
A. Original Conditions
ed
at
ber tion
Oil producing wells Li olu as
s g
B. 50% Depleted
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved Cross Section
7
Reservoir type
Main source(s) of reservoir energy
Reservoir behavior characteristics
Typical production characteristics
Reservoir type
• Only oil phase exists at original conditions.
• Pure solution-gas drive reservoir has no original gas cap or aquifer.
• Liberation and expansion of dissolved (solution) gas
• Expansion of reservoir rock, interstitial (original) water, and oil are always present but usually
minor sources of reservoir energy for oil reservoirs (for all oil reservoir drive mechanisms).
• Reservoir rock expansion and liquid expansion (oil and original water) are main sources of
reservoir energy in oil reservoirs above the bubblepoint pressure of oil (pb).
• There is no free gas (original gas cap) present above the bubblepoint pressure.
• Pressure reduction below bubblepoint pressure of oil causes evolution and expansion of dissolved
(solution) gas. Solution-gas drive occurs in oil reservoirs at pressures below the bubblepoint
pressure of oil (p<pb).
• Liberated dissolved gas may segregate from oil phase under gravity forces and form a secondary
gas cap. Formation of secondary gas cap is controlled by gravitational segregation of gas and oil.
8

Formation of a Secondary Gas Cap
n
utio
sol
Wellbore ra ted
e ga s
Lib
Secondary
gas cap
ves
s mo ture
Ga truc
s
up
Original (Primary) Gas Cap - gas cap that exists in the reservoir at initial conditions
(prior to any production)
Secondary Gas Cap - gas cap formed during development of the reservoir
Liberated solution gas may be pulled into a producing well at high oil production
rates.
Liberated solution gas may move upstructure and form a secondary gas cap if:
- low oil producing rates
- low oil density
- high reservoir dip angle
- high permeability
“Properties Favorable for Oil Recovery – Gravity Drainage for Oil Reservoirs”
Section contains a detailed discussion of reservoir properties that affect segregation
of gas and oil and formation of a secondary gas cap.
9

Typical Production Characteristics
400
Oil production rate, STB/D
800 400
Gas/oil ratio, SCF/STB

Pressure, psia
Gas/oil
600 300 ratio 300
400 200 Reservoir 200

pressure
Oil production rate

200 100 100
0 0 0
Time, years
Production data
Characteristic Trend
Reservoir pressure Declines rapidly and continuously: more
rapidly above the bubblepoint pressure (P b )
and less rapidly below it (see next slide)
Surface GOR First low, increases rapidly, rises to maximum,
declines
W ater production None (in pure solution-gas drive reservoirs)
W ell behavior W ells stop flowing early because of rapid
pressure decline
Oil recovery 5 to 30% of OOIP (original oil in place)
10

Typical Production Characteristics
Initial reservoir
Reservoir pressure, psig pressure
Bubblepoint
pressure
0 5 10
15 Oil recovery, % of OOIP

11
Gas-Cap Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Oil producing well
Oil Oil
zone Gas cap zone
Cross Section
12
Gas-Cap Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Reservoir type
Reservoir Type
• Free gas phase exists as an original gas cap above oil zone
• Pure gas-cap drive reservoir has no aquifer
• Expansion of gas cap
• Liberation and expansion of solution gas in the oil zone
• As pressure declines, the gas cap expands downward and lowers gas/oil contact.
• Expanding gas cap maintains original pressure at a higher level than in a reservoir without an
original gas cap (solution-gas drive oil reservoirs).
• Higher reservoir pressure keeps dissolved gas in solution longer; oil with more dissolved gas is
less viscous and moves more easily toward production wells.
• Expanding gas cap displaces oil downstructure and effectively sweeps the portion of the
reservoir occupied previously by oil.
• Gas/oil ratios rise dramatically in wells overtaken by expanding gas cap (wells "gas out")
13
Gas-Cap Drive in Oil Reservoirs Typical

Production Characteristics
Pressure, psia
1300
Reservoir pressure
1200
1100
Gas/oil ratio, scf/STB

1000
900 800
Gas/oil ratio
600
Oil production rate,
400
2 200
MSTB/D
0
Oil
1
Time, years
Production data
Reservoir pressure Falls slowly and continuously
Surface GOR Rises continuously; may rise rapidly in up-
structure producers
W ater production None (in pure gas-cap drive reservoirs)
W ell behavior Long flowing life (Depending on the size of a
gas cap relative to the size of the oil
reservoir. Generally, a larger gas cap will
result in a longer flowing life.)
Oil recovery 15 to 50% of OOIP
14
Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Reservoir type
Reservoir type
• Oil zone in communication with aquifer
• Pure water drive reservoir has no original gas cap
• Influx of aquifer water
Types of aquifer
• Edge-water drive
• Bottom-water drive
• As reservoir pressure declines, aquifer water moves into pore space vacated by oil.
• Pressure decline is relatively slow (stronger water drive results in more significant pressure
maintenance).
• Gas/oil ratio is relatively low and stable.
• Majority of producing wells eventually experience water breakthrough; water production
increases.
• As wells produce water, oil production rate declines. Many production wells eventually load up
with water and cannot be produced further.
15
Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs Edgewater Drive
Oil producing well
Oil Zone
Water Water
Cross Section
In an edgewater drive reservoir, water moves into the flank(s) of an oil reservoir as
oil is produced.
16
Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs Bottomwater Drive
Oil producing well
Oil Zone
Water
Cross Section
In a bottomwater drive reservoir, the oil-water contact underlies the oil zone
completely.
17
Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs Typical Production

Characteristics
Pressure, psia
Gas/oil ratio, MSCF/STB

2300
2200 Reservoir pressure
2100
2000 Gas/oil ratio
2
1900 40
Water cut, %
1
0 30
Oil production rate,
100 Water
20
80 10
MSTB/D
60 0
Oil
40
20
0
Time, years
Production data
Reservoir pressure Remains high, declines slowly (depends
on aquifer strength and connection to oil
reservoir)
Surface GOR Remains low and stable
W ater production Starts early, increases with time
W ell behavior W ith no or little water production,
production wells can flow for an
extended period of time. Producing wells
may experience early water
breakthrough. As water production
increases, wells may require artificial lift
(most commonly used are rod and
electric submersible pumps). W ells are
shut in when water production exceeds
an economic limit.
Oil recovery 30 to 60% of OOIP
18
Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs Effect of Production

Rate on Pressure
Pressure, psia
2000

Reservoir pressure
1900
1800 2
Gas/oil ratio
1700 1
Water Cut, %
0 60
Water
40
Oil production,
20 20
MSTB/D
15 0
Oil
10
5
0
Time, years
Production data - lower oil production rate
Reservoir pressure in this reservoir declines more slowly and even rises because the
aquifer is able to provide enough pressure support to offset lower fluid withdrawal
from this reservoir. Oil production rate in the figure above is lower than in the
previous example.
19
Combination Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Gas cap
Oil zone
Water
Cross Section
Basic drive mechanisms usually occur in combination.

• A large aquifer and a large gas cap can occur in a reservoir simultaneously.
• Oil production pressure drop results in some dissolved gas drive component in
any oil reservoir drive mechanism (even in water-drive and gas-cap drive).
Dominant drive mechanism depends on the “strength" of each of the source(s)

of reservoir energy: size of original gas cap, "strength" of aquifer (size and
permeability), and degree of pressure decline.
20
Gravity Drainage in Oil Reservoirs
Reservoir type
Ga
s
Gas
Oil
Ga
Oil Point C
s
Point B
Oil
Point A
Reservoir type
• Gravity drainage may occur in any type of reservoir.
• Gravity drainage is particularly important in solution-gas and gas-cap drive oil reservoirs.
Main Sources of reservoir energy
• Gravitational forces
Gravitational segregation is tendency of fluids in reservoir to segregate, under inference of gravity, to
position in reservoir based on fluids' density (gas to move above oil, water below oil).
Figure above shows relative movement of gas and oil along the structure at various distances from a
producing well (also see figure in “solution-gas drive in oil reservoirs – formation of a secondary cap”
section).
• Gravitational segregation can improve recovery efficiency substantially when it has time to act.
• In solution-gas drive reservoirs, liberated solution gas may segregate from oil to form a secondary gas
cap.
• In gas-cap drive reservoirs, oil in gas-invaded region drains down to rejoin oil column, reducing residual
oil saturation (and thus improving recovery efficiency).
• Recovery efficiency for a gravity-drainage reservoir may approach that of better water-drive reservoirs.
21
Pressure and Gas/Oil Ratio Trends
100
Water drive
80
Reservoir pressure,
Percent of original
60
Gas-cap drive
40
20
Solution
-gas drive
0 0 20 40 60 80 100
Cumulative oil produced, percent of original oil in place
22
Pressure and Gas/Oil Ratio Trends

5
Solution-
gas drive
4
Gas-cap drive
3
1
Water drive
0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Cumulative oil produced, percent of original oil in place
23
Gas Reservoir Drive Mechanisms
Volumetric reservoir (gas expansion drive)

Water drive
Drive mechanisms for gas reservoirs are similar to those of oil reservoirs. Gas is the
main phase for gas reservoirs.
24
Volumetric Gas Reservoirs
Reservoir type
Reservoir type
• Gas reservoir with no aquifer

• Expansion of original reservoir gas
Expansion of reservoir rock and interstitial (original) water are always present but often
minor sources of reservoir energy for gas reservoirs (for all gas reservoir drive
mechanisms). Reservoir rock and fluids expansion can be important sources of
reservoir energy for abnormally high-pressured gas reservoirs.
Reservoir pressure Falls slowly and continuously (like an oil
reservoir with a large gas cap)
Water production None (in pure volumetric gas reservoirs)
Well behavior Long flowing life (Generally, higher initial
reservoir pressure will result in a longer flowing
life.) Flowing life can be increased by lowering
surface backpressure through installing gas
compression.
Gas recovery 70 to 90% of OGIP (original gas in place)
25
Water Drive in Gas Reservoirs
Reservoir type
Reservoir type
• Gas reservoir in communication with an aquifer

• Influx of aquifer water
• Expansion of original reservoir gas
Reservoir pressure Declines more slowly than under volumetric expansion
(encroaching water provides pressure support)
Water production Water production starts early and increases with time.
Well behavior With no or little water production, production wells can flow
for an extended period of time. Producing wells may
experience early water breakthrough. Gas wells can load
up with water quickly because they're often not equipped
with artificial lift. Installation of continuous or intermittent
water removal equipment may increase well flowing life.
Gas recovery 35 to 65% of OGIP
26
Exercise 1
Pressure trend Gas/oil ratio trend
Pressure
GOR
Reservoir 1
Time Time
Pressure
GOR
Reservoir 2
Time Time
Pressure
GOR
Reservoir 3
Time Time
Given oil reservoir producing characteristics as shown in the figures, indicate which
oil reservoir drive mechanism is likely.
Reservoir 1 _________________________________
Reservoir 2 _________________________________
Reservoir 3 _________________________________
27
Average Recovery Factors

Oil Reservoirs
Average Oil Recovery

Drive Mechanism Factors,
% of OOIP
Range Average
Solution-gas drive 5 - 30 15
Gas-cap drive 15 - 50 30
Water drive 30 - 60 40
Gravity-drainage 16 - 85 50
drive

28
Average Recovery Factors

Gas Reservoirs
Average Gas Recovery

Drive Mechanism Factors,
% of OGIP
Range Average
Volumetric reservoir 70 - 90 80
(Gas expansion drive)
Water drive 35 - 65 50

29
Properties Favorable for Oil Recovery
Solution-gas drive oil reservoirs

Low oil density
Low oil viscosity
High oil bubblepoint pressure
Hydrocarbon recovery for a reservoir under a specified drive mechanism will

increase if the reservoir has the following characteristics.
Solution-gas drive oil reservoirs

Favorable oil properties
- Low oil density: lighter oil (larger oAPI gravity) → higher recovery
- Low oil viscosity (µο): (less viscous oil) → higher recovery
- High oil bubblepoint pressure (pb) → higher recovery
Oil with higher pb usually has:
a) Higher solution gas/oil ratio (Rs), and
b) Higher oil formation volume factor (Bo).
30
Gas-cap drive oil reservoirs

Favorable oil properties
Relatively large ratio of gas cap to oil zone
High reservoir dip angle
Thick oil column
Gas-cap drive oil reservoirs
• Favorable oil properties (same as for solution-gas drive)

• Large ratio of gas cap volume to oil zone volume (but not so large that oil
column becomes thin)
Larger gas cap → higher oil recovery (when oil column is sufficiently thick)
• High reservoir dip angle
Larger reservoir dip angle assists gravity drainage of oil → higher recovery
• Thick oil column
Thin oil column → early gas breakthrough → lower recovery
31
Water drive oil reservoirs

Large aquifer
Low oil viscosity
High relative oil permeability
Little reservoir heterogeneity and stratification
Water-drive oil reservoirs

• Large aquifer
Larger aquifer → better pressure maintenance or support → higher recovery
• Low viscosity of oil
Highly viscous oil will result in water "fingering" through the reservoir and
bypassing oil → lower recovery
• High relative oil permeability and low relative water permeability
• Small degree of reservoir heterogeneity and stratification.
- More heterogeneous reservoir (reservoir quality variation,
permeability variation) → lower recovery
- More stratified (layered) reservoir → bypassed oil or non-swept
layers → lower recovery
32
Combination drive oil reservoirs

Gravity drainage oil reservoirs
– High reservoir dip angle
– Favorable permeability distribution
– Large fluid density difference
– Large segregation area
– Low withdrawal
Combination drive oil reservoirs

Combination drive reservoir will have recovery characteristics similar to those of the dominant
reservoir drive type.
Gravity drainage oil reservoirs
• High reservoir dip angle (similar to gas-cap drive oil reservoirs)
− Favorable permeability distribution
• High permeability along dip → higher recovery
• High vertical permeability → higher recovery
− Large density difference between segregating fluids (e.g., oil and gas; water and oil)
− Large area of segregation
• Larger area over which segregation may occur → higher recovery
− Low oil viscosity
− Low withdrawal rates
See figures in “Solution-Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs – Formation of a Secondary Cap” Section
and in “Gravity Segregation in Oil Reservoirs” Section for a schematics of gravitational
segregation of oil and gas in a solution-gas drive reservoir.
33
Properties Favorable for Gas Recovery
Volumetric gas reservoir (gas expansion drive)

– Low abandonment pressure
Water-drive gas reservoir
– Large aquifer
– Small degree of reservoir heterogeneity and stratification
Abandonment pressure for gas reservoirs can be reduced by lowering surface

backpressure; gas compression is often installed for this purpose.
Favorable properties for water-drive gas reservoirs are similar to those of water-
drive oil reservoirs.
34
Exercise 2
Given:
– Reservoir properties
Determine:
– Will oil recovery increase or decrease?
Will oil recovery in an oil reservoir under the specified reservoir drive mechanism increase or
decrease (write in the table below) if the reservoir has the following properties.
No. Drive, Properties Oil Recovery W ill

increase or
decrease
Solution-gas drive oil reservoir
1 Very viscous oil (high µ o ) ?
o
2 Light oil (low oil density / greater API gravity) ?
3 Oil with high bubblepoint pressure (P b ) ?
Gas-cap drive oil reservoir
4 Large gas cap (large ratio of gas cap volum e to oil ?
zone volum e)
5 High reservoir dip angle ?
6 Thin oil column ?
W ater-drive oil reservoir
7 Large aquifer ?
8 More viscous oil and/or low relative oil permeability ?
9 High degree of reservoir heterogeneity ?
10 Highly stratified (layered) reservoir ?
Gravity-drainage oil reservoir
11 Insignificant reservoir dip angle ?
12 Low vertical perm eability ?
13 Large density difference between segregating fluids ?
(e.g., gas and oil)
14 Very viscous oil ?
15 High production rates (high withdrawal rate) from ?
reservoir
35
Volumetric Reserve Estimates

36
You will be able to

Calculate volume of oil- and gas-in-place
Calculate initial oil and gas reserves
Calculate the remaining reserves
Be able to calculate the volume of oil- and gas-in-place (hydrocarbons in place)

using volumetric equations.
Be able to calculate initial oil and gas reserves by applying an appropriate recovery
factor to the oil- and gas-in-place estimates.
Be able to calculate the remaining reserves at any time during the production of the
field or reservoir using volumetric equations.
37
What are Reserves?
Oil and gas trapped beneath the earth’s surface that can be
recovered under existing economic conditions and with current
technology.
Because reserves represent major assets for private and public companies, complex
legal definitions and categories have been developed. Typical categories include
proved, probable, and possible reserves.
All estimates of reserves are uncertain. Recovery of proved reserves is more certain
than recovery of possible reserves.
38
Reserves Uncertainty
I II III
Range of
Increasing Recovery Estimates
Recovery
True Ultimate
Recovery
Cumulative
Production
Time
Wells Abandonment At
Completed Economic Limit

Development
I II III
Initial
Field
Period Established Production Trend

Comparitive
Volumetric
Type
Data
Data
of Performance Data
Data
Volumetric reserves estimates can be used throughout much of the life of the
reservoir and development history. Volumetric reserves may be the most reliable
estimate during Period II.
Reserves estimates always have some uncertainty, but the uncertainty decreases as
we approach the ultimate recovery (coincident with the economic limit at
abandonment).
39
Volumetric Estimate of Oil Reserves
Original oil in place (OOIP)
N = 7758Ahφ(1 − Swi) / Boi
– Original oil reserves = Npa = N x ER

– Original solution gas in place = N x Rsi
Recovery factor, ER, is determined from other sources such as analogy or

knowledge about reservoir drive mechanisms.
Reservoir volume is computed in terms of reservoir units and converted to surface

units such as stock-tank barrels (stb).
Oil contains gas dissolved in solution. When the oil is produced to the surface
where lower pressures and temperatures prevail, much of this gas comes out of
solution. The original solution gas volume may be estimated by multiplying the
estimated oil reserves by the original solution gas/oil ratio (Rs).
40
Inputs to Volumetric Reserves

001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
Calculate φ, Sw
10700
10800
10900
Petroleum engineers and geologists use logging data to develop the inputs for
calculation of original oil and gas in place.
In the simplest application, net pay thickness, porosity, and water saturation may be
determined from one well log as representative for an individual well or even an
entire field if no other data are available.
When data from multiple wells are available, the log values may be averaged before
being used in the volumetric calculations. Alternatively, the geologist may develop
maps for some or all of the log properties including thickness, porosity, and
saturation.
41
Reservoir Area and Volume
Oil Producing Well
Oil Zone
Water Water
Schematic shows a cross-section of an oil reservoir surrounded by a water aquifer.
Using well log data and other available data such as seismic measurements,
geologists develop a refined picture of the reservoir by creating maps of net
hydrocarbon pay thickness, porosity, water saturation, and other variables.
These maps or average properties calculated from the well logs form the basis for
volumetric estimates of oil and gas in place.
42
Net Oil Pay Isopach Map
Dry Hole #2
2’
Well #2
45’
Well #4
Well #5 49’
64’
60
Well #3
Well #1 55’
50
21’
40 Dry Hole #1
20 0’
0
Geologists create net oil isopach maps using well log data. These maps are literally
a 2-dimensional representation of the reservoir volume.
The map shows 5 productive wells and two dry holes. Typically, one or two
unsuccessful exploratory wells will be drilled (referred to as dry holes) before the
oil or gas is discovered. Modern 3D seismic data have helped geoscientists
minimize the number of dry holes.
The map also shows that in a typical drilling progression, some of the later wells
may be drilled into the “sweet spot” or the thickest part of the reservoir.
Unfortunately, when delineating the entire extent of the reservoir, additional dry
holes may be drilled.
43
Determination of Reservoir
Bulk Volume
Ah = Reservoir Bulk Volume
A = area for the reservoir, lease, unit, or an individual

well’s drainage area
h = net hydrocarbon thickness
Reservoir bulk volume is calculated by multiplying area and net hydrocarbon

thickness.
Net hydrocarbon thickness can be obtained from an individual well log or from an
average representing multiple wells or the entire reservoir.
Net thickness is equal to or lower than gross reservoir thickness because of the
exclusion of shale or other non-reservoir rock layers.
Area could be the entire reservoir area, a drainage area of an individual well, or the
area in a specific lease. For determining reserves for an individual well, reservoir
engineers often assume a drainage area that is equal to the legally defined unit area
(onshore wells).
Reservoir bulk volume is often estimated by the geologist by developing an isopach
map of net pay
44
Summary
OOIP = 7758 Ah φ(1 - Swi)/Boi
Oil reserves = OOIP x R.F.
OGIP = 7758 Ah φ(1 - Swi)/Bgi
Gas reserves = OGIP x R.F.
Remaining reserves = Reserves at original conditions -

cumulative production

45
Material Balance

46
Material Balance Concept
Since reservoir volume is constant, the algebraic sum of

volume changes (including production and injection) of the
oil, free gas, and water must equal zero
In other words, expansion equals voidage: the net voidage
(production minus injection minus influx) must be made up
by expansion of the in-place materials

47
Fluid and Rock Properties
Solution gas/oil ratio (Rs)

Oil formation volume factor (Bo)
Gas formation volume factor (Bg)
Total formation volume factor (Bt)
Formation compressibility (cf)
Water compressibility (cw)
To derive and apply the material balance equation, we must understand how the
reservoir fluids expand and how the pore volume compresses as a function of
pressure; therefore, we will begin by reviewing the basic reservoir fluid PVT
relationships and rock compressibility.
48
Solution Gas/Oil Ratio (Rs)
800
Undersaturated
700
Solution Gas-Oil Ratio, scf/stb
600
Saturated Bubblepoint Pressure
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Pressure, psia
The quantity of gas dissolved in an oil at reservoir conditions is called solution gas/oil ratio. Solution
gas/oil ratio is the amount of gas that evolves from oil as the oil is transported from the reservoir to
surface conditions. This ratio is defined in terms of the quantity of gas and oil which appear at the
surface during production.
The surface volumes of both gas and liquid are referred to standard conditions so that the units are
standard cubic feet per stock tank barrel, scf/STB. Solution gas/oil ratio is also called dissolved
gas/oil ratio and occasionally gas solubility.
The figure above shows the way the solution gas/oil ratio of typical black oil changes as reservoir
pressure is reduced at constant temperature. The line is horizontal at pressures above the bubblepoint
pressure because at these pressures no gas is evolved in the pore space and the entire liquid mixture
is produced into the wellbore. When reservoir pressure is reduced below the bubblepoint pressure,
gas evolves in the reservoir leaving less gas dissolved in the liquid. Black oil is said to be saturated
when a slight decrease in pressure will allow release of some gas. The first bubblepoint pressure is a
special case of saturation at which the first release of gas occurs. When the black oil is above the
bubblepoint pressure, it is said to be undersaturated. An undersatruated oil could dissolve more gas
if the gas were present.
49
Oil Formation Volume Factor (Bo)
1.400
Undersaturated
Oil Formation Volume Factor, rb/stb
1.350
1.300
Saturated
Bubblepoint Pressure
1.250
1.200
1.150
1.100
1.050
1.000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Pressure, psia
The volume of oil that enters the stock tank at the surface is less than the volume of oil which flows
into the wellbore from the reservoir. This change in oil volume, which accompanies the change from
reservoir conditions to surface conditions, is due to 3 factors.
The most important factor is the evolution of gas from the oil as pressure decreases from reservoir
pressure to surface pressure. This causes a rather large decrease in volume of the oil when there is a
significant amount of dissolved gas.
The reduction in pressure also causes the remaining oil to expand slightly, but this is somewhat offset
by the contraction of oil due to the reduction of temperature. The change in oil volume due to these
3 factors is expressed in terms of the formation volume factor per oil. Oil formation volume factor is
defined as the volume of reservoir oil required to produce 1 barrel of oil in the stock tank. The units
for formation volume factor are reservoir barrels per stock tank barrel.
The figure above shows the initial reservoir pressure to be above the bubblepoint pressure of the oil.
As reservoir pressure is decreased from initial pressure to the bubblepoint pressure, the formation
volume factor increases slightly because of the expansion of the liquid in the reservoir. A reduction
in reservoir pressure below the bubblepoint pressure results in the evolution of gas in the pore spaces
of the reservoir. The liquid remaining in the reservoir has less gas in solution, and consequently, a
smaller formation volume factor. If the reservoir pressure could be reduced to atmospheric, the
value of the formation volume factor would nearly equal 1.0 rbbl/stb.
50
Gas Formation Volume Factor (Bg)
30
Gas Formation Volume Factor, rb/Mcf
25
20
15
10
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Pressure, psia
The gas formation volume factor is defined as the gas in reservoir conditions
required to produce 1 standard cubic foot of gas at the surface. The units for gas
formation volume factor vary. Sometimes units of reservoir cubic feet per standard
cubic feet are used. Reservoir cubic feet simply represent the gas volume measured
or calculated at reservoir temperature and reservoir pressure. Often the units are
reservoir units of gas per standard cubic foot, such as:
ft3/scf
bbl/scf
ft3/Mscf
The figure above shows the shape of a plot of gas formation volume factor vs.
reservoir pressure at constant temperature for a typical dry gas.
51
Compressibility
Coefficient of isothermal compressibility
1 dv
c=−
vi dp
1 ∆v
c=− ∆ v = − v ic ∆ p
vi ∆ p
The coefficient of isothermal compressibility is defined as the relative change in

volume resulting from a unit change in pressure. Isothermal compressibility
generally describes how “spongy” or expansive a reservoir fluid is. We can use the
coefficient of isothermal compressibility to determine the change in volume of a
reservoir fluid due to a change in pressure at constant temperature. The coefficient
of isothermal compressibility has units of 1/psi.
52
Basic Nomenclature
– OIP/GIP – oil/free gas in place

– N/G – original OIP/GIP
– Np – cumulative oil production
– Gp – cumulative gas production
– Wp – cumulative water production
– Wi – cumulative water influx/injection
– Gi – cumulative gas injection
Note:
– All except for OIP/GIP are at standard conditions

53
Basic Nomenclature
– Bo,w,g – formation volume factor of oil, water, and gas,

respectively
– cf,o,w – compressibility of formation, oil, and water, respectively
– Rs – solution gas-oil ratio
– Rp – cumulative GOR
– Sw,wi – average and connate water saturation
– m – ratio of initial free gas volume to initial oil volume at
reservoir conditions
– Subscript “i” when used with fluid properties denotes initial
conditions

54
Basic Nomenclature
Sw = Vwi/Vpi Np
m = Vgi/Voi Gp Gi
Wp Wi
Vg Free Gas
Vp Vo Oil + Solution Gas
Vw Water
We can visualize the reservoir pore volume as a closed tank containing water, oil,
solution gas, and free gas.
As we have discussed previously, the volume of fluids at standard conditions is much
different from the volume of fluids at reservoir conditions.
55
Derivation of MBE - Undersaturated Reservoir
Assumptions
P > Pb
No original or final gas cap
No water influx or production

56
Np
Gp
Oil volume Oil volume

NBoi (N-Np)Bo
Rock and water
expansion
Original conditions Later conditions
By volumetric balance
Original volume = Final volume
Original volume = NBoi

Final volume = (N-Np)Bo + volume occupied by
water and rock expansion
as pressure declines
Rock and water expansion are important in undersaturated reservoirs

57
From definition of compressibility
1  dVw  1 ∆Vw
cw = −   = −
Vw  dp T Vwi ∆p
Thus, change in reservoir water volume due to pressure

change:
∆Vw = −cwVwi ∆p
Subscript “w” denotes water.

Compressibility is defined as unit change (reduction) of volume per unit pressure
change.
∆p = pi – p is the difference between initial and current values of average reservoir
pressure.
58
As pressure decreases, matrix supporting structure

collapses into pore space
1  dV p  1 ∆V p
cf = −   = −
V p  dp T V pi ∆p
Thus, change in pore volume due to pressure change:
∆V p = −c f V pi ∆p
Subscript “f” denotes formation.

Vp is pore volume.
Compressibility is defined as unit change (reduction) of pore volume per unit
pressure change.
59
Total change in water volume and pore volume:
∆Vw + ∆V p = −(cwVwi + c f V pi )∆p = ∆Vtotal
Note that
Vw = S wV p
Vwi = S wiV pi
Thus
∆Vtotal = −(cw S wi + c f )V pi ∆p
60
Also
NBoi
V pi =
1 − S wi
Thus
∆Vtotal = −
NBoi
(cwSwi + c f )∆p
1 − S wi
Original oil in place occupies Vpi Soi = Vpi (1-Swi)

61
The volumetric balance becomes
NBoi = (N − N p )Bo − (cw Swi + c f )∆p

NBoi
1 − S wi
Solving for N:
N p Bo
N=
c S + cf
Bo + Boi w wi ( pi − p ) − Boi
1 − S wi
62
To simplify, note:
1  dV  1 ∆V
co = −   = −
V  dp T V ∆p
If Vsc is volume of oil at standard conditions
1 ∆V 1 V Vsc − Vi Vsc 1  Bo − Boi 

− =− =−  
V ∆p Vi Vsc p − pi Boi  p − pi 
V is oil volume.
Recall: formation volume factor is defined as ratio of volumes of a mass of oil at
reservoir and standard conditions.
63
Then
Bo − Boi = co Boi ( pi − p )
Substituting
N p Bo
N=
 c S + cf 
Boi  co + w wi ( pi − p )
 1 − S wi 

64
Define
cw S wi + c f co Soi + cw S wi + c f
ce = co + =
1 − S wi 1 − S wi
Finally
N p Bo
N=
Boi ce ( pi − p )
The equation should be used for estimating OOIP above bubble point where rock
and water expansion are not negligible.
Difficulty in measuring cf and cw may limit accuracy
65
Exercise 3
Determine the OOIP for the undersaturated reservoir given the data
– Np = 1.4*106 STB
– Bo = 1.46 RB/STB
– Boi = 1.39 RB/STB
– cw = 3.71*10-6 1/psi
– cf = 3.52*10-6 1/psi
– Swi = 32%
The reservoir was discovered at an initial pressure of 4,300 psi.
Pressure has declined to 2,450 psi
Also calculate N, assuming cf = 0 and compare results

66
Derivation of MBE - Saturated Reservoir
Assumptions
P ≤ Pb
No original gas cap
No water influx or production
Negligible rock and water expansion

67
Np
Gp
Gas Volume
Oil volume Oil volume

NBoi (N-Np)Bo
Original conditions Later conditions
By volumetric balance
Original volume = Final volume
Original oil volume = NBoi

Original free gas volume = 0
Final oil volume = (N-Np)Bo
Rock and water expansion are negligible compared to gas expansion in saturated
reservoirs
68
Determine final free gas volume by performing a gas balance

– Original dissolved gas = NRsi
– Final dissolved gas = (N-Np)Rs
– Gas produced = Gp
Therefore
– Final free gas = NRsi - (N-Np)Rs - Gp
Convert to reservoir conditions
– Final free gas = (NRsi - (N-Np)Rs – Gp ) Bg / 5.61
Conversion factor 1 bbl = 5.61 ft3

69
The volumetric balance becomes:
NBoi = (N − N p )Bo +
Bg
5.61
[NR − (N − N )R − G ]
si p s p
Solving for N
N p Bo − (N p Rs − G p )
Bg
N= 5.61
Bg
Bo + (Rsi − Rs ) − Boi
5.61
70
To simplify, note that

Bg
BT = Bo + (Rsi − Rs )
5.61
Gp
Rp =
Np
Also, since no gas evolved at Pb
Boi = BTi
BT is total formation volume factor

71
Finally
N p  BT + (R p − Rsi ) g 
 B 
N=  5.61
BT − BTi

72
General MBE
N=
N p Bo + (G p − N p Rs ) Bg + (W p −W i−We ) Bw − Gi Bg
B − Bgi B
( Bo − Boi ) + ( Rsi − Rs ) Bg + mBoi g + oi (1 + m)( S wcw + c f )( PiR − PR )
Bgi 1 − S wi
The general MBE with account for water encroachment, injection, production; as
well as gas injection and production is presented here.
As we have seen in previous two examples, by considering a case only above or
only below bubble point, some terms are zero or negligible and the general equation
can be simplified. Further simplifications can be made depending on a particular
case of reservoir drive mechanism, for example if no aquifer present We = 0.
73
Material Balance Analysis
Data requirements
Assembling the data set
Data QC
Black oil material balance
Water influx
Now that we have derived the general form of the black oil material balance
equation, we will focus on its application in black oil reservoirs. Later, we show
how the material balance equation can be applied in natural gas and aquifer driven
reservoirs.
74
Material Balance Analysis
Data requirements
Estimates of average reservoir pressure vs time
Reservoir fluid PVT relationships
Reservoir cumulative production and injection volumes

75
Average Reservoir Pressure
4000
3500
3000
2500
Bottom-Hole Pressure, psia
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Hours Since Shut-In
Average reservoir pressure can be estimated by shutting in wells and observing their
pressure response over time as shown by the figure above. If a well is shut in long
enough, the bottomhole pressure in the well may represent the average reservoir
pressure.
Methods for Estimating Average Reservoir Pressure

1) Long term shut-in
2) Pressure transient analysis (well testing)
Potential Errors Associated With Average Reservoir Pressure Estimates

1) Insufficient shut-in time (wells not built up)
2) Pressure gradients in reservoir
3) Inconsistent data for pressure readings
76
Fluid PVT Relationships
Methods for obtaining relationships

Reservoir fluid study (laboratory analysis)
Correlations
Potential Errors Associated With Reservoir Fluid Studies

Sampling errors
-recombination
-unrepresentative samples
Potential Errors Associated With Correlations

Incorrect reservoir fluid description
Correlations may be inaccurate for a given reservoir fluid
77
Cumulative Production/Injection Data
Source
Operator records of monthly production and injection
Potential errors
Date of first record ≠ date of first production
Inaccurate reporting of noncommercial phases
Wrong set of wells
Cumulative production data volumes are generally the easiest information to obtain.
Most operators keep records of monthly volumes of oil, gas, and water production
from a reservoir.
Public data can have many errors associated with them. Old wells may not have
early production reported. Also, noncommercial phases (water and injection
volumes) may not be reported. Injection records are rarely available from public
records.
78
Data Preparation
Convert all pressure data to common datum

Plot pressure vs. time for all wells
Calculate cumulative production/injection from reservoir
Assemble fluid PVT data

79
Converting Pressures to Common Datum
p datum = p measured
+ Gradient(hdatum − hmeasured )
Select a datum depth corresponding to the midpoint of the reservoir and normalize
all pressures to this datum using the equation above.
80
Plot of Pressure vs. Time
3500
Well #1
3000 Well #2
Well #3
Well #4
2500
Measured Pressure, psia
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Jan-90 Jan-91 Jan-92 Jan-93 Jan-94
Date
Plotting pressure vs. time for all wells makes it easy to identify erroneous pressure
data and wells producing from separate reservoirs.
In this plot, Well #2 appears to be in a separate reservoir. Also, one of the pressures
from Well #1 is not built-up.
81
Black Oil Material Balance
Straight line analysis techniques (Havlena-Odeh)

Assumptions
Analysis techniques
Common pitfalls
Now that we have discussed the fundamentals of material balance, we will illustrate
its application in black oil reservoirs.
In this section we will discuss the straight-line techniques for analyzing volumetric
black oil reservoirs. We will start by describing the mathematical representation of
the material balance equation as a straight line and its underlying assumptions,
analysis techniques, and common analysis pitfalls.
82
Basic Assumptions
Volumetric reservoir model

– Closed system (no fluid influx across boundary of reservoir)
Measured pressures represent average reservoir pressure
Black oil fluid PVT relationships are accurate

83
Reservoir Models
Reservoir
Volumetric Reservoir
The three basic black oil reservoir models for material balance analysis are:
Volumetric Reservoir Model (closed tank model): The reservoir is closed and no
fluid can move across reservoir boundaries.
.
84
Reservoir Models
Reservoir Aquifer
Aquifer Driven Reservoir
Aquifer Driven Reservoir Model: Reservoir is connected to an adjacent aquifer.

Water flows from aquifer into reservoir to partially offset withdrawals.
85
Reservoir Models
Reservoir 3 Reservoir 1 Reservoir 2
Compartmental Reservoir
Compartmental Reservoir Model: Reservoir is connected to other reservoirs. Flow

to and from other reservoirs can occur.
86
Straight-Line Analysis Techniques
The material balance equation as a straight line

Introduced by Havlena-Odeh
Typical straight-line techniques
– OOIP vs. cumulative oil production
– F vs. Etotal
– F/EO vs. Eg/Eo

87
MBE as a Straight Line
F = N(Eo + mEg + E fw )
Or
F = NE total
The general form of the material balance equation previously developed can be
rewritten in the form on this slide:
The physical representation of the terms presented are:
F = Total production and injection into reservoir

NEo = Expansion of oil and originally dissolved gas
NmEg = Expansion of original gas cap
NEfw = Reduction in hydrocarbon pore volume resulting from
connate water expansion and pore volume compression
Etotal = Eo + mEg + Efw
88
MBE as a Straight Line
F = N p Bo + (Gp − N p Rs ) Bg + W p Bw
Eo = (Bo − Boi ) + (Rsi − Rs )Bg
B 
E g = Boi  g − 1
B 
 gi 
 c S + cf 
E fw = (1 + m ) Boi  w wi ∆p
 1 − Swi 
Recall from the previous slide:
F = Total production and injection into reservoir

NEo = Expansion of oil and originally dissolved gas
NmEg = Expansion of original gas-cap
NEfw = Reduction in hydrocarbon pore volume resulting
from connate water Expansion and pore volume
compression
We can also define an additional term, Etotal, which is the total expansion of fluid
plus the total reduction in hydrocarbon pore volume.
Etotal = Eo+mEg+Efw
89
Typical Straight-Line Techniques

F/Etotal vs. Cumulative Oil Production
OOIP vs. Cum Oil - Example Reservoir
6,000
5,500
5,000
OOIP, Mstb
4,500
4,000
OOIP = 4,833.9 Mstb (32.3%)

3,500
OGIP = 6,187.3 MMscf (49.2%)
3,000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Cum Oil Production, Mstb
The material balance equation straight-line form can be written

F = NEtotal;
therefore, a plot of F/Etotal vs. cumulative oil production should yield a horizontal
straight line representing the original oil in place. If the general trend of the data is
not a horizontal straight line, then either the incorrect reservoir model has been
chosen (water influx) or the fluid PVT relationships are not correct.
This plot can be used to estimate original oil in place; however, other straight-line
techniques generally provide better estimates of this parameter (especially when
there is a lot of scatter in the data). The most useful applications of this plot are:
1) Ensuring the correct reservoir model and PVT
relationships are chosen and
2) Determining the general range of uncertainty in estimates of OOIP when average
reservoir pressure data are limited.
90
Typical Straight-Line Techniques

F vs. Etotal
F vs. Etotal - Example Reservoir
8000
OOIP = 5,034.8 Mstb (31.0%)
OGIP = 6,444.5 MMscf (47.3%)
7000 Current Pressure = 0 psiCurrent
Pressure = 1,069.8 psi
6000
5000
F, Mrb
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Etotal, rb/stb
The most common method for estimating original oil in place for volumetric black
oil reservoirs is to plot F vs. Etotal. From the straight-line form of the material
balance equation,
F = NEtotal,
we can see that a plot of F vs. Etotal should yield a straight line with a y-intercept of
zero and a slope equal to the original oil in place.
91
Typical Straight Line Techniques

F/Eo vs. Eg/Eo
F/Eo vs. Eg/Eo - Example Reservoir
80000
Measured Data
70000
60000
50000
F/Eo, Mstb
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01
Eg/Eo
When the reservoir fluid is saturated at initial conditions, a significant initial gas cap
can be present. Unless the relative gas-cap size (m) is known, the straight-line
methods previously discussed are not applicable.
We can rewrite the straight-line solution to the material balance equation as:
F/Eo = N + mNEg/Eo
This plot should result in a straight line with the y-intercept equal to N and a slope
equal to mN. Note that we have left out the Efw term for simplicity; for reservoirs
with an initial gas cap, this term has negligible impact.
The plot shown above was generated with simulated pressure data. Analyzing
actual field data with this plot can be difficult because it is very sensitive to small
errors in average reservoir pressure. Because of this, m should be estimated from
this plot only when geologic estimates have a great deal of uncertainty or are
unavailable.
92
Common Pitfalls
Using Only One Analysis Technique
F vs. Etotal - Example Reservoir
5000
OOIP = 5,034.8 Mstb (31.0%)
OGIP = 6,444.5 MMscf (47.3%)
4500
Current Pressure = 0 psiCurrent
4000
3500
3000
F, Mrb
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Etotal, rb/stb
OOIP vs. Cum Oil - Example Reservoir

F/Eo vs. Eg/Eo - Example Reservoir
60,000
80000
55,000 Measured Data

70000
50,000
60000
45,000
40,000 50000
OOIP, Mstb
F/Eo, Mstb
35,000
40000
30,000
30000
25,000
20000
20,000
10000
15,000
10,000 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01
Cum Oil Production, Mstb Eg/Eo
The straight-line plot of F vs. Etotal generally provides the best estimate of original
oil in place; however, it should not be used exclusively.
The F vs. Etotal analysis shown above was generated assuming no original gas-cap.
Unless the other straight-line plots are analyzed, it is likely that this incorrect
reservoir description would not be noticed. For the case shown above, neglecting
the initial gas cap causes the analysis to overestimate OOIP by 35%.
The plots of OOIP vs. Cum Oil and F/Eo vs. Eg/Eo should always be used to ensure
that the correct reservoir model and fluid description are used in the analysis.
93
Common Pitfalls
Incorrect Reservoir Model
OOIP vs. Cum Oil - 9700 ft Sand OOIP vs. Cum Oil - 9700 ft Sand
400,000 400,000
OOIP = 250,566.0 Mstb (23.7%) OOIP = 101,567.4 Mstb (58.4%)

OGIP = 588,163.3 MMscf (23.2%) OGIP = 238,413.0 MMscf (57.3%)
350,000 350,000
300,000 300,000
250,000 250,000
OOIP, Mstb
OOIP, Mstb
200,000 200,000
150,000 150,000
100,000 100,000
50,000 50,000
0 0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000
Cum Oil Production, Mstb Cum Oil Production, Mstb
Volumetric Reservoir Aquifer Driven Reservoir

As we have just illustrated, all straight-line techniques should be used. The plots
above show how the incorrect reservoir model is easily identified by the character
of the F/Etotal vs. cumulative oil production graph.
The reservoir shown above is an aquifer driven reservoir (we will discuss how to
analyze these reservoirs later). If the water influx from the aquifer is ignored,
significant errors will result.
94
Common Pitfalls
Best-Fit Lines Used Inappropriately
Pressure History Match from Black Oil Model- 9700 ft Sand

F vs. Etotal - 9700 ft Sand
5000.0
120000
Input Pressure
OOIP = 99,968.4 Mstb (59.4%)
OGIP = 237,519.4 MMscf (57.5%) Calculated Pressure
Current Pressure = 0 psiCurrent
4500.0
100000
Correct
Incorrect 4000.0
80000
Reservoir Pressure, psia

3500.0
F, Mrb
60000
3000.0
40000
2500.0
20000
Pressures not built up

2000.0
0 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 Cumulative Oil Production, Mstb
Etotal, rb/stb
The most common cause of inaccurate reservoir pressure estimates is insufficient

shut-in time, which results in underestimating average pressure. Unless the
erroneous pressure data are removed from the analysis, best-fit lines will
underestimate original oil in place.
When analyzing F vs. Etotal plots, an analysis line will sometimes rest on top of a
large number of data. In general, the remaining pressure estimates are not built up,
and this is the correct analysis. The plots above illustrate this point.
95
Improper Selection Of Wells
3500
Well #1
Measured Pressure, psia
3000 Well #2
Well #3
Well #4
2500
2000
1500
1000
Well #2 not in same reservoir

500
0
Jan-90 Jan-91 Jan-92 Jan-93 Jan-94
Date
Before a material balance analysis is carried out, the pressure data should be
screened to ensure that all wells appear to be producing from the same reservoir
(especially in geologically complex areas or when data are obtained from public
records).
If a well in a separate reservoir has been identified, both the production and pressure
data from that well should be removed from the analysis.
96
Physically Impossible Results
Cumulative production > original in-place volumes

Negative saturations
Using material balance, it is possible to get a very reasonable match of the pressure
history with physically impossible results. Generally, this can be avoided by
calculating the saturations of oil, gas, and water over time using the results of your
material balance analysis.
Not only does this practice help flag physically impossible results, but it can be
useful in reducing the nonunique nature of some analyses (aquifer driven
reservoirs).
97
Exercise 4
(Dake, FRE, p.88)
It is planned to initiate a water injection scheme in the
reservoir whose PVT properties are defined. The intention is
to maintain pressure at the level of 2,700 psia (pb = 3,330
psia). If the current producing gas-oil ratio of the field is
3,000 scf/STB, what will be the initial water injection rate
required to produce 10,000 STB/d of oil?
Pressure Bo Rs Bg
psia rb/stb scf/stb rb/scf
4000 1.2417 510

3500 1.248 510
3330 1.2511 510 0.00087
3000 1.2222 450 0.00096
2700 1.2022 401 0.00107
2400 1.1822 352 0.00119
2100 1.1633 304 0.00137
1800 1.145 257 0.00161
1500 1.1287 214 0.00196
1200 1.1115 167 0.00249
900 1.094 122 0.00339
600 1.0763 78 0.00519
300 1.0583 35 0.01066
98
Exercise 5
An undersaturated reservoir producing above the bubble

point had an initial pressure of 5,000 psia, at which pressure
the oil volume factor was 1.510 RB/STB. When the pressure
had dropped to 4,600 psia, owing to the production of
100,000 STB of oil, the oil formation volume factor was 1.520
RB/STB. The connate water saturation was 25%, water
compressibility 3.2x10-6 psi-1, and, based on an average
porosity of 16%, the rock compressibility was 4.0x10-6 psi-1.
The average compressibility of the oil between 5,000 and
4,600 psia relative to the volume at 5,000 psia was 17x10-6
psi-1.

99
Exercise 5 (continued)
Geologic evidence and the absence of water production indicated a

volumetric reservoir. Assuming this was so, what was the calculated
initial oil in place?
It was desired to inventory the initial stock tank barrels in place at a
second production interval. When the pressure had dropped to 4,200
psia, formation volume factor 1.531 RB/STB, 205,000 STB had been
produced. If the average oil compressibility was 17.65x10-6 psi-1, what
was the initial oil in place?
When all cores and logs had been analyzed, the volumetric estimate of
the initial oil in place was 7.5 million STB. If this figure is correct, how
much water entered the reservoir when the pressure declined to 4,600
psia?
100
Exercise 6
The cumulative oil production, Np, and cumulative gas-oil

ratio, Rp, as functions of the average reservoir pressure over
the first 10 years of production for a gas cap reservoir follow.
Use the Havlena-Odeh approach to solve for the initial oil
and gas (both free and solution) in place.
Pressure, psia Np, million STB Rp, scf/STB Bo, RB/STB Rs, scb/STB Bg, RB/scf
3,300 0 0 1.2511 510 0.00087
3,150 3.295 1050 1.2353 477 0.00092
3,000 5.903 1060 1.2222 450 0.00096
2,850 8.852 1160 1.2122 425 0.00101
2,700 11.503 1235 1.2022 401 0.00107
2,550 14.513 1265 1.1922 375 0.00113
2,400 17.73 1300 1.1822 352 0.0012
101
Exercise 7
Using the following data, determine the original oil in place

by the Havlena-Odeh method. Assume that there is no water
influx and no initial gas cap. The bubble-point pressure is
1,800 psia.
Pressure, psia Np, million STB Rp, sct/STB Bt, RB/STB Rs, scf/STB Bg, RB/scf
1,800 0 0 1.268 577 0.00097
1,482 2.223 634 1.335 491 0.00119
1,367 2.981 707 1.372 460 0.0013
1,053 5.787 1034 1.54 375 0.00175
102
Gas Reservoir Material Balance
Straight-line analysis techniques

– Development
– Assumptions
– Analysis techniques
– Common pitfalls
Gas reservoir material balance program
– Using the program
– Example problems
In this section of the course we will show how the general form of the material balance equation can be greatly
simplified for gas reservoir material balance. Using this simplified solution, we will develop and discuss the
assumptions associated with straight-line analysis techniques.
After the theoretical foundation of gas reservoir material balance has been laid down, we will discuss how
straight-line techniques can be applied to perform a gas reservoir material balance study.
After completing this section of the course, you should be able to:
1) Understand the difference between dry gas and wet gas reservoir models
2) Define effective compressibility and understand when this term has a significant impact on gas material
balance analysis
3) Understand the assumptions associated with each straight-line analysis technique
4) Perform a gas reservoir material balance analysis
5) List the common pitfalls of gas reservoir material balance analysis
103
Gas Reservoir MBE
The change in reservoir pore volume =

– the change in reservoir gas volume
+
– the change in reservoir water volume

104
Change in Reservoir Pore Volume
GBgi
∆Vp = cf ∆p
1 − Swi

105
Change in Reservoir Gas Volume
∆Vg = GBgi − (G − Gp )Bg

106
Change in Reservoir Water Volume
GBgi
∆Vw = − Sw cw ∆p
1 − Swi

107
Gas Reservoir MBE
∆Vp = ∆Vg + ∆Vw

108
Gas Reservoir MBE
GBgi  Sw cw + c f 
G − Gp = 1 − ∆ p 
Bg  1 − Swi 

109
Gas Reservoir MBE
PscTz
Bg =
PTsc
( p / z)  Sw cw + cf 
G − Gp = G 1 − ∆ p 
( p / z )i  1 − Swi 
110
Gas Reservoir MBE
p  Sw cw + c f   p   p  Gp
1 − ∆ p  =   −  
z 1 − Swi   z i  z i G

111
Gas Reservoir MBE
More common forms of the gas reservoir material balance

equation are:
p
(
1 − ce ∆ p =   −  )
 p  Gp  p 
z  z i G  z i
p  p  Gp  p 
=  −  
z  z i G  z i
In the top equation, we have simplified the reduction in hydrocarbon pore volume
by replacing
c w Sw + c f
1 − Sw
with an effective compressibility term, c . e
In the lower equation, we have set the effective compressibility equal to zero. In
medium-to-low pressure reservoirs, effective compressibility is small compared to
the compressibility of the gas; therefore, this assumption is justified. In high
pressure reservoirs, gas compressibility is much smaller and the effective
compressibility term cannot be ignored. We will illustrate this later when we work
through our example problems.
112
Common Gas Reservoir Models
Volumetric dry gas reservoir

Volumetric wet gas reservoir
Volumetric highly compressible wet gas reservoir
Water influx gas reservoirs
The treatment of water influx gas reservoirs is similar to water influx oil reservoirs
(will be discussed at the end of this section).
113
Volumetric Dry Gas Reservoirs
Gas
Gas Gas
Initial Conditions Later
p  p  Gp  p 
=  + 
z  z i G  z i
The figure above illustrates the volumetric dry gas reservoir model. This model
assumes that the reservoir is filled with only gas at all times. Only gas is produced
from the reservoir and the hydrocarbon pore volume remains unchanged as the
reservoir pressure depletes.
Because of its simplicity, the volumetric dry gas material balance model is the most
common gas reservoir material balance model. From the equation above, it can be
seen that plotting p/z vs. cumulative gas production will result in a straight line
with a y-intercept equal to (p/z)i and an x-intercept equal to the original gas in-
place. This plot is commonly referred to as a p/z vs. cum plot.
114
Volumetric Dry Gas Reservoirs
Assumptions of volumetric dry gas reservoir model

Hydrocarbon pore volume does not change
Only dry gas in reservoir
Only dry gas produced
No water influx

115
Volumetric Wet Gas Reservoirs
Gas + Condensate
Gas Gas
Initial Conditions T=2
p  p  Gp,eq  p 
=  + 
z  z  i Geq  z  i
The figure above illustrates the volumetric wet gas reservoir model. This model
assumes that the reservoir is filled with only gas at all times; however, as gas is
produced from the reservoir, condensate drops out of the gas. To account for this
liquid production, the condensate volumes must be converted back into their
original gas volumes at reservoir conditions. Equivalent gas production is equal to
the volume of gas produced plus the equivalent gas volume of condensate produced.
Since this is a volumetric model, the hydrocarbon pore volume remains unchanged
as the reservoir pressure depletes.
From the equation above, it can be seen that plotting p/z vs. cumulative equivalent
gas production will result in a straight line with a y-intercept equal to (p/z)i and an
x-intercept equal to the original equivalent gas in place.
116
Geopressured Wet Gas Reservoirs
Gas + Condensate
Gas
Gas
Initial Conditions T=2
p
( )
 p  Gp,eq  p 
1 − ce ∆ p =   + 
z   i eq  z  i
z G
The geopressured wet gas reservoir model is the most complete form of the gas
reservoir material balance equation. The effective compressibility term can be used
to account for hydrocarbon pore volume reduction and water influx from a small
aquifer (we will discuss water influx later).
117
Geopressured Wet Gas Reservoirs
Assumptions of geopressured wet gas reservoir model

Constant formation and water compressibility
Only dry gas in reservoir
Only dry gas and condensate are produced
No water influx - or water influx from a small aquifer

118
Straight-Line Analysis Techniques
OGIP vs. cumulative gas production

p/z vs. cumulative gas production
p/z vs. cumulative equivalent gas production
p/z(1-ce∆p) vs. cumulative equivalent gas production
Roach plot

119
OGIP vs. Cumulative Gas Production
120000
100000
80000
OGIP, MMscf
60000
40000
20000 Geopressured Wet Gas Reservoir Model

Volumetric Dry Gas Reservoir Model
Volumetric Wet Gas Reservoir Model
0
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 45,000
Equivalent Gas Production, MMscf
This plot is analogous to the OOIP vs. cumulative oil production plot we have previously
worked with. A plot of calculated original gas in place vs. cumulative gas production
should yield a horizontal straight line representing the original gas in place. If the general
trend of the data is not a horizontal straight line, then either the incorrect reservoir model has
been chosen or the fluid PVT relationships are not correct.
This plot can be used to estimate original gas in place; however, other straight-line
techniques sometimes provide better estimates of this parameter (especially when there is a
lot of scatter in the data). The most useful applications of this plot are:
1) Ensuring the correct reservoir model and PVT relationships are chosen and
2) Determining the general range of uncertainty in estimates of OOIP when average
reservoir pressure data are limited.
In the plot above, OGIP was calculated at each pressure using the three different reservoir
models we have previously discussed. It is clear that the geopressured model should be
used for this reservoir since the trends of the volumetric reservoir models are sloping
downward.
120
p/z vs. Cumulative Gas Production
7000.0
6000.0
5000.0
4000.0
P/Z, psia
3000.0
2000.0
OGIP = 87,674,457 Mscf

1000.0 Cumulative Recovery = 4.7% OGIP
Ultimate Recovery = 77.6% OGIP
Current Pressure = 8,305.7psi
0.0
0 10000000 20000000 30000000 40000000 50000000 60000000 70000000 80000000 90000000
Cumulative Gas Prod, Mscf
The straight-line plot of p/z vs. cumulative gas production is the simplest material
balance approach for estimating original gas in place. It can also be used to
estimate recoverable gas in place if the average reservoir pressure at abandonment
can be estimated. The p/z vs. cumulative gas production plot is based on the gas
material balance equation for volumetric dry gas reservoirs:
p p p
= i Gp + i
z zi G zi
Thus, a plot of p/z vs. cumulative gas production will result in a straight line with a
y-intercept equal to (p/z)i and an x-intercept equal to the original gas in place.
121
p/z vs. Cumulative Equivalent

Gas Production
7000.0
6000.0
5000.0
4000.0
P/Z, psia
3000.0
2000.0
OGIPeq = 88,507,934 Mscf
Cumulative Recovery = 6.7% OGIPeq
Ultimate Recovery = 79.3% OGIPeq
1000.0 Current Pressure = 7,881.1 psi
0.0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 90,000
Cumulative Equivalent Gas, MMscf
The straight-line plot of p/z vs. cumulative equivalent gas production is very
similar to the p/z vs. cumulative gas production plot shown on the previous slide.
The only difference between the two approaches is that this method uses an
equivalent gas production that accounts for both gas and condensate production.
Thus, a plot of p/z vs. cumulative equivalent gas production will result in a straight
line with a y-intercept equal to (p/z)i and an x-intercept equal to the original
equivalent gas in place.
122
p/z(1-ceDP) vs. Cumulative Equivalent Gas

Production
7000.0
6000.0 OGIPeq = 76,419,899 Mscf

Current Pressure = 8,077.7 psi
5000.0
(P/Z)(1-Ce∆ p), psia
4000.0
3000.0
2000.0
1000.0
0.0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000
Cumulative Equivalent Gas, MMscf
To include the effects of connate water expansion and pore volume compression,
we can plot p/z(1-ce∆ p) vs. cumulative equivalent gas production. From the gas
material balance equation for geopressured wet gas reservoirs,
p pi p
(1 − c e ∆ p ) = G p,eq + i
we can z zi G
see that a plot of p/z(1-c ∆p) vs. eq zi gas production will
cumulative equivalent e
result in a straight line with a y-intercept equal to (p/z)i and an x-intercept equal to
the original gas in-place.
123
Roach Plot
0.00016
0.00014 OGIPeq = 78,604,267 Mscf

Current Pressure = 7,711.6 psi
0.00012 Ce = 12.0 microsips
0.0001
0.00008
Alpha
0.00006
0.00004
0.00002
-0.00002
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Beta
Usually, the effective compressibility is not known; however, it can be estimated

using a plotting method developed by Roach. The material balance equation for
geopressured wet gas reservoirs can be written in the following form:
1   
α =  
β − cf
where G
 eq 
 (p / z) 
α =  i
− 1 ∆ p
and  ( p / z ) 
 ( p / z )i 
β = G p  
Plotting α vs. β ( p / z ) ∆ p
will result in a straight line with a slope equal to 1/Geq and a y-
intercept equal to -cf. This plot is usually very difficult to use since minor changes
in the interpretation can cause large changes in the estimate of ce.
124
Common Pitfalls in Gas Reservoir Material

Balance
Wrong reservoir model

Best-fit lines used inappropriately
Improper selection of wells
Physically impossible results
In general, the pitfalls we have mentioned for black oil reservoirs also apply to dry and wet
gas reservoirs. These include:
1) Using the wrong reservoir model
2) Improper use of best-fit lines
3) Improper selection of wells, and
4) Obtaining physically impossible results
The methods for overcoming these problems are also the same.
1) Plot the pressure vs. time for each well in the analysis to identify erroneous pressures and
wells that may be in separate reservoirs.
2) Check the plot of OGIP vs. cumulative gas production to ensure that the correct reservoir
model is being used.
3) Make sure to use best-fit lines only when appropriate and
4) Check results to ensure they make sense with the available reservoir description.
125
Aquifer Driven Reservoirs
Aquifer
Reservoir
So far, we have assumed closed reservoir systems and ignored the effects of water
influx. When a reservoir is connected to an adjacent aquifer, withdrawals from the
reservoir will cause the reservoir pressure to decline. This drop in pressure causes
water from the aquifer to flow into the reservoir. This influx tends to maintain,
either partially or wholly, the reservoir pressure.
126
Aquifer Driven Reservoir Models
Small aquifer reservoir model

Limited aquifer reservoir model
Infinite aquifer reservoir model
The three most common aquifer models used to calculate water influx are the small
aquifer model, the limited aquifer model, and the infinite aquifer model. The
primary difference between these models is the size of the aquifer.
We will discuss the assumptions and applicability of each model and show how to
predict water influx using each of these methods.
127
Small Aquifer Model
Assumes water flows into reservoir instantaneously

Applies only to very small aquifers
(Vp, aq < 3Vp,res)
The small aquifer reservoir model assumes that water from the aquifer expands into
the reservoir instantaneously as reservoir pressure declines. This assumption is
valid for very small aquifers where the aquifer pore volume is less than three times
the reservoir volume.
128
Small Aquifer Model
Replace Sw in volumetric model with the following

relationship:
Vp,res Sw + Vp,aq
Sw =
Vp,res + Vp,aq
Essentially, the small aquifer model treats the aquifer and the reservoir as a single
volumetric reservoir. The pore volume of the reservoir is the pore volume of the
aquifer plus the pore volume of the reservoir. The water saturation of the combined
system can be calculated with the equation above. Notice that Sw now includes both
reservoir water and aquifer water.
129
Limited and Infinite Aquifer Models
Aquifer water can expand faster than it can flow into the
reservoir
Solutions to the diffusivity equation provide water influx as a
function of reservoir pressure and time
Properties of the aquifer are seldom known
Provides nonunique estimate of original hydrocarbons in
place
When the aquifer is much larger than the reservoir, the aquifer water can expand
much faster than it can flow into the reservoir. Water influx rates are governed by
the diffusivity equation for the reservoir/aquifer system. These equations are
analogous to the equations that describe flow from the reservoir into the wellbore.
When estimating water influx, aquifer properties such as permeability, thickness,
compressibility, and areal extent are seldom known since wells are generally not
drilled into the aquifer. When these properties cannot be accurately estimated, the
volume of original hydrocarbons in place is difficult to estimate uniquely. This is
because a small reservoir with a lot of aquifer pressure support will behave (from a
pressure-depletion standpoint) very similar to a large reservoir with a small amount
of aquifer support.
130
Limited and Infinite Aquifer Solutions
Van Everdingen and Hurst method

Carter and Tracy method
Fetkovich method
∂ 2 pd 1 ∂pd ∂pd
+ =
∂ rd rd ∂rd
2
∂t d
As mentioned previously, to estimate the water influx rates as a function of time, we

must solve the diffusivity equation, which is shown above in dimensionless form for
radial aquifer systems. The three most popular methods for estimating water influx
are the Van Everdingen and Hurst method, the Carter and Tracy method, and the
Fetkovich method. The difference among these approaches lies in the assumptions
used to solve the diffusivity equation.
We will discuss the basic aquifer geometries and boundary conditions, the
assumptions associated with each solution method, and the application of these
methods to estimating cumulative water influx as a function of time and reservoir
pressure.
Finally, we will show how to analyze aquifer driven reservoirs using material
balance.
131
Aquifer Geometries
Radial Aquifer Model Linear Aquifer Model
re
Reservoir
w
q
ro
Reservoir
Aquifer
Aquifer
The Van Everdingen and Hurst and the Carter and Tracy methods assume a radial
aquifer/reservoir model. The nomenclature associated with these models are
presented above.
re - outer radius of aquifer
ro - outer radius of reservoir
Sometimes, a wedge reservoir/aquifer system is used, where θ is the angle of the
wedge as shown in the figure above.
132
Outer Boundary Conditions
Limited aquifer
– No flow (closed aquifer)
– Constant pressure (aquifer recharge at outcrop)
Infinite aquifer

133
Dimensionless Variables
kt
t d = 0.00634
φµct ro
We
Wd =
θ
1.119 φµct ro ∆p
360
re
rd =
ro
We will present solutions to the diffusivity equation in terms of three dimensionless

variables:
td - dimensionless time
Wd - dimensionless cumulative water influx
rd - dimensionless aquifer radius
The equations above are in oilfield units (defined below)
k - aquifer permeability, md
t - time, days
φ - porosity, fraction
µ - aquifer water viscosity, cp
ct - total aquifer compressibility (cf+cw), 1/psi
re - external radius of aquifer, ft
ro - external radius of reservoir, ft
∆p - pressure drop (pi-p), psia
We - cumulative water influx, bbl
134
Van Everdingen and Hurst

Limited Aquifer Solution
20
red=88.0 red=7.0
18
red=6.0
16
14
12 red=5.0
Wd
10
red=4.5
8
red=4.0
6
red=3.5
4 red=3.0
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
td
The graph presented above shows the Van Everdingen and Hurst limited aquifer
solution. It is a solution to the diffusivity equation that assumes
1) a constant pressure inner boundary (reservoir/aquifer interface)
2) a closed outer boundary (no flow across aquifer outer boundary)
3) radial flow from aquifer to reservoir
4) limited aquifer
135
Application of Superposition to Van Everdingen

and Hurst Solution
∆p0
∆p1
∆p2
∆p3
Time
Since the pressure in the reservoir is changing over time, we must use superposition
to calculate cumulative water influx with the constant pressure inner boundary
solution.
The figure above shows how we can discretize the variable pressure history into a
series of constant pressure steps, where: p −p
∆p 0 = i 1
2
p − p2
∆p1 = i
2
p j−1 − p j+1
∆p j =
2
Using this discretized pressure history, we can apply the superposition theorem to
calculate We using the following equation:
θ n −1
W e = 1 . 119 φ hc t ro ∑ ∆p W (T d − t dj )
2
j d
360 j =0
136
Carter and Tracy Method
Assumes constant rate during timestep instead of constant

pressure
Approximates Van Everdingen and Hurst solution
Does not require superposition
The Carter and Tracy method is a good approximation to the Van Everdingen and
Hurst method. Rather than use a constant pressure inner boundary condition for
each timestep, this approach assumes a constant rate inner boundary condition for
each timestep. This assumption allows the calculation of water influx without using
superposition.
The incremental water influx during a timestep is given by the equation:
 β ∆ p n − W e ,n − 1p ′d,n 
∆ W e = (t d,n − t d,n − 1 ) 

Where:  p d,n − t d,n − 1p ′d,n 
θ
β = 1 .119
2
hc t ro
360
Using these equations, we can calculate cumulate water influx as:
We = We,n −1 + ∆We
137
Carter and Tracey Method

pd vs. td
20
18 red = 8.0
16
14
red = 7.0
12
red = 6.0
pd
10
8 red = 5.0
red = 4.5
6
red = 4.0
red = 3.5
4
red = 3.0
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
td
The chart above shows the relationship between pd and td , which was obtained by
solving the diffusivity equation for a constant rate inner boundary condition.
138
Carter and Tracey Method

dpd/dtd vs. td
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25 red = 8.0

pd
0.2
red = 7.0
0.15
red = 6.0
red = 5.0
0.1
red = 4.5
red = 4.0
0.05 red = 3.5
red = 3.0
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
td

139
Fetkovich Method
Aquifer
Reservoir
The Fetkovich method is based on the assumption of boundary-dominated flow in

the aquifer. Under these conditions, the solution to the diffusivity equation can be
placed in the following form:
∆W e =
Wei
pi
(
(p aquifer ,n−1 − preservoir ,n ) 1 − e − Jpi∆t / Wei )
Where:
We = We,i −1 + ∆We
And J is the aquifer productivity index. We will present equations for calculating
the aquifer productivity index on the next page. Notice that the equation above
requires us to estimate the aquifer pressure. We can accomplish this by performing
a material balance calculation on the aquifer. The equation for the aquifer material
balance is:
 W 
p aq ,n −1 = p i  1 − e ,n −1 
 Wc t p i 
140
Calculating Aquifer Productivity Index
Radial Aquifers Linear Aquifers

θ
0.00708 kh 0.003381khw
Pseudosteady-State J= 360 J=
 r  µL
µ ln e − 0.75 
 ro 
θ
Steady-State 0.00708 kh 0.001127 khw
J= 360 J=
 r  µL
µ ln e 
 ro 
The slide above shows equations for calculating the value for productivity index for
various aquifer geometries in outer boundary conditions. The pseudosteady-state
outer boundary condition represents an aquifer that is closed along its outer
boundary. The steady-state outer boundary condition represents an aquifer that is
being recharged at an outer boundary by water flowing across the boundary at
constant pressure. The steady-state outer boundary condition can be physically
represented by an aquifer that is being recharged at a surface outcrop.
141
Van Everdingen and Hurst Aquifer Models
Advantages Disadvantages
Most rigorous solution to Model geometry (radial, linear,
diffusivity equation or wedge)
Handles transition from Requires superposition
transient to pseudosteady-state Solution must be inverted from
flow Laplace space to real time
Van Everdengin and Hurst presented solutions to the diffusivity equation that are
more rigorous than the other methods that we have discussed. However, to solve
the diffusivity equation, they had to assume that the geometry of the reservoir
aquifer system was either radial, linear, or a wedge. Also, the solutions were not
presented in terms of real time but rather Laplace space. To apply these solutions,
the values for dimensionless, cumulative water influx must be obtained from tables
or obtained by numerically inverting the Laplace transform. Furthermore, these
solutions require superposition to be correctly calculated. This is a very time-
consuming process.
142
Carter and Tracey Aquifer Models
Avantages Disadvantages
Does not require superposition Model geometry (radial, linear,
Handles transition from or wedge)
transient to pseudosteady-state Not as rigorous as Van
flow Everdingen and Hurst models
Solution must be inverted from
Laplace space to real time
To eliminate the need for superposition, Carter and Tracy provided a close
approximation to the rigorous Van Everdingin and Hurst solution. This solution
correctly handles the transition from transient to pseudosteady-state flow, just as the
Van Everdingin and Hurst solution; however, solution does not require the use of
superposition. Similar to the Van Everdingin and Hurst, Carter and Tracy had to
assume that the aquifer was either radial, linear, or wedge shape to solve the
diffusivity equation. Also, the solutions are presented in terms of Laplace space
and must be inverted back to real time using a numerical inversion technique.
143
Fetkovich Aquifer Models
Advantages Disadvantages
Does not require superposition Does not account for transient
Does not assume any flow period
reservoir/aquifer geometry Not as rigorous as other models
Simple solution to diffusivity
equation
The simplest aquifer solution, from a calculation standpoint, is the Fetkovitch

aquifer model. This solution does not require superposition and presents the final
equations in terms of real time. To accomplish this, Fetkovitch assumed that the
flow in the aquifer is dominated by boundary effects; thus, transient flow is ignored.
If the aquifer is very large compared to the reservoir, using this model will result in
significant errors.
144
Modifying Material Balance Equations for Water

Influx
Black Oil:
 G  
N p Bo +  p − Rs Bg  + (W p − Winj )Bw − We =
N 
  p  
 (B − Boi ) + (Rsi − Rs )Bg B   c S + cf  
NBoi  o + m g − 1 + (1 + m ) w wi ∆p 
B 
 Boi  gi   1 − Swi  

145
Modifying Material Balance Equations for Water

Influx
Wet Gas:
GBgi = (G − Gp )Bg + We − BwW p

146
Estimating Initial Hydrocarbons

In Place, Aquifer Driven Reservoirs
Estimate original oil in place

Calculate water influx using the material balance equation
Match water influx with analytical model
Include model influx rates into material balance analysis and
observe pressure history match
Repeat process until best fit of reservoir pressure data is
obtained

147
Calculating Water Influx From Material Balance

Equation
Black Oil:
 G  
We = N p Bo +  p − Rs Bg  + (W p − Winj )Bw −
N 
  p  
 (B − Boi ) + (Rsi − Rs )Bg B   c S + cf  
NBoi  o + m g − 1 + (1 + m ) w wi ∆p 
B 
 Boi  gi   1 − Swi  
Dry Gas:
We = GBgi − (G − Gp )Bg + BwW p

148
Matching Cumulative Water Influx With Analytical

Model
180000
Calculated from Material Balance
160000 Van Everdingen and Hurst Model
140000
Cumulative Water Influx, stb
120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
OOIP = 100 Mstb
rd = 125
20000 td constant = 0.08
Wd constant = 648
0
01/1945
01/1947
01/1949
01/1951
01/1953
01/1955
01/1957
01/1959
01/1961
01/1963
01/1965
01/1967
01/1969
01/1971
01/1973
01/1975
01/1977
01/1979
01/1981
01/1983
01/1985
01/1987
01/1989
01/1991
01/1993
01/1995
01/1997
Date

149
Matching Pressure History With Analytical Water

Influx Rates
5,000
4,500 Input Reservoir Pressure, psia
Calculated Reservoir Pressure, psia

4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
OOIP = 100,000 Mstb

500
0
0 10,000,000 20,000,000 30,000,000 40,000,000 50,000,000 60,000,000 70,000,000
Cumulative Oil Production, stb

Day 3-02 - Reservoir Drive Mechanisms &amp; MB

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Reservoir Drive Mechanisms and Material Balance

Reservoir Drive Mechanisms and

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Name reservoir drive mechanisms

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Oil Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

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Gas Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

Volumetric reservoir (gas expansion drive)

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Reservoir Energy Sources

Liberation, expansion of solution gas

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These are major sources of reservoir energy.

Solution-Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs

Oil producing wells

Solution-Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs

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Solution-Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs

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Solution-Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs

Gas/oil ratio, SCF/STB

400 200 Reservoir 200

Oil production rate

Typical production characteristics

Solution-Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs

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Gas-Cap Drive in Oil Reservoirs

Oil producing well

Gas-Cap Drive in Oil Reservoirs

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Gas-Cap Drive in Oil Reservoirs Typical

Gas/oil ratio, scf/STB

Typical production characteristics

Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs

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Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs Edgewater Drive

Oil producing well

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Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs Bottomwater Drive

Oil producing well

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Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs Typical Production

Gas/oil ratio, MSCF/STB

Typical production characteristics

Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs Effect of Production

Gas/oil ratio, MSCF/STB

Combination Drive in Oil Reservoirs

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Basic drive mechanisms usually occur in combination.

Dominant drive mechanism depends on the “strength" of each of the source(s)

Gravity Drainage in Oil Reservoirs

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Pressure and Gas/Oil Ratio Trends

Pressure and Gas/Oil Ratio Trends

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Gas Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

Volumetric reservoir (gas expansion drive)

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Volumetric Gas Reservoirs

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Main source(s) of reservoir energy

Water Drive in Gas Reservoirs

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Day 3-02 - Reservoir Drive Mechanisms & MB

Day 3-02 - Reservoir Drive Mechanisms & MB