PREFACE

Tm s v olume on MAG NETI SM l ike t h e

,

o ther s in the Elect r o Tech ni ca l S r i es

e ,

is intended to meet the demand wh i ch

e xists on the part of the general public
for reliable inf ormation respecting such
matters i n Electricity and Magn etis m
as can be readily understood b y thos e not
especially trained in electro technics
-
.

Magnetism has always proved an at

tractive s ubject to the general reader .

The mysterious nature of the force h as

naturally cau sed it to possess a deep i n
t erest for the inquis i tive mind of man .

While the mys t eriou s in science as a rule

, ,

i s rapidly dis p elled as o ur kno wl edge o f

,

the science grows magnetis m h as proved

,
V P REF ACE

an exception so that even to d ay mu ch

,

remains to b e explained concerning the

origin and nature of this strange force .

The au thors have discu ssed at some

length vario u s theories of magnetism that
have been propo unded from time to tim e ,

and have adopted provisionally for

, ,

p urposes of explanation that particul ar

,

modern theory which would seem t o them

t o be the most readily comprehended .

The phenomena both of p ermanen t and

electromagnetism are as fully described
as the limits of the boo k will permit .

The important laws of the magnetic circ uit

are carefully prese nted and are explained
in langu age which it is hoped avoids
t h e vagueness that t oo fr eq u ently attends

such des criptions The phenom ena of

.

the earth s magnetism are considered at

’

s om e length and the peculiarities in the

d i st ri b ut i on and variation of t h i s magnet
 PREF ACE V

ism have b een developed in a manner

which it is hope d will prove attractive
to the reader .

The au thors have employe d throughout

the boo k the magnet ic units provisionally
adop ted by the American I nstitute of
Electrical Engi neers .

The authors desire to acknowledge

th eir indebtedness to Prof Mark W . .

Harrington formerly of the U S W eather

'

. .
,

Bu reau for v al uable data concer ning m ag

,

netic ob servations in the U nited States ;

also to Prof S P Thompson for Fi g 81
. . . . .

Com ple x m athematical formul ae have

carefully b een e x cl u ded .

The au thors present the b oo k in the

h Op e that i f may prove o f val ue t o t h e
g eneral p u b lic .
 CONTENTS .

PAG E

I NTR OD U CTORY ,
MAG N ETI C P H E N OM E N A ,

T H E O R I ES OF MA G N ETI SM ,

MA G N ETI C C I R CU I TS,

ELECTR O -
M A G N ETI SM,

ELECTR O -
M A G N ETS,

TH E ATT R ACT I V E P O W E R OF MA G
N ETS,

SOME P R A CT I CA L A P P LI C A TI ON S OF

ELE C T R o M A G N ET S,
-

MI SCELLA N EOU S MA G N ETI C P HE

H OM EN A ,

X
. P HEN OM EN A OF T HE EA RTH ’
S MAG ~

N ETISM,
 MAG NETISM .

fi
-

CHA P TER I .

IN TR O D U CTO RY .

TEE mysterio u s invariably possesses a

strange fascination fo the h uman mind
r ,

wh i ch ever desires t o peer into the realm

o f the un k nown . A pparent i ncom p reh e n
si b i l i t y in any physical phen o menon b e
, ,

g ets a c u riosity that u r ges the mind to

attempt t o wrest the secret of its cause
from nature . It is there fore not aston
, ,

i sh i ng that so mysterio u s a force as m ag

n e t i sm sho uld at a very early period
, ,
2 G
MA NET SM I .

have attracted considerable attention It .

is uncertain t o whom the honor of the

discovery Oi th i s strange force is due
-
.

Histo ry differs as to both the year and the

nation According t o some the discovery
. ,

of the tt act i v e p w
ra o f magnetism for
o er ,

iron and simil ar metals as possessed b y ,

a cert ain ore of iron called the lod t ne es o ,

was made by a shepherd on Mt Ida who .

, ,

it is alleged discovered this property

,
”

by the iron end of his shepherd staff b e

i ng not only attracted t o b ut also held ,

b y a massive lodestone rock .

It is however more probable that the

, ,

attractive power of the lodestone was dis

covered subsequ ently t o its di ct i v re e

p wo er ; that is the ability

, o f a mass o f
th i s material whe n s u spended by a
,

thread t o point in a more or less north

,

an d so uth di rection .
 I NTR ODU CTORY . 3

Bu t it is doub tful that the world re

mained as long in ign orance of this strange
mineral and its curiou s properties as
, ,

the alle ged first discovery on Mt I da .

woul d indicate . There woul d appear t o

be b ut little doub t that the Chinese long ,

b efore this time had a knowledge both of

,

the attractive and of t h e di rective power

of the lodestone and that they employed
,

the latter power not only in directing

,

their vessels over their waters but also ,

for finding their way across the trac kless

p lains o f Tarta ry .

Even the origin of our word m gnet i sm a ,

lik e the property itself is involved in,

doubt According to some this word was

.

derived from m gni heavy alluding to

a s, ,

the high specific gravity of magnetic ir on

ore or the lodestone in which the prop
, ,

ert y was first o b served A ccor di ng to

.
4 G
MA NET ISM .

others the word magnetism was tak en

,

from the place where it is claimed the

prop erty was first discovered ; namely ,

Magnesia A sia Minor The name former

, .

l y given t o the lodestone had re ference

t o its ability t o point o r lead t h e navi ga
t or . This word is frequ ently misspelled
l dston e
oa this error being pro b ably
,

du e to the erroneo u s idea that the origi

nal Significance of the word was that of
a stone which co uld s upport a weight o r

load rather than one possessing a di

,

r ect i e leadin g tend ncy

v e .

Ther e would appear t o be b ut little

doubt as t o wh y the ancients l ocked with
such sur prise on the c urio u s properties
of the lodestone This strange s ubstance
.

seemed to them instinct with life ; for it

was apparently able to determine while ,

ye t at a distance from a body whether it ,

 INTROD U O RYCT . 5

shoul d attract it or not a property emi ,

u en tly characteristic of i ntelligence

!

Moreover ob serving the facility with

,

which the lodestone co uld impart its mys

t eri o u s properties to other bo di es s uch , ,

for example as hardened st eel by me re ly

, ,

strok ing them did it not seem as i f it

,

were thu s able to endow s uch bo di es with

a portion of its own vitality Even when
more intimate knowledge of the properties
of t h e lodestone showed beyond doubt
that it possessed no animation there still ,

remained t o be explained that strange

facility with which it can apparently
reach across interveni ng space and draw
t o itself certain bodies .

It happens seldom in the history o f

,

scientific discovery th at the first ob

,

served phenomenon i n any particular field

,

of r e s earch poss e ss e s on its face a prom

,
6 MA NET G ISM .

i se of mark ed practical value On the .

contrary the u nexplored realm as seen

, ,

through the partly Open door of the first

fi
recorded observation generally seems ,

to promise bu t little of tr u e practical

val ue Magnetism forms no exception t o
.

this general rule The comparative i n si g

.

n i can ce o f the force developed in the

a t tractive power of the lodesto ne as it

was first known wo ul d scarc el y lead even
,

t h e most sangui ne to expect from it

valu able res ul ts It is tru e that the
.

discovery of the di rective property of

the lodestone gave t o the world in the ,

m ri n s
a er
’
mp coan instrument of i h
a ss,

estimable valu e ; but ap art from this ,

discovery there seemed to be b u t little

,

promise of practical work to which to put

the u nseen fingers of the magnet as man ,

i fest e d in its ability to reach ou t across

app arently empty s p ace and dra w to it
 IN RODU CTORY
T . 7

the bodies it apparently selected But .

modern di scovery has sho wn in this

case as it has in many others that it i s
, ,

unsafe to assert that any observed p hys

ical phenomenon however apparently

,

insignificant is devoid of practical value ;

,

for is it not the invisible fingers of the

,

magnet that to day stretch across land

and sea and deliver the telegraphic
message ? Nor is the p ower of these nu
seen fingers limited t o the movement of
deli cate mach i nery They prove indeed
.

the giant fingers that i n the electro

,

magnetic motor move pondero u s ma

,

chinery of many a mill and facto ry or

fi
,

drag loaded stree t ears even up moun

,

tain slo p es
.

It generally happens that even a s up er

ci al stu dy o f a n e w and strange force

at once strip s it of all its apparent mys

8 G
MA NET I SM .

t ery b u t
, this has proved fa from tru e r

with the strange force o f magnetism .

Though mu ch has been discovered con

cerni ng its natu re though we have al
,

ready investigated many oi its laws and ,

cau sed magnetic force t o serve mankind

in many and varied directions yet we ,

seem even t o day almost as fa as ever

,
-
,
r

from u nderstanding its exact natu re and

are still confronted with terra incognita at
every ste p .

It is a curio u s fact t hat the strange

force of magnetism is i ndi ssol u ab l y con
n ect e d with the e qu ally stran ge force o f

electricity A lthough as is now well

.
,

known an electric discharge or c urrent

,

cannot occur withou t the produ ction of

magnetic phenomena yet fo many cen t
, , r

u i e s the sciences o f magnetis m and elec

r ,

t ri ci t y were kep t apart the two being r e

,
 IN RODUC ORY
T T . 9

garded as presentin g entirely s eparate

gr o u ps o f phenomena . This u nnatur al
divorce of t wo sciences wedded by na
,

ture effectually prevented any mark ed

,

advance b eing made m either .

It woul d appear that the phenomena

of magnetism were observed at a m u ch

earlier date than were those of electricity .

At least this wo uld be so on the a ssump

,

tion that the first recorded electrical oh

servation was that of Thales 600 B C ; , . .

for Thales was anticip ated many centur

,

ies by the Chinese discovery of the di rec

,

tive properties of the lodestone But .

though magnetism had thus very mu ch t h e

start of elec t ricity yet it by no means
,

maintain ed its lead Progress in electric

.

ity was very rapid during the 18t h century .

During the last cent u ry however t h e

, ,

happy discovery b y Oersted of the rela

, ,
10 G
MA NETI SM .

tion between electricity and magnetism ,

broke down the barriers b etween the two

sciences and since that time both have
, , ,

progressed side by Side with unex am

, ,

pled rapidity The reason for this great

.

rapidity in joint progress during recent

times has been owing t o the numerou s
practical applications which have been
fo un d for both these forces first in teleg
,

r ap h y ; then in electric lighting ; and now

in the electrical transmission of p ower .

 fi
CHA PTER 11 .

G I C P HENOMENA
MA NET .

TH E earliest e x p eriments that were made

with magnets s u f ced to convince the
,

observers that t here were two places in

every magnet where it manifested its
peculiar properties in the most mark ed
manner These places are called p le
. o s
.

The pole which points approximately to

ward the geographical nort h when the ,

magnet is freely s u spended is called the

,

no t h p l
r o eo f the magnet , and t h e other
pole is called the s ut h p l The portion
o o e .

o f the magnet that lies between these

t wo poles apparently possesses b ut little

magnetic influence A t this time there
.
,

fore a magnet was regarded as consisting

,

practically of a pair of poles separate d ,

12 G
MA NET ISM .

by a mass of interveni ng material A s .

we shall see in the modern theory of

,

magnetism this view has entirely passed

,

away A ll portions of a magnet are n ow

.

considered as possessin e qual altho ugh g

,

n ot ap p arently equ al infl u ence in the

fi
, ,

prod uction of the magnet ic phenomena .

Early in the study o f magnetic phe

nemena it became e ident that it was
,
v

not s uf c ient t o confi n e one s attention ’

entirely to the magnet itself ; that some

thing existed i n the s urrou nding medium ,

o utside the magnet w h ich formed an i n

,

t egral part o f the magnet In this .

region external to the magnet extend as , ,

it were the invisible fingers o f the m ag

,

net and in it almost all the observed m ag

, ,

netic phenomena occur F urther e xp e i . r

m ental investi gations soon indicated that

t h e magnetic influ ence extends externally ,
 MA GNETI C PHENOMEN A . 13

n otmerely from one pole t o the other b ut ,

also returns through the substance of the

magnet thu s completing what may be
,

called a m gnet i i ui t
a c c rc .

Th whole body of a magnet may there

e ,

fore be considered as a means or device

,

where by the magnetic influence may pass

ou t from the ma gnet at its n orth pole and , ,

a fte r havin g traversed the extern al space ,

re enter the
-
magnet at its south pole ,

completing the circui t through the mass

o f the magnet Moreover it has been as
.
,

c ert ai n ed that no magnetic phenomena

can b e developed wi t h o ut producing a
complete magn etic circuit .

By a circuit in the sense in which the

,

word is employed above is meant a com,

pl e t e l y closed path motion

, in a circ u it
necessarily consisting of motion in com
14 MA NET G I SM
.

p l e t el closed cur ves or chains In th i s

y .

sense motion in a magnetic circui t is not

,

unl i k e the motion of a belt aro un d a pair

o f p u lleys or the motion o f a street car

,
-

cable th r o ugh the conduits in the streets .

In neither of these instances can the e ffect

of the movin g belt or the cable b e pro

du ce d u nless its circ u it is completed

, In .

the same way no magnetic e ffect can be

produced u nless the force acts in closed
paths or circuits .

Bearing in mind the fact that in the ,

stu dy of magnetic phe n omena the atten ,

tion mu st extend to the entire magnetic

circuit we will now consider some of
,

t h e commoner phenomena of magnetism .

On e of the most important of s u ch phe

n om ena is the di rective tendency o f the

m gn t i n dl
a e A magnetic needle con
c ee e .

sists of a slender bar of hardened steel ,

 G
MA NET IC P HEN OMENA . 15

which has been so magnetized as t o bring

its poles at its ends and so s u spended
, ,

near its middle point as to b e free t o

,

move in a horizontal pl ane Such a m ag .

netic needle is sho wn i n F i g 1 where . ,

FI G 1 D D
PI VOTE MA G NETI C NEE LE A T REST I N NORTH A ND
U D
. .

SO TH I REC TI ON , T EE P EN C I L P O I NTI NG I N TEE

D D
I RECTI ON or TE E NEE LE .

a magnetized needle su spended as de

,

scribed is pointing in a north and sou th

,

direction I n the Northern Hemisphere a

.
,

magnetic needle will come to rest with

16 G
MA NET SM I .

its poles pointing approximat ely to

o n e of

the earth s north geographical pole This

’
.

end of the needle is called its nor t h m g a

FI G 2 —REP U LSI ON B ETWEEN L IK E P OLES OF MA G NETI C

D
. .

NEE LE.

fi
n et i c p o le and the op po ite end its s , sou t h

ma gnet i c p o le .

ppose now a second magneti c needle

Su ,

be placed suf ciently distant from the

 G
MA NET IC P HEN OMENA .

o t her so as t o be u naffected by its i n flu

.

en ce ; t h en both needles will come t o rest

with their north poles p ointing ap p oxi r

mately north I f one of the needles be

-

n o w li fted from its s u pport and while , ,

pre vented from moving as by restin it on ,

g

a cork the north pole be bro u ght nearer to

,

t h e north pole o f the other needle e p ul ,

r

si O n will occ u r as sho wn i n F i g 2 where

, .
,

the amount o f the rep ulsion is indicated

by the pencil which point s in the direction
,

assumed by the su spended needle prior to

its repu lsion Similarly i f the sout h pole
.
,

o f on e needle be approac hed t o the sou th

pole of the s u spended needle repu lsion ,

will also occu r Bu t i f the north pole o f

.

on e be brou ght near the sou th pole

o f the other or vice versa attraction will
, ,

occu r These e ffects may be s u mmed u p

.

in the following law o f magnetic attrae

tions and re p ul sion s ; n am ely ,
 MA NETG I SM .

1
( ) Li ke m agnet i c p oles r ep el .

2
( ) Unli ke m agnet i c p o les a t t r a ct .

Letnow inqui re as to the cau se o f

us

the attractive tendency of the magnetic

needle Why is it that in almost any part
.

‘
FI G 3 — A TTRA CTI ON B ETW E EN ONE P OLE OF A PI V D
OTE

D
. .

NEE LE , A ND TEE POLE OF TEE A P P ROA C E ED B A R MA G NET.

of the Northern Hemisphere the needle

will come to rest with its north p ole point
i ng approximately t o the earth s geo
’

g raphic al north The reason may be

 MA GNE I C T P HEN OMENA . 19

f ou nd b y the following simple experiment

Su ppose while the magnetic needle is at
,

rest a m agnetized bar be bro u ght as

, ,

shown in F i g 3 with its sou th pole into

.
,

t h e neighborhood o f t h e needle s north

’

pole then on acco un t of the attraction of

, ,

the O pp osite pole of the bar the north pole ,

of the needle instead of p ointin g as indi

,

cat e d by the pencil t o the north p ol e of

,

the earth will point t o the approached

,

pole of the bar magnet The cau se of the .

directive tendency of the magnetic needle

is t o be fo und i n a sim ilar action A s will .

b e shown in a s u bsequ ent chapter the ,

earth acts as a huge magnet with its m ag ,

netic poles situ ated in the neighborhood

of its geo graphical p oles A l l m agnetic .

needles i n the Northern Hemis phere will ,

therefore point approxi mately to this

,

magnetic pole and consequ ently to the , ,

earth s geographical north pole But

’
.
20 MA NET G I SM .

since O p posite poles attract each other ,

it is evident that i f we regard the pole ,

of the magnetic needle which points t o .

the north as its north m agnetic pole

, ,

then the magnetic p olarity of the earth s ’

Northern Hemisphere m u st b e so uth .

The above fact has given rise t o no

little mi sunderstanding concerning t h e
preper designation o f the poles of a mag
n etic needle A ccording t o some that
. ,

pole of the needle which points t o the

‘

eo
g g p ra hical n orth o f the earth is called
the n t h ki ng p l Others have named

fi
or -
see o e .

it the m k d p l Some have endeavored

ar e
'

o e .

to distinguish the p ol e sb y different col

o s s u ch as the bl u p l and t h e
r ,
d p ole
e o e re .

The French originally endeavored to

overcome this dif culty by calling that
the sou th pole or end o f the n ee dl e which ,

pointed approximatel y t o the earth s ’

 G
MA NET I C P HEN OMENA . 21

north It is n ow however generally

.
, ,

agreed t o call the end of the needle which

points toward the geogra ph i cal north the ,

north pole of t h e needle in accordance ,

with wh i ch the earth s Northern Eemis

’

h ere m u st o f co ur se be a ss u med t
p , o ,

possess south magnetic polarity .

The la ws of m agnetic attraction and re

p ulsion may therefore be applied t o de
, ,

termine an unknown polarity in a magnet

i ed bar
z Suppose fo example that
. ,
r ,

o n e end o f the magnetized bar shown in

F i g 3 b e ap p roached t o a s u s p ended
.
,

magnetic needle ; then the polarity of the

presente d end of the bar will be the same
as that of the re pelled pole of the needle ,

or O pposite to th at o f t h e a t t ract ed p ole .

The simple st form of magnet con

sists of a straigh t bar or ro d o f ste e l ,
22 MA NET G I SM .

so magnetized that the pole s lie at

or near the extre m ities of the bar .

Heavy bar magn ets may be made either

o f a single piece o f steel or o f a n u mber

of thinner bars placed p arallel to on e

,

FI G.4 — C OMPO
. UD
N P ER MA N ENT BAR MA G NET.

another as shown in F i g 4 where 12 .

,

sep arate bars d d d are connected at their

, , ,

extremities to soft iron p l p i s N and o e -

ece

S. Su ch magne t s are called omp o und c

m gn t s
a e They are constru cted in this
.
 G
MA NET I C P HEN OMENA . 23

shap e for the sak e of Obtaining a more

nearly perfect temper or degree of har d ,

FI G . 5 —HORSE SEOE P ERMA NENT MA G NET

.
-
.

ness in the material of the thinner b ar s

, ,

than can be sec ured in a single larger

mass .
24 G
MA NET I SM .

The magnetic circ ui t of a bar m agnet

is always comple t ed t h ro ugh t h e m edI um ,

u s u ally air s urro unding the bar

, When . ,

FI G 6 — COMPO N
. . U DH ORSE SHOE-
MA G NET.

however a bar magnet is be nt into the

,

form as shown in F i g 5 it is called a

, .
,

h e sh e m gn t
o rs -
o When the poles Of
a e .
 G
MA NET IC OMENA
P HEN . 25

s uch a magnet are connected by a piece

of iron o r keep e the entire circ ui t of the
r,

magnet is completed through iron A .

fo rm of compou nd horse shoe magnet is -

shown in F i g 6 in which the k eeper is

.
,

represented as s upporting a considerable

weight by means of its attraction t o the
poles .

When a magnetized bar is r ubbed

against a piece of steel the latter will
,

thereby become magnetized or will ac ,

qui re m agnetism from contact with the

magnet The m agnetizing magn et h o w
.
,

ever does not lose its m ag netism for rea

, ,

sons that will be considere d later I f .

several bars of different kinds of steel be

magnetized in this manner it will be fo und ,

that some of them retai n th eir magnet

ism mu ch better than others In all cases .
,

however i f the steel b e fairly hard they

, ,
26 G
MA NET I SM .

wi ll retain their magnetic properties for

a fairly considerable time after contact
with the m agnet i zm g magnet But i f .

a bar of soft iron be th u s magnetiz ed it ,

will be found that altho ugh it will acquire

magnetic pro perties with great readiness ,

and will maintain its magnetism while in

contact with the magnetizing pole yet as

fi
, ,

soon as it is removed it will immedia t ely

,

lose its magnetism Hardened steel .

,

therefore differs markedly from soft iron

, ,

b oth in its ability to receive and t o retain

magn etism Hardened steel is dif cul t
.

to m agnetize b ut it is also difficult to

,

demagnetize Soft iron on the contrary

. , ,

has very little p ower of resisting either

magnetization or demagnetization In .

other words it i s easy b oth to magnetize

,

and to demagn etize .

The property p ossesse d b y hardene d

 G
MA NET IC PHENOMENA . 27

st eel of retaining its magnetism is some

times called m gnet i a t en t i vi t y
c This
re .

prop erty was originally called c er ci ve o

f r e Magnetic retentivity refers only

o c .

to the ability of the iron or steel to retain

magnetism when imparted to it or as it , ,

has been very happily expressed by an

English writer the m gn et i m mor y of
, a c e

hard steel for its past magnetic state is

g ood , while that o f so ft iron is bad A s
’
.

will be seen in the chapter on electro

magnetism the abili ty of so ft iron to
,

acqui re and lose magnetism readily ,

forms one of the most val u able p ro p erties

o f the electromagnet .

A s might be s u pposed from the pre

ceding experiment has shown that when
, ,

hardened steel is so ftened by annealing ,

it loses i t s retentivity ; and on the con ,

t rary when so ft steel is hardened as for

, ,

e x ample b y pressing rolling or b eat i ng

, ,
28 MA GNETI SM
.

and s u ddenly chilling it acquire s a great

er retentivity Magnetic retentivi ty there
.

fore is associated with molecular con di

tion .

Contrary to what might b e s upposed ,

the iron or cast steel employed in the

large magnets for dynamo electric ma -

chines is no t selected for its re t ent i v

,

ity these magnets being always excited

,

by electric Currents so that their re t e n

t i vi t y is not essential .
 CHA P TER III .

THEO RI ES OF MAG NETI SM .

I F a magneti ed bar o f hardened ste el

z ,

s uch as a watch s pring be rolled in iron

,

filings the fili ngs will not be equ ally at

,

tracted t o all parts of the bar b ut will ,

collect mainly at the ends the central ,

p ortions being practically uncovered .

The actu al state of things is represented

in F i g 7 where the filings are seen t o be
. ,

collected at the ends N and S respective ,

l y the north and so u th poles of t h e m ag

net A small compass needle approached
.

to this bar as shown will indicate that all

. ,

p arts between the centre and the north

pole are of north polarity and all p arts
,

between the centre and the south pole are

of so uth polarity .The point 0 which ,
30 G
MA NETI SM .

acts as a point devoid of magnetism is ,

called the neut l p i nt The intensity

ra o .

o f the magnetism increases fr om the n e u

tral point toward each end o r pole .

I n ord er t o explore the b ar and deter

F I G 7 —MA G NET I z ED BA R W ITH I RON F I LI NG S SHOW I NG

D
. .

P OLA R CON I TI ON .

mine its app arent distribu tion of polar

ity s uppose the compass needle be ap
,

pre ached t o the north end of the bar ; it

will then b e fo un d t hat its south pole will
continu e to be attracted by the b ar u ntil
the neutral point 0 is reached when the
, ,
 O
THE RI ES OF G
MA NET SM I . 31

n eedl e will turn and the opposite end will

b e attracte d from 0 to S Moreover it . ,

can b e sho wn that the strength of the

magnetic influence proceeding from t h e ,

b ar i s z er o at t h e neutral p oint and in

, .

FI G 8 — D I A G RAM REPRESENTI NG D I STRIBUTI ON or MA G NET

L V B M
. .

IC F LU X ENTERI NG A ND EA I NG AR A G NET .

creases rap idly towar d the ends of the

b ar follo wing a curve simi lar to N OB

, ,

Fi g 8 the le ft hand portion b ei ng drawn

. ,
-

below t h e line to repres ent south p olari ty .

A m agnetic b ar possesses no ex ternal

magnetism at its neutral point . It early
occurr e d to i n vestigators i n m agnetic
32 G
MA NETI SM .

phenomena that i f a b ar magneti zed as

, ,

in the preceding e xperimen t b e cut or ,

separated at the neutral point two m ag ,

n e t s wo uld b e obtai ne d one of which

,

woul d po ssess nothing b ut north pol arity ,

an d the o t her nothing b ut sou th pol arity

,
.

A trial b eing made however to their as

, ,

t oni sM ent it was found that a b ar so sep

crated di d n ot possess separate polarities ,

b ut displayed Op p osite p olarities at each

end each bar having as before two pole s
, , , ,

shown b y rolling them in iro n filings

which collected at the ends as in the
figure Moreover the cur ve representing
.
,

the intensity of the mag netic e ffect by

each piece possessed the same p eculiar
ities as in the first case It was also .

fo un d that i f one o f the two p ieces b e di

v i de d at the neutral point there will ,

again b e produced t wo magnets possess ,

i ng poles at their e xtremities and that , ,

 TE EORI ES OF G
MA NET I SM
. 33

no mat ter how far this s ubdivision be

carried each of the separate bars would
,

possess at its ex tremities separate north ,

and south polarities This is sho wn in

.

F i g 9 where the bar em p loye d in F i g

.
, .

fi
. . D
F I G 9 — POL A RI TTDM OF

7 was r st divi d ed into halves one o f

which was left at A and the other
divide d into q u arters one of which is
I SSECTE

,
,
A G NET.

shown at B and then the re m aining

,

qu arter was di vided in to ei ghths two o f ,

34 G
MA NETI SM .

wh i ch are shown at C and D Here t h e .

filings collected at the extremities show

, ,

the e xistence of poles the polarity of

,

which is indicate d b y the letters n and s .

It woul d appear therefore to b e i m

, ,

possible any longer to hold to the flui d

theory of magnetism ; namely that a b ar ,

owed its magne t ic properties t o the ac

cumul ation of north and south magnetic
flui ds in the neighb orhoo d of its poles ;
for this theory wo ul d necessitate the e x
i st en ce of absolu tely no magnetis m at the
neutral poin t whereas the experiment of
,

t h e divi d e d b ar shows th at the m agnetism

ex ists as strongly here as at any other

p art o f the m a gnet b e

, i n g for r
, easo n s

wh i ch were not then un derstoo d in a ,

mas k ed or neutral condition at th i s point .

An attemp t was th ere fore

, made t o ,

modi fy t h e flui d hypothesis b y supp os ,

 O I
THE R ES OF G
MA NET I SM . 35

i ng t hat der the infl uence of a m agnet

un

i z ing force a se p aration o f the magneti c

,

fl ui d occurre d in each of the ul timate

particles of the magnet This modifie d
.

theory has in later years given place t o

, ,

the theory which we will now discu ss .

A ccordin g to the more modern theory ,

the cau se of magnetism in iron is ascribe d

to its ul timate particles wh i ch are as
,

sum e d to inherently possess north and

so u th p olarity . In other wor d s i f we ,

could isolate an ul ti mate particle of iron ,

we should find that it inherently possess

es a north and south pole and therefore
, , ,

tends to behave like a small compass

needle A ccordin g to this theory the act
. ,

o f magnetizatio n consists in an ali gnmen t

o f all the ul timate particles o f the bar ,

that is ca using all the poles to take the

,

same direction or to point along the s am e

,
36 MA NETG ISM .

line The bar acq ui res its full m agn et i za

.

tion or is magneti ed to s t ur t i on when

z a a

all I t s particles are thu s aligned In .

or der to explain why a bar of unm agnet

i e d iron sho u ld be devoid of sensible
z

magnetic pro p erties when each of i t s

,

ul timate p articles is ass umed to p os ses s

m agnetism it is o nly necessary t o sup

,

FI G . 10 —HETEROG E NEOU S ASSOC IA TI ON, C OR RESPONDmG To

.

A B SENC E OF MA G NETI! A TI ON.

pose th at in u nmagnetized iron there is a

lack of definite alignment the p article s ,

b eing arranged in a haphazard manner ,

so that the influ ence of their adj acent

Opposite poles wou ld b e t o prevent any
magnetic e ffects from being p erceived
outside the mass .
 O I
THE R ES OF G
MA NET I SM . 7

The above theory of magnetism is cap a

ble of accoun ti ng for t h e complete magnet
i at i on o f a bar for the com p le t e ne u tral
z ,

condition or for any intermediate st ate

, .

A p artially magnetized b ar for e x am ,

ple is one in which there exists onl y

,

a p artial ali gnment o f the ul timate p ar

t i cl es The condi tion of t h e molecul es i n

.

u.

fi
x
M
l
F IG . 11 —PA RTI A L A LI G
. NME NT C OR R ESPON D I NG To P ARTI AL
MA G NETI! A TION .

an u nmagnetized bar where no de nite ,

alignment has b een produ ced is re pro ,

sent ed diagrammatically in F i g 10 Here . .

the arrows represent the assumed i ndi

vidu al molec ul ar magnets the pointed ,

end of each arrow b eing assumed to pos

sess north polarity and t h e other end ,
38 G
MA NETI SM .

o th polarity Evidentl y a m ass of iron

s u .
,

with this in terior molecul ar arrangement ,

woul d possess no resul t ant external m ag

n et i sm since the O pposing polarities
woul d neutralize each other s e xternal ’

influ ence .

In Fi g 11 the arrangement of t h e
.

molec ular magnets is shown when a ,

12 .
—COMP LETE A LI G NMENT CO RRESPONDI NG To 001

partial alignment occurs Here some of .

the molecul ar magnets say th i rty or for , ,

t y p er cent have a d efini t e ali gnment ,

while the others are heterogeneously ar

ranged A s before these latter sho ul d
.
,

n e u trali z e each other s in flu e n c e so far as

’
 O I
THE R ES OF G
MA NET I SM . 39

intern al effects are concerned while tho se ,

which p ossess a defini te alignment would

necessarily produ ce external magnetic i n
flu en ce .

The condition of affairs shown in Fi g .

12 is that in wh i ch all the separate mol e

cul ar magnets are ali gned in t h e same

ge neral d irection u nder the

, infl u ence o f
some external magnetic force Here the .

maximum external magnetic infl u ence is

produ ced .

A ttem pts have been made by investi

gato rs t O st u dy o n a lar g e scale the con

fi
, ,

dition of affairs wh i ch according to the

, ,

preceding theory exists in the interior of

,

a b ar of iron by gro u p ing a f airly great

,

num b er of sep arate compass needles ,

placed suf ciently near each other but ,

without actu ally tou ching to sensibly i n ,

40 G
MA NET SM I .

flu en ce each other s movements U nder

’
.

these circu mstances it is found that sub

,

s equ en t disturbances of the needles of as ,

nearly as possible the same character and

force do n ot bring abo u t the same gro up
.

ings The needles are t hen s ubjecte d t o

.

a more powerful magnetizing force under ,

the influ ence of which ei t her a partial ,

or a complete alignment of the separate

magnets is obtained according t o the
,

strength of the magnetizing force em

ployed .

A ccording to the theory we have here

discu ssed the di flerence in the behavior of
,

hardened steel and so ft iron as regard s ’

both magnetization and demagnetization ,

is due t o the fact that in hardened steel ,

which as we have se en possesses con si d

, ,

erab l e resistance to magnetization b ut ,

tends when once magnetized to retain s uch

 TE EORI Es OF G
MA NET ISM
. 41

magnetization the separate molecul es or

, ,

individu al molecul ar magnets are not ,

easily turned so as to become aligned ;

while the case of soft iron which is easily
‘

magnetized and which with eq ual readi

, ,

ness loses its magnetization the resistance

, ,

to th i s turni ng is comparatively small .

In the case of the model of a magnet

j u st referred to the condition of a ffairs
,

somewhat resembling that of hardened

steel where the individu al magnets dis
,

play considerable resistance t o m otion ,

mi ght b e obtained by s u p p orting the com

p ass needles in some clear viscid liqui d ,

like glycerine In s u ch a case it wo ul d

.
,

req ui re a powerful magnetizing force t o

brin g all the separate magnetic needles
into alignment b ut once this alignment
,

had b een obtained there would also b e

,

consid erable di fli cul t y in breaking it up ,

42 G
MA NETI SM .

on account of the flui d fri ct i on throughout

o

the mass The same hypothesis also

.

explains a fact which has presented no

little difficul ty t o experimenters ; namely ,
the e ffects heat produ ces on a m agnetized
b ar . When a magnetize d b ar is heate d
to redness it is fo und that it entirely
loses its magnetism Since the eflect of
.
’

an increase of temperature is to incr ease

the ease with which the molecul es of the
bar can move to and fro the facility
- -
,

with wh i ch a given alignment can be lost

on accoun t of their more fr equ ent col
lisions and freedom of movements is
thus explaine d .

A body is said to be soft when its p ar

t i l es can b e easily dis p lace d relatively t o
c

one other On the contra y a har d bo dy

. r ,

is on whose p articles cannot b e easily

e

dis placed I t woul d therefore se em

. , ,
 O
THE RI ES OF MA NET SM G I . 43

h i ghly prob ble that the prop erties of a

a

p iece foiron which sho u

, ld p revent m ag
netic dis placement alignment of the
or

p articles shoul d also be the property

,

which is recogni zed as mere m echanical

hardness Natu rally therefore accord
.
, ,

i ng to this theory a p iece of so ft iron

,

shoul d be readily magnetized b ecau se b e ,

i ng so ft its p articles possess this n ece s

,

sary mobility while on the contrary a

, , ,

piece of har d iron should tend to resist

magnetization becau se its p articles being
, ,

hard possess rigidity In the same way

, .
,

soft iron should readi ly lose its magnetic

condition when removed from the i n
,

flu en ce o f the magnetizing force while ,

the b ar of steel shoul d on the contrary , ,

retain its magnetization fo r a considera

bly greater period These are precisely
.

the characteristics of so ft iron and hard

steel.
44 G
MA NET I SM .

Si nce the ability o f a bar Of hardene d

ste el t o retain its ma netism is du e t o a
g

physical rather than t o a chemical prop

ert y the same bar o f steel i f annealed or
, ,

softened s h ou ld practically act like a bar

,

o f so ft ir on ; while on the contrary i f it be

, ,

hardened as by being raised to a high

,

wm perat ur e and su ddenly cooled it sho ul d ,

resist changes in its m agnetization These .

theoretic al considerations are established

as facts in actu al practice Bars of steel .

can b e rendered so hard that m agn e t i z

i n g forces sufli ci en t l y p owerfu l to im p art

,

considerable strength of magnetism to the

same bars when not so hardened may be ,

u tterly incap able Of prod u cing any ap

p arent e ffec t as to thei r magnetization In .

order therefore to obtain permanent

, ,

magnetic effects in bars Of steel it is nec ,

essary t o Obtain s u ch b ars as hard as

possible .
 THE R ES OF O I G
MA NETI SM .

Th preceding theory accounts satis

e

fact il y fo nearly all the observed p he

or r

nomena of magnetism in iron It will be .

noticed however that to a very consider

, ,

able extent the theory b egs the q u estion

,

as to the real cau se o f this strange force ,

sin ce it does not attem p t to e xp lain how ,

or by what means the u lti mate particles ,

o f iron become magnetized It simply .

ass umes them t o be magnets A ttempts .

have therefore been made to su pplement

, ,

the theory by endeavoring to explain why

the ultimate particles o f iro n should b e
magnetic .

On e such theories assumes that the

of

m agnetism produ ced by iron and other

sub stances is du e t o wh i li ng or vor t i c s r s e

in the ether It ass umes that a magnet

.

i z e d bar or a magnetized molec u le p ro

, ,

du ces a whirl or cyclonic motion i n the

46 MA GNETI SM .

sur roun ding ether and attem p ts have be en

,

made to explain magnet i c attractions and

rep u lsions as we ll as other magnetic ef
,

fe ct s b y these movements of the

,
c er .

A nother and some what similar theory as

cri b e s magn etic phenomena also to a m o

tion in t h e ether b ut this motion is assumed

,

t o b e one of a forward motion lik e wind ;

so that according t o this view a magnet
, ,
.

i e d molec ule or collection o f mole

z ,

c ul es produces actu al m gnet i c t mi ngs

, a s r ea ,

or a streaming motion in the ether along ,

the direction in which the magnetic nee

dle p oints .

Withou t giving a preference either to

o f the two theories j u st mentioned we ,

will adep t the latter throughout this little

b ook on account of the greater con ven
,

i ence which a theory o f a s i mple stream

i ng eth er motion p o ssesse s over a v ertical
 O
THE RI ES OF G
MA NETI SM . 47

motion No theory o f magne t ism can b e

.

considered worthy of credence u nless it is

also capable of accou nting for t h e allied
phenomena of electricity Electric cur .

rents are never varied witho ut at the same

t i I n e p rod u cing magnetic phenomena ,

and conversely the intensity of m ag neti c

, ,

streamings are never varied without at ,

the same time prod ucing electric phe

,

n om en a .

In order to endeavor to obtain a con

cep t i on o f the state o f a ffairs which e x ists

in a magnetized b ar of iron let u s suppose ,

that each of the molecules of the iron has

a stru cture su ch that permits it t o act as
a m i ni at ur e fan motor inherently possess
,

i ng r otation Since it is s u rro unde d b y

.

the ether which is a frictionless fl uid i f

, ,

th i s fl ui d b e once set in motion it would

r eq ui r e no additional force to k eep it
48 G
MA NET SM I .

moving forever Consequ ently i f once

.
,

set in motion it wo uld continu e m ovi ng

,

forever . These molec ular fans may b e

im agined to set up by their rotation a
, ,

streaming motion of the ether through

them Looked at in this light the theory
.
,

of magnetism which ascribes the phenom

en a to the molec u les themselves re gards ,

e ach molecule as possessi ng magnetic '

properties becau se it cau se s a streaming

motion of ether to take place through it .

Since all molec u les of m atter probably

possess rotation and since they apparent
,

l y do not all possess magnetism it is pre ,

sumable that the molecules of the m ag

netic m etals only owing per h aps to
, , ,

some peculiarity of shap e prod u ce as a ,

resu lt of their rotary motion the ether ,

streamings above re ferre d t o .

It will be seen that the above theory ,

 THE RI ES or O MA GNETISM . 49

lik e the one already re ferre d t o traces ,

t h e m agnet ism of a b ar t o its ul ti mate

m olecu les . Instead however of assu m
, ,

ing that these molec u les are inherently

m agnetic withou t explaining the ul ti
,

mate cau ses of their magnetism it pos ,

sesses the meri t of giving a worki ng h y

p o t h e si s as to the possible ori gi n o f their
m agnetism The theory accounts for the
.

u nm agn etized condition o f a b ar o f iron I n

its neu tral stat e o n the ass umption that

,

the ether streamings cau sed b y the i n ,

di vidu al molec ul ar magnets possess no ,

definite alignment so that t h e tendency

,

of the separate streamings is t o ne u tralize

one another A s soon however as an

.
, ,

align ment is obtained the e ffect m u st be

,

that all these molec ules pro duce a co

directed streaming in the ether whose ,

intensity is therefore appreciable at a

, ,

con siderable distance fr om the magnet .

50 MA GNETI SM .

Let us consider therefore what mu st

, ,

occur accor di ng to this theory in the

, ,

case of a small b ar of iron which has ac ,

quired external m agnetic pro perties that ,

is to say has b ecome magnetized by rea

,

son of havin g all its molec u lar streamin gs

similarly directed The e ffect will evi

.

den t l y b e to c au se a p ower ful ether

streaming to pass through the b ar in the
direction of its length iss u ing at on e pole
, ,

an d a fter havin g traversed the s p ace o u t

,

side the magnet re entering at its Opp o

,
-

site pole These streamings as will be

.
,

s ubse qu ently shown take p ath s as may be

,
‘

traced by a small comp ass needle which ,

are geometrically of the same form as

those which would be prod u ced in a fric
t i onl e ss fl u id i f all the molec u les in the
,

bar did actu ally consist of miniatur e

mechanisms whereby ether co uld be con
t i n u al l y p um p ed thro ugh them .
 O
THE RI ES OF G
MA NET SM I . 51

Th e theory of magnetic streami ngs i s

capable of ex plaining all the ordinary
ph enomena of magnetism Tak e for e x.
,

ample t h e directive tenden cy Oi the m ag

,

netic nee dl e as evidenced b y i t s com

,

i ng t o rest i n a d efinite direction u nder

t h e i nflu ence of another m agnet Sup .

p o se for e x ample a bar magnet be ap

,

o ach d t o a sm t ab l y s u p p orted m ag
p r e

netic nee dle ; then this needle will come

to rest when the ether streamings from
the b ar magnet pass through the m ag
n etic needle in the s ame direction as the

ether streami ngs prod uced b y the m ag

netic needle itself Of cour se since the
.
,

ether streamings are pur ely h ypothetical ,

and indeed coul d not b e seen even i f we

, , ,

were absolu tely ass u red of their exist

ence it is impossible to say whether
,

they emerge from the north pole or the

south pole of the magnet , b u t sinc e t h e
52 G
MA NETI SM .

theory s upposes that i n a magnet the

streamings are all co directed it is clear -
,

that they mu st all come ou t of one m ag

n etic pole and e enter at the other p ole
r -
.

In order t o fi x definitely our ideas con

cerning this im port ant p oint it has b een ,

generally a greed to re gard the mag netic

streamings as iss ui ng from the north p ole

FIG . 13 .
—CONVENTI ONAL DI RECTION OF MA G NETI C F L U X .

of the magnet and re entering it at the -

sou th p ole as re presented in F i g 13 by

, .

the arrows Here however only a por

. , ,

tion of the streaming p aths is shown .

each arrow being assumed to be extend

ed until it forms a contin u ou s p ath both
outside and within the magne t .

I n this light therefore let us again e x

, ,
 O I
T HE R ES OF G
MA NETI SM . 3

amine the act l on of a m agnetic b ar on a

su sp en d ed needle. Sup p ose for e x am ple
, ,

that it be the north pole of a magne t

which is ap p roached t o a nee dl e T h en .

the ether streamings emerging from the

,

north pole of the magnet will penetrate

,

the s ub stance of the m agnetic needle ,

and the needle will rotate until the two

streamings are similarly direct ed ; b ut ,

to do this it is evident that the movable

,

needle m us t turn arou nd until it presents

its south pole t o the north pole of the
approached magnet ; for in that condi tion
,

only can the ether streamings produced

by t h e approached magnet pass through
the n eedle in the same direction as i t s
o wn ether stre amings . Su pp ose however , ,

that the magnetic needle b e fixed and ,

that the north p ole of the magnet be

approached to its north pole Then the .

eth er streamin gs of t h e two magnets w i ll

54 G
MA NETI SM .

be O pposed and a repulsive tendency will

,

exist b etween them I t is u nder the i n

'

flu en ce of this r epul sive ten dency that the

magnetic needle as soon as free to move
, ,

wil l turn around u ntil i t presents its 0p

p osi t e p ole to the a pp roache d mag net
.

It might b e s upposed that i f s u ch

streamings as we have h i therto ass u med
, ,

act ually existe d that they wo ul d mani

,

fest their presence by actu ally carrying

g ross matter b odily along with them ,

though no s u ch e ffect is actually observed ,

yet it is quite possible that ether streams

m i ght e x ist witho u t necessarily prod u c
i ng translatory motion in material masses ,

since it might readily pas s through th eir

int ermolec ul ar space .
 TER IV
CHA P .

MA G N ET I C C I R C U I T S .

TEE theory which we have p rovisionall y

ado pted concerning the origin of magnet
ism ; namely that i t is due t o ether
,

streami ngs which issu e from the magnet

,

at its north pole and re enter it at its

,
-

sou th p ole necessitates as we have seen

, , ,

t h e conception o f a com pleted p ath called ,

the m gnet i i ui t th ough which these

a c c rc , r

streamings p ass This p ath consists of

.

t wo distinct p arts ; namely o f the re gion ,

o utside the magnet and that within its

,

body or substance A little reflection .

will show that this neces sarily forms a

closed p ath Tracing the p ath of the
.

ether stream iss uing from the north p ole

of fo r exam p le
, the b ar magnet shown
,
56 G
MA NET I SM .

m agnet it re enters the magnet at its

-
’

so u th pole from which

, after p assing ,

FI G 14
. .
—SI MP LE MA G NETI C CI RC U IT
.

thro ugh the b ody of the magn et it again ,

issu es from the north pole .

The ether streamings tak e vario u s p aths

in the re gion o utside of the magnet some ,

of the paths lying clo se to t h e b od y of t h e

 MA G NETIC CIRCU ITS . 57

magnet itself while others are situ ate d at

,

g reater dis t ances from it They all how . ,

ever agree i n this res pect ; they iss u e as

, ,

is conventionally ass umed from the m ag ,

net at its north pole and re enter it at -

its sou th pole In other words all m ag

.

netic t m li n form closed p aths or

s r ea -
es

circuits and n o magnetic stream can ter

,

minate abr up tly .

Magnetic streamings are generally

known as m gn t i fl ux They were gen
a e c .

e all y all u ded t o in the earlier writin gs as

r

li n e f m gn t i f
s o a o sometimes as t u bes
e c or ce , r

o f m g a t i f
ne cThe p rovisional
or ce theory
.
,

which we have ado pted regards them ,

as actu al ether streamings set in motion

th r oug h the molecular mechanism o f the
magnet and this conce ption is pre ferable
,

t o that o f lines of magnetic force As t o .

what t h e velo city of the se ether stream

58 G
MA NET I SM .

ings may be it is impossible to estimate ;

,

it might be very great or it might be very

,

small In referring to F i g 14 care m u st b e

. . ,

taken t o remember that the paths o f the

FIG . . U
l 5 — F L X OF BA R MA G N ET .

stream lin e s are here entirely diagram

matic An ins pection of the fi gure will
.

show clearly however that a magn eti c

, ,

circuit con si sts as al eady stated of t wo

,
r ,

distinct p art ; nam el y t h e p ortion of the

s ,

circuit lying in t h e r egions o utside t h e

 MAGNETI
I U C C R C I TS .

magnet generally occupied b y

, t h e

and that portion which is formed by

mass of the magnet itself .

A more nearly accurate re presentation

of the actu al p aths taken by some o f the

stream lines is shown in F i g 15 The . .

method by wh ich this figure has b een Ob

t ai n e d will be ex plained later An i n .

spect i o n o f this fi gu re will show a greater

nu mber of stream lines and moreover

-
, ,

will render evident the fact that the points

of entrance and exit o f the magnetic flu x

are by no means si t u ated near the extrem

ities of the bar b u t exist over considerable
,

portions of the s urface The stream lines

.
-

shown at t h e end of the bar are approx

i m at el y straight paths b u t in certain por
,

tions of the fi gure it can be seen where

the paths actually emerge from one part
of the magnet and r e enter at another part
-
.
60 MAG NETI SM .

Were the area of the figure sufli ci ent l y

enlarged that is i f a s ufficient length of
, ,

the stream lines had been represented it

-
,

wou ld be seen that all form clo sed cir

cu its the stream lines iss uing from any
,

point of the magnet re entering the m ag -

net at some other point .

Magnetic may complete its path

flu x
t hro ugh a circ u it entirely o f iron entirely ,

of air or p artly o f iron and p artly o f air

, .

A magnetic circ u it may there fore be , ,

formed entirely o f iron entirely o f air or

, ,

partly o f iron and p artly o f air A m ag .

netic circu it formed entirely of iron i s

g enerally termed a f i m g t i i
er r c ui t a ne c c rc .

A magnetic circ uit formed entirely o f air

is generally termed a n n f i m g t i o -
er r c a ne c

i ui t and a circ uit forme d p ar t ly o f iro n

c rc

and partly of air is called an of i a er -

er r c

ci r cui t .
 MA NET G I C CIRCUITS . 61

Nearly all practic al magnetic circuits

are of the aero ferric ty pe F i g 16 rep
-
. .

resents a ferric magnetic circuit Here -

.

the flux paths lie com pletely in the mass

o f the iron ring which forms the com p lete

circuit Such a m agn e t i c circ uit although

.

FIG . 16.
— F ER RI C MA G N ETIC CI RC U IT .

p os sessing circ ulating thro ugh it

flu x ,

wo uld nevertheless m ani fest no external

, ,

magn etic e ffects although all its mole en

,

lar magne t s wo uld b e aligned concentric

ally in annu lar p aths ; and conse qu ent ,

l y wo u ld ha e all their ether streamin gs

. v

co dir e cted so that the streamin gs wo uld

-
,
62 G
MA NETI SM .

take circul ar or annular paths thro ugh the

‘

bar Although the ring would th u s be

.

powerful ly magnetized yet Since none of , ,

the flux escap es into the air b ut is all ,

contained within the iron itself no e x ter ,

FIG . 17 . AERO F ERR I C

-

nal magnetism is p erceived either by a

compass needle or by iron lings

That a closed iron ring actu ally p os

fi
MA G NETIC C IRC U

.
IT .

sesses magnetism can readily be dem

o n st at e d by m akin g an air gap
r as by ,

a saw thro ugh one Or more p arts of the

,

ring I f this be done as shown in F i g 17

. ,
.
,
 MA NET G I C C RC I UI TS
. 63

in the c ase o f a hard iron ring powerfu l ,

magn etic pol s will be develo ped at O ppo

e ,

site sides o f the gap s the polarity o f ,

which in accord n c with t h e convention

, a e

already referred t o will be res p ectively ,

north and sou th at the p oints where the,

FI G . 18 —V O LTA I C CELL SU PP LYI NG C U R RENT

. X TO A HELI .

magnetic flu x issu es from and enters

into the iron ,

We have n w t o describe a n on ferric

o -

circu it I f as in F i g 18 an electri c cu
.
, .
, r

rent is sent f om an electric source s u ch

r ,
64 GNETI SM
MA .

as a b attery B thro ugh a h li x o ,

il f e r co o

wi re H the he lix ac q u ires all the p ro p er

,

ties o i a bar magnet even tho ugh the bar ,

o f iron N S be removed
, Su ch a circ u i t .
,

with the b a removed is calle d a n n

r ,
o

f i i u
er r c c r c i t It is evident
. that a f erric ,

or aero ferric circu i t may be maintained

-
,

enti ely by a perm anent m agnet b u t a

r ,

non ferric circuit necessarily requ ires an

-

electric c u rrent t o maintain it .

I t is a well known fact that a bar of

-

so ft iron is attracted an d held t o the ‘

poles of a magnet s u ch fo example as , ,

r ,

a horseshoe magnet If the magnet be .

fairly p owerful a plate o f glass interposed

, ,

between the poles of the magnet and the

piece of iron will n ot prevent the iron
,

from being attracted and held t o the p oles ,

althou gh o f co u rse n o t so p owerfully on

, , ,

a cco u n t o f the di st ance i nt e rvenin g b e

 MAG NET I C CIR UIT C S . 65

tween the piece o f so ft iron and the

ma net poles The strength of the m a
g .
g

netic action rapidly decreases with the

distance from the magnet Since m ag .

netic attr action i s du e t o the flux from

the m agnet p as sing through the iron i t is ,

e ident that the glass does n o t interpose

v

any obstacle to the passage o f flux thro ugh

it Similarl y a piece f wood porcelain
. ,
o , ,

o r c e pp e o r in fa ct any material exce p t

r, , ,

the magnetic metals wo u ld like glass, , ,

permit attraction t o t ake place thro ug h

its mass ; o in other words wo uld p er
r, ,

mit the flux t o pa ss throu gh it I f We .

exce pt t h e m agnetic m e t al s all s ubstances , ,

whether solid liqu id o gaseo u s condu ct

, , r ,

magnetic flu x with practically e q ual i a

cil i t y,
all o f the se s ub stanc e s o ffering
abou t t h e same resistance t o its pass age
as do e s ordinary air Cons e q u entl y in
.
,

the c ase f the b f i on tt acted t o the

O ar o r a r
 6 G
MA NET I SM .

m agnet through the plat f glass the e o ,

strength o f s u ch attraction i f meas u red , ,

wo uld be fo und t o be practically the same

as i f preve nted from moving t o the magnet
and se p arated by t h e sam e di st nce o f air a .

If a plate o f glass be s u pported horizon

tally over a flat magnet say a horseshoe ,

magnet and iron filings be s prinkled over

,

the gl ss as soon as the se iron filings enter

a ,

the regions traver se d b v the flu x prod u ced

by the magnet the y will be magnetized
, .

Conse q u ently in their p assage thro u gh

,

t h e air they tend t o form cha ins b y the

,

attraction between their adjac e nt p ole s ;

or looking at t h e phenomenon from a di f
,

fe e n t stand p oint the min u te p articles o f

r ,

iron pr ac t ic ally b e come grou ped in c urved

p aths extending i n the di ecti o n of the r

stream line s o f magn e tic fl ux I n order .

t o a ssist i n t h e gro u ping o f t h e i on filings r

 G I I UI

fi
MA NET C C RC TS . 67

the plate is gentl y tapped after they have

fallen on its s ur face U nder these cir .

cum st an ces the filings will collect i n cer

,

tain gro u pings form ing what are kno wn

as m gnet i c gu
a su ch gro u pin g s only
r es,

fi
FI G . 19 .
—MA G NETI C F L UX OF H ORSESHOE MA G NET .

repres e ntin g t h directi on o f the flu x line s

e

in the pl n e f the gl ss pl t
a o a a e .

Fig .h ows grou pi n gs f iron l

19 s o

ings obtai n e d i n thi s way Her e as i n F i g .

,
.
68 G
MA NET I SM .

15 w , hich was similarly obtained it will ,

be observed that ll the streamings by no

a

means le ave the magnet at its extremities

o poles
r b u t that s u ch str amings exist
, e

between all portions o f the s u r face o f the

m agnet Near the extre m e poles the
.
,

filings will be observ e d t o collect in

denser masses than else wh ere th u s i , h

di cat i ng a greater flux o flo w of m ag r

n e t i sm at these point s In the c se o f any

. a

magnetic working d evic e s u ch fo ex , , r

ample as the horseshoe m ag net

, shown ,

i n Fi g 19 t h e u s e fu l work done by the

.
,

magnetic flu x is limited t o some parti e n

lar portion of the magnetic circ uit in this ,

p artic u l ar c se t
a o the
, re gion s u rro u ndin g
o r l ying between the pole s o f the magnet .

It is in this re gion that all the u seful flu x

o f the ma gnetic circ u it pas es The re s .

maining portion of the flux from which ,

no u se ful e flect c n b e obtain e d is gener

’

a ,
 MA NET G I I UI
C C RC TS . 69

ally kno wn as lea kage flew or as m a gne t i c

lea ka ge .

Vario u s p rocesses have been devised fo r

the p u rpose o f per m anently fixing the

iron filings on the su rface of the glass
plate o r on the s u rface of the piece o f

fifi
,

paper so as t o render the gro upings per

,

manent On e of these processes consists

.

in covering the s u rface of a sheet of

paper or gla ss with a thin coating o f wa x

o p a af n e
r r The filings a e applied t o the
. r

sheet while the p araf n e is cold and , ,

conse q u ently hard and after a s u itable

, , ,

g ro u pin g has b e en ob t a ined the fili n g s ,

are fixed in place by heat gently applied

t o the wax a s fo , exampl e by hold
,
r ,

i n g a h ot iron near the s u r face o by , r

permitting the flam e of Bu nsen b urner a

t o play gently ov er the su r fac e of t h e

plate .
70 GNETI SM
MA

When the gro upings of filings are so x ed

o n the s u r face o f a glass plate
.

the glass
may be u sed as a positive fo the p urpose r
,
fi
o f obtainin g ne gative photo graphic prints ;

fo i f s u ch a glass plate i s placed over a

r,

sheet of sensitized p aper with the coated

,

side in contact with the printing paper ,

an d exposed in a printing frame t o su n

light all portions of the plate n ot p o

, r

t e ct e d by the iron filings will permi t the

s u nlight to pass thro ugh thu s blacken
,

i ng the paper . Su ch a print will t here ,

fore contain white lights where the iron

,

filings are collected and black lines in

,

the free spaces

fi
.

A modifica t ion o f this process which ,

g ives m u ch better res u lts and is more ,

e asily manipulated is carried out as fol

,

lows ! The gro uping o f iron lings is ob

t ai n e d on the sensiti zed su rface of a d y r ,
 G
MA NET I C CI RCUI TS . 71

photog aphic plate placed over a m gnet

r ,
a

in a dark room ; and when a su itable dis ,

t i b ut i on f iron fili ngs has b een obtained

r o ,

the pla t e is ex posed momentarily to a

.

flash of light s u ch as obtained for ex

, ,

ampl e by the lighting of a match which is

, ,

then instantly extingu ished On rem ov .

i ng the iron filings from the plate and ,

develo ping it a photograph ic negative

,

picture of the groupings will be obtained .

This picture may be employed for print .

i ng by obtaining p ositive p hoto gr aph ic

,

prints in the u s ual manner when the lines ,

Of filings will a pp ear as dar k lines in the

print .

Figs 2 0 to 2 6 represent magnetic flux

.

p aths or stream lines obtained in this ,

latter manner F i g 2 0 for e x ample is a

. .
, ,

representation of the flux l ines obtaine d

in the case of the hors eshoe magnet us ed
72 G
MA NET I SM .

in F i g . obtai n a negative prin t I n

19 t o .

F i g 2 0 it mi ght app ear that no flux l ines

.
,

or p aths exist at the extremities in fr ont

o f the poles since this entire region ap
,

FI G . ta U D
u—F L X P A THS O F Two A JA C ENT BA R MA G NETS .

p ears destitu te of This

flu x p ths
a .
,

however is d ue to the fact that on tap

,

p ing the glass plate the powerfu l attraction

of the pole s for t h e m agnetized p articl es
 G
MA NET I I UI
C C RC TS . 73

has cau sed them to here slide over t h e

smooth s urface of the glass and collect
between the p oles .

It sho uld be remembered that repre

FIG . .
—
2 1 F LU x PA THS OF D
Two A JA C ENT B A R MA G NETS .

ro
se n t at i on s of
g u p n
i gs o f filings obtained
b y either of the above described processes
cannot be regarded as marking accurately
the exact flu x p aths ; since in reality , ,
74 G
MA NET SM I .

all p ortions of the space o utside as well ,

as inside the magnet are occ u pied by the

,

streamings Moreover s u ch fi gures of

. , ,

co urse are u nable t o Show that portion

,

FI G . 22 .
—F L U X PA THS OF D
Two A JA C ENT BA R MA G NETS.

ofthe flux lines which occurs inside the

body of the m agnet .

shows the figure of flux paths

Fi g 2 1.

th at is produ c ed wh en two b ar m agnets

 G
MA NET IC CIR UI C TS . 5

are l aid side b y side at a di stance of ap

proximately half the length of either and ,

with their poles of the polarity shown .

Here as will be seen the so u th pole o f

, ,

F IG . 2 3 — F LU x P A THS
. . U N LI K E P OLES AT R IG HT A N G LES
.

on emagnet is adjacent to the north pole

of the other m a gnet The flux streams .

passing ou t of the north pole of each m ag

net enter the so u th pole of the adjacent
mag net the flu x from on e magnet m erg
,
76 MA GNETI SM.

i ng with
that o f the other Thi s .

merging however only occ urs in the i m

, ,

mediate neighborhood of the poles In .

the regions between the poles it is evi ,

FIG . 24 — FL
. U K P A THS LI K E P OLES
. AT RI G HT A NG LES .

dent that the fl ux does not so merge ,

each m agnet preserving an independent

circ uit In the middle of the figu re a
.
,

curiou sly Shaped region exists at the ,

 MA GNETI C CI RCUI TS . 77

centre of which there is a neutral point

or point devoid of magnetism .

Fi g 2 2 . wS ! fi eld prod uced by the

sh o a

F IG . . U
2 5 —F L K PA THS OF BA R
M I W
A G NET . RON I R ES .

same t wo b ar magnets placed as in Fi g

, 21 .
,

b u t with like poles adjacent Here the .

flux is Oppositely directed and prod u ces , ,

in the neighborhood of the poles a hori ,

78 MA NET SMG I .

line of such a contour as would b e

z on t al

formed i f in reality liq uid streamin gs

, ,

were directed against each other I n this .

case there is no mergin g of the circuits ,

FI G . 26
.
— U
FL K PA THS OF BA R MA G NETS . I RON W I RE S
,
A ND

F I LI N G S .

as shown in F i g 2 1 the circuit Of each

.
,

magnet being independent through ou t .

The effect produ ced b y placing Opp osite

 G
MA NET I C CI RCUITS . 79

pole s adjacent each other is shown i n

to
F i g 2 3 where the north and so u th poles
.
,

of t wo bar magnets are placed at right

angles t o each other at a distance apart ,

ab o u t eq u al to the breadth of t h e magnet .

FIG . 27 —SEMI C IRC

. U
LA R BAR MA G NET F LU x P A THS
.

Here the flux streamings Of the t wo m ag

n ets merge i n the nei ghborhood o f the

pol es b ut as be fore a e independent in

, , ,
r

the oth er regions In Fi g 2 4 is shown

. .
,
80 MA GNETI SM .

the e ffect pro du ced by t wo similar poles

of t wo bar magnets placed as i n F i g 2 3
, .
,

except that like poles are adjacent .

Here as be fore the flux paths o f each

, ,

magnet are independent The eflect of .

'

the conflicting streamings is t o prod uce a

lin e o f no motion corresponding t o sl ack
water in a tideway .

A modification of the preceding m ag

netic fi gures can be obtained by employ
i ng short pieces o f so ft iron wire instead
of iron fili n gs F i g 2 5 is obtained in this
. .

way from the bar magnet shown in F i g .

15 Similarly F i g 2 6 is a re p re sentation
. .

o f t h e same arran gement of magnets as is ,

s h o wn in Fi g 2 1 Here however a mixt

. .
, ,

u e
r o f iron filings and wire has been
emplo yed .

F i g 2 7 shows the flux paths obtained

.

fr om a semicircular bar magnet .

 MA G NETI C CIRCU ITS . 81

Fig shows the fi eld o f t wo su ch

. 28
se micirc ular magnets with Opposite poles
Opposed .

Here a lso a ne u tral space is produ ced

FI G . 2 8 — F LU x P A TH S
. or Two SEMI CIR CU LA R BA R MA G NETS
.

at the c ent e o f t h e fi gu e and at this

r r ,

point th e e wo uld b littl e r n o di ect

r e o r

ive t nd ency e x erte d u p on a very small

e

com p ass n eedle .

82 G
MA NET I SM .

Altho ugh the gene ral distribution of

magnetic flu x is sho wn by t h e paths f o

iron filings strewn in a s uitably arranged

horizontal pl ane ne ar a m agnet yet the
, ,

d ensity of the iron filings o of their

r

chains is no t t o be relied upon as indi

cating with accuracy t h density of the
e

magn etic flux A m agnet i c field o f uni

.

form density has very little po wer to

attract an d align i ro n filings while an
,

irregu lar field i ndep enden t l y o f its den

,

si t y has a powerful in flu en ce u pon the m

, .
 CHA PTER V
L O G I
E EC TR MA NET SM

PRI OR t o the famo u s di scovery b y Oer

sted in 182 0 of the mag netic properties of
, ,

an electric circuit in wh i ch a current of

electricity was passing n o relations had
,

been proved t o exist between electricity

and mag netism although of course s u ch
, , ,

relations had been s u spected Oersted.

showed that a wire carrying a current ,

when placed near a m agnet i c needle pos ,

sesses the same p ower of attracting and

repelling the needle as does an ordinary
magnet In other words a conducto r car
.
,

ryin g an electric c u rr ent sets u p magnetic

flu x streamings which become endowed

,

with m agnetic properties which they

re tain during t h e passage of s uch c ur entr .
84 MA NET G I SM .

If for, e xamp le a co p per wire A B

, , Fig.

FI G DF
29 — E LECTI ON OF MA G NETI C NEE LE WHEN D SU P
DB V
. .

P ORTE ENEA TH A W I R E CON EYI NG AN

ELEC TR I C C U RR EN T .

2 9, carrying a cu rrent in the direction

 L
E ECTR OMAG NETI SM . 85

from A t o B be held over the magnetic

,

needle N S the needle will be deflected

,

as indicated In V irtu e of the current it

.

carries the wire has ev dent l y acqu ired

,
I

magnetic properties Moreover i f the con

.
,

du ctor be p laced beneath the needle i h ,

stead of over it the needle will be deflect

,

ed i the Opposite direction I f in either

h .

o f these positions the direction o f t h e

,

c urre nt be reversed the direc t ion of the

,

needle s deflection will also b e reversed

’
.

These deflections of the magnetic needle

find their ex p l anation in the fact that the
passage of an electric current thro ugh a
condu ctor always produces in the re gion ,

s u rro u nding the condu ctor a magnetic ,

field in which the magnetic flux take cir

on lar path s concentric to the cond u cting
,

wire In other words the passage of an

.
,

el ectric current through a wire p rod uces

86 MA NET G I SM .

magnetic streamings in irc lar paths c u

aro und the wire . Figures of these m ag

‘
PI G U
30 — CI RC LA R DI STRI B UI
T ON OF F LU X PA THS A RO ND U
V YI U
. .

A W I RE CO N E NG A N ELECTR I C C R R ENT .

netic stre amin gs can be obtained in the ,

case of a condu ctor c arrying a cu rrent by ,

p assing the condu ctor p erpendic ul arly

thro u gh a h orizontal she e t of p aper and ,
 L
E ECTR OMAG NETI SM . 87

S prin kling iron filings over the s u rface of

t h e paper aro u nd the wire while the cu
,
r

rent is passing .

A characteristic grou pin g o f iron filings ,

so o b t ai n e d is sho wn in Fi g 30 where it
, .
,

will be se e n that t h e iron filings s urro u nd

the vertical condu cting wire A B i n con ,

centric circu lar paths .

Reference h as be en made to the as

s umed direct ion of lines of m gnetic flu x a

in the case of ordinary bar and horseshoe

magnets ; v 1z that it had been agreed t o
regard the flu x as emerging from the ,

north pole of the magnet and as re entering -

it at the so u th pole Since as we have

.
,

seen t h e direction of t h e needl e s de fle c

,
’

tion is changed by reversing the direction

o f the c u rrent it is evident that the cir
,

cu l a flu x streaming s s urro u ndin g a con

r

du ctor mu st also change with the change

88 G
MA NET I SM .

in the direction of the cur rent through

the wire although as before n o isible

—
, , ,
V

change takes place in the grouping of the

r
J &
8

x
z
1

FIG D
3 1 — I RECTI E V I U NF L ENCE OF CI R C U LAR MA G NETI C
UX U D IV DU
. .

FL A RO N A CT E C ON C TO R CA RR YI N G
C U RR EN T TOW A R D O B SER ER V .

iron filings Since a magnetic needle

.

tends t o come t o rest in a po sition parallel

t o t h e flu x lines with thes e line s entering
,
 L O G
E ECTR MA N ET SM I . 89

at its south pole and passing out at its

north pole i t is e vident that having once
, ,

assumed their direction fo the c ase o f r

perm anent magnets that their direction

,

in relation t o an electric cur rent is there

b y fixed .

Su ppose for example that a c urrent

, ,

be flowing through a vertical conduct or ,

placed at right angles t o the plane of a

sheet o f paper at 0 F i g 3 1 t ow r d the
, .
, a

observer and that it be fou nd t hat a small

,

magnetic needle s upported at B comes t o ,

rest in the position shown ; i pointing . e .

,

across the wire and t o the left I f ne w the .

needle be placed su ccessively at 0 B an d ,

A it will come t o rest in the positions

,

shown Since the directive tendency o f

.

the needle is cau sed by the passage

throu gh it of the m agn e tic flux estab
l i sh e d by the active cond u ctor and since ,

the needle points in the dir ectio n of t h e

90 MA GNET!SM .

m agnetic flux at the point where i t i s

placed it is cl ear that the direction of the
,

magnetic circ ular flux which s urrounds

,

s u ch a cond uctor will be o p p osite to the

,

motio n of the hands of a clock ; i . e .

,

co unter clockwise .

If the direction of the current be e r

versed se that the current now flows

,

through the wire f m the observer the

ro ,

needle will still come to rest in the di rec

tion Of the lines of flux b u t in the op
,

p o si t e di rections
, so that the fl u x paths
here circul ate clockwise aro und the con
du ctor It is evident therefore according
. , ,

t o the theory here ass u med that co ul d , ,

we see the ether s urro undi ng an active

conductor the re s ult prod uced by cau s
,

i n g a cu rrent t o flo w thro u gh s u ch
conductor woul d be t o set up circ ular
streamin gs in t h e eth er surr ou nding t h e
 ELECTR OMAGNETI SM . 91

condu ctor and that the only effect pro

,

du ce d by changing the direction of the

current is to change the di rection of these
streamings .

We will now inquire as to what e ffect

will be produ ced by bending an t i ac ve

FI G D
32 — MO EL R EP RESENTI NG D I
I REC T ON OF U
FL X
U DW
. .

A RO N I RE .

con duct or a cond uctor carrying an

; i . e

electric current into the form of a loop , .

Suppose for example that the straight

, ,

wire represented in F i g 32 carries a cur .

,

rent i n the direction of the large arrow ,

an d t h at t h e directi on o f the circ u lar flux

th er eby produced be indicated by s h ort ,

92 G
MA NET SM I .

pi eces of curved wire mounted up on the

conduct or as shown Then i f this .
,

straight cond uctor be b ent into the form

of a cond uctin g loop as shown in F i g , .

33 it will be evident that all the cir

,

FIG 33 D
MO EL REP R ESENTI NG DI R EC TI ON OF F LU X
B U L
-
. .

THRO G H M WI RE ENT I N F OR or OOP .

cul ar flu x path s aro u nd the wire will be

so directed that the flux will enter from

above and p ass downward thro ugh the
Ioop and moreover that i f the direction
, ,

o f the c u rrent be chan ged all the flux ,

pro duced will still pass th r ough the IOOp ,

 ELECT R OMAGNETI SM . 93

b ut now in the Opp osite direction The .

effect therefore o f cau sing an electric

, ,

current to flow throu gh a conducting loop

is t o cause an ether stream to flow
through the IOOp I f the current strength
.

flowing t h r Iugh the loop be increased the ,

ether stream or magnetic flux passing

,

throu gh the Ioop will also be increased

in t h e same proportion ; or according t o
,

our provisional theory the amo unt of

,

ether streaming thro ugh the Ioop in a

given time will b e increased .

The intensity of m ag n etic flux through

a conducting Ioo p will everywhere b e i h
creased b y ah increase in the current
strength In the case of a straight wire
.

carrying a c u rrent of given strength the ,

intensity of the magnetic flux will b e i h

v e rsel y proportional to the distance from

the wire ; i e the ether streamings wil l

. .
,
94 G
MA NET SM I .

be twice as weak at twice the distanc e

from the wire In the case of a l OOp t h e
.
,

intensity will be least at the centre of t h e

loop and greatest close t o the wi re or at
, ,

the edges of the l OOp while ou tside the

,

loop it will diminish rapidly with the dis

tance This intensity of magnetic flux
.

may be represented by the speed of the

ether streaming at the point considered ,

so that according to this V iew i f we

, ,

dou ble the magnetic intensity of flu x we ,

double the speed at which the ether is

streaming .

The intensity of magnetic flux at a

given point say within a
, loop c an be i h ,

creased withou t increasing t h e current

strength through the wire ; for i f another ,

condu ctor be tak en of s ufficient length to

,

form two h e m of the same diameter as t h e

former on e and the same c u rrent strength
,
 ELECTR MA NET SM O G I . 5

b e sent through these two loo p s then , ,

since each loop will produ ce the same i h

tensity o f streaming as a single l OOp it is ,

clear i f these streamings be similarly di

,

r e ct ed that twice the amo unt of ether

,

streaming will take place through the

t wo loops as wo uld thro ugh a single loop ;

F IG . 34 X.
—COI L OR HELI .

or in o t her words the streamings du e to

, ,

each loop will be added to gether Con se .

q u ently i f,
a n u mber o f cond u ctin g loops
b e placed side by side so as to form the ,

hollow coil or helix as shown in F i g 34 .

,

and a cu rrent be s e nt through these loops ,

a very power fu l flu x can be established

thro ugh them .

We have already allu ded to the fac t

96 MA NET SM G I .

that when a bar Of so ft i ron is intro duced

into a magnetic flux the hypothetical ,

molecular magnets o f which i t is sup ,

posed t o consist are there by aligne d so

,
’

that they not only po u r all their ether

streams in the same direction b ut that ,

this direction is the same as t hat o f the

flux produ ced by the c u rrent in the loop .

When therefore a bar of so ft i ron is

, ,

introduced into a conducting loop two ,

results follow ; viz ,

( 1 ) The bar o f iron is ma gnetized in the

direction of the flu x thro ugh the loop .

( )
2 The stren g th o f fl u x passin g thro ugh
the l OOp inste ad o f being weakened by
,

the fact of its h aving m agnetized or

aligned the iron is on the contrary , ,

strengthened since the flux of the iron is

,

now aligned and is added t o the flux from

the active wire .

Su ch a bar of ir e n const it u tes wha t i s

 L
E ECTR OMAGNETISM . 97

called an ele t mgn t th i s term b e

c ro a e ,

i n g ge n erally restricted t o a mass of iron

which does no t acquire its magnetism u h

til the passage of t h current and which e ,

immediately loses practically all its m ag

n e t i sm as soon as the current ceases to
,

p ass in other words t o a soft iron or

, , c e,

s urrounded by a coil o helix of wire r .

B f e ore proceeding t o disc u ss the pro p

e rt i e s o f the helix either when coreless
,

or provided with an iron core it may be ,

advantageou s to call attention to a com

m on error concerni ng the so u rc e o f m ag
netic infl u ence in an electromagnet It is .
,

perhaps very generally ass umed that this

,

sou rce of activity is t o be traced solely t o

t h e energy o f the electric c u rrent ; in point
o f fact however as we have j u st shown
, , ,

a large part of the magnetis m of the

electromagnet ; i its magnetic flux al
. e .
, ,
98 MA GNETISM .

ready existed in t h e m ass f the iron of its o

core What the magnetizing curre nt

.

princip ally does is to align or t o call into

organized sta t e the magnetic powers of
the molecular magnets In fact nearly all .
,

o f the m agn etic fl ux in an electromagnet

is u nder practical conditions obtained

, ,

from the iron an d only a sm all p ortio n

,

resides in the exciting streamings arou nd

the wire .

A helix of active cond uctor ; i a con . e .

,

ductor c arryi ng a cu rrent behaves like a ,

bar magnet in virtu e o f the magnetic flu x

it produ ces forming in fact what we
, , ,

have already re fe red to as a n on ferric

r -

magnetic circ uit Helices like bar m ag

.
,

nets po ssess t h e pro perti e s of di rection

,

and o f magnetic attraction and rep ulsion .

F o exam p le i f t h e h e l i x A B Fi g 35
r , , .
,

su itably s u pported at its terminals P P ,

,
 L
E ECTR OMAGNETI SM . 99

by dipping the ends o f the wire in t o mer

cu ry c u ps M M be arranged so as to be
, , ,

free to move then when an electric c ur

, ,

. .

fi
F I G 35 — HELI X CO N
I
SESS N G
V E YI NG
MA G NETI C
AN ELECTR I C C
P ROP E RTIES

rent o f s uf cient strength is sent through

it the helix will set itself in the earth s
,

flu x in s u ch a m ann er th at i t s flu x an d
.
U RRENT Pos

’
100 MA GNETISM .

that of the earth will coincide or p ass

thro ugh its loo p in the same direction .

Moreover i f a bar magnet be ap proached

,

t o it as shown pheno m ena o f polar at

, ,

tractio n and repu lsion will be exhibited ,

dependent upon the pop l ari t y of the ap

F I G 36 —F LOATI NG HE LI X C A RR YI N G ELECT RI C C U RRENT

D FF
. .

AN D ISP LA YIN G PO LA R E ECTS .

p ro ach e d ma gnet pole an d the direction

o f c urrent in the helix O the same . r,

p henomena can be p roduc ed by means of

the simple apparatu s shown in F i g 36 .
,

where the helix o coil has its termin als

r

connected t o t h plates ! n and Cu of a

e ,

small floating voltaic pile When thi s .

 L
E ECTR OMAGNETI SM . 101

pile is immersed in an acid liqui d as ,

shown the electric cu rrent produced

, ,

traversing the floating coil will set up a ,

flux in it and the phenom ena of attrae

,

tion and repul sion can be exhibited by

suitably ap proachin g magnetic p oles .

Th e direction of the flux paths through

FIG . . L
37 — R I G E T-HA N ED DHDD A ND EFT HA N
-
E E LI CES .

a helix ; or as it is sometim es called a

, ,

solenoi d de p ends on t wo circ u mstances

, .

( 1) On the direction in which the helix

is wo und wheth er i gh t h nd d or l f t
, r -
a e e

h anded .

( 2 )the direction in which the

On cur

rent passes thro ugh the helix .

102 MA NET G I SM .

A r i gh is a helix which is
t h an ded h eli x
-

wou n d cl o ckwi se A l f t h n d d h li x is . e -
a e e

on e which is wo u nd co u nter cloc k wise as ,

shown in F i g 37 . .

Vario us rules have been devised in

order to determine the polarity produced

FI G . . D
38 —MNEMONI C I P Y E
F OR ETE RM NI NG OLA R I T OF LE C
TR OMA G NETI C P O LES .

by any helix Perhap s o n e of the most

.
,

con enient ul e s i s represented in F i g 38

’

v r . ,

in which the arro ws point to the di rection

in which the cu rren t thro ugh the helix
mu st circulate in order that the pole pre
sented t o the observer shall have the
polarity in dicate d It wi ll b e s een that .
 O G IL
E ECTR MA N ET SM 103 .

the arrows p oint I n the direction o f the

termin ations o f the letters N and S re ,

sp e ct i v el y .

S hortly after the discovery by Oersted

o f the magnetic properties o f an active

condu ctor A mpere pre posed a theory of

,

m agnetism in iron and Steel We have .

seen in Figs 35 and 36 that a helix of

. ,

wire or solenoid carrying a current b e

, , ,

haves like a magn et This fact led Am

.

pere to s u ppose that a magnet might be

V irtu ally an active solenoid He showed .

that i f the molecules of iron and steel

had electric currents circulating round
them through paths of no resistance
, ,

that no power wou ld be requ ired to sus

t ain these cu rrents and that the magnetic
,

e ffects produced by aggregations of such

molecules would be that du e to aggrega
tions of active solenoids and therefore , ,

would account for t h e magnetic behavior

104 G I SM
MA NET .

observed in iron and ste el magnets Since

.

o ur knowled g e o f molec ules is as yet ex

t em el y limited we are unable to say

r ,

whet her electric currents circulate arou nd

them or n ot The theory may therefore
.

be regarded as yet a h yp ot h e si s
.
 TER VI CHAP .

EL ECTR O MAG NETS .

PR O B AB LY never in the history o f electric

,

i nvention h as a more u se fu l piece of ap

,

paratu s been produ ced th an t h e electro

magnet Fortu nately this piece of appa
.

ratu s is extremely easy to mak e ; fo r ,

as we have seen it is only necessary to

,

surrou nd a core of soft iron by a co nd uct

i ng helix and to send an electric c u rrent
,

through the helix I f the core of iron be

.

soft the cu rrent produ ced by even a

,

single voltaic cell will produ ce thro ugh a ,

comparatively few tu rns o f condu cting

wire fairly appreciable magneti c e flect s
,
'

If as in F i g 18 a single voltaic cell

, .
, ,

con sisting Of plates of copper and zinc

 106 MA NET G I SM .

plunged into an acid liqu id be connected , ,

as shown to the fe w tu rns of ins ulated

,

wire s u rrou nding the so ft bar N S the ,

current will flow in the direction indicated

by the arro ws and the direction of flux
,

th rough the h e m will be s u ch as to

produ ce a north pole at the point marked
N and a s ou th pole at S
, .

U nless a p owerful current is employed ,

the magnet shown in the fi gure above re

ferred t o wo u ld ac q u ire only a compara
t i v el y feeble magnetic intensity In or .

der t o increase its p ower the tu rns might

,

be p laced nearer together on the bar so ,

tha t a greater nu mber co uld be placed

in a single layer Moreo ver instead of
.
,

c arrying the wi re back again to the elec

tric sou rce after forming a single layer a
, ,

nu mber o f layers might su ccessively be

w ou nd on t h e core .
 O G
ELECTR MA NETI SM . 107

When several layers are placed on a

magn et core the wire is wou nd in closed
,

Spires from one end o f the core A to the ,

Opposite end B say clockwise an d then

, ,

an o ther la yer is s u perpose d on the first ,

re turning from B toward A the same

, ,

clockwise direction being maintained .

When A is reache d another layer may ,

be p ut on the winding being returned

,

clockwise to B and so on for as many

, ,

layers as is desired The fact that the

.

wire is carried alternately along the bar

in different directions ; namely from A to ,

B , and then back again from B t o

A makes no di fference in the polarity
,

produ ced by the passage of the cur

rent through the magnetizing coils pro ,

v i de d only that the direction of wind

i n g be maintained thro u gho u t ; namely ,

in this case clockwise as indicated

, ,

above .
108 G
MA NET I SM .

In order to k eep the coils of an electro

magnet i h plac e and t o prevent them from
,

s preading over the ends of the core they ,

are generally wouh d on a bobbi n or Sp l oo

o f ins u lating material as shown in F i g . .

FI G . 39 — COI L
. OF W I RE W O UD I U
N ON NS I
LA T N G SPOO L .

39 where the Sp ool is represented both

,

as em pty an d as filled with wire When a .

soft iron core is placed in s u ch a s pool t h e ,

pass age o f an electric curr ent through the

wire cau ses on e end of t h e b ar to ac quire
 L
E ECTR OMAGNETI SM . 109

north and the other end so uth p olarity as

, ,

shown i n Figs 40 and 4 1 In Fi g 40 the

. . .
,

voltaic cell is directly connected to t h e

F I G 40 —ELECTROMA G NETI C E ECT OF FF AN ELECTRI C CU R

U
. ,

RENT P A SSI NG TH RO G H A COI L OF W I RE .

ends of the coi l while in F i g 4 1 a cur

, .
,

rent is passed thro ugh the coil from a di s

tant dyn amo The magnetic circuit being
.
,

acre ferric is p artly completed thro ugh

-
,
110 G
MA NET I SM .

the iron and partly through the e xte rnal

air In order to enable the magn et t o
.

FIG 41 ELECTROMA G NETI C E FFECT O F AN ELECTRI C C U R

U
-
. .

RENT PA SSI NG THRO GH A COI L OF W I RE .

hold a greater weight on its armature it ,

is important that the length of that por

tion Of t h e magnetic circuit which p asses .
 L
E ECTR O MAGNETI SM . 111

th rough the air be m ade as small as pos

sible This may be done either by bending
.

a straight b ar in the shap e Of a horseshoe ,

as shown in F i g 4 2 or t h e same result

.
,

m ay be accom plished by e m p loying two

strai ght bar magnets placed with their op
,

FI G . 42
.
— HORSESHOE ELEC TROMA G NET .

po si t poles adjacent and with a y k y

e ,
o e, ,

across on e pair thu s only l e avi ng on e

,

p air of their extremities or poles as ,

shown in F i g 43 . .

In order properly t o connect t h e ter

m i n al s o f two se p arate magnetizin g coils ,
 MA NET G I SM .

so as to employ them in a sm gl e elect ro

magnet i t is only necessary t o remember
,

that the direction o f winding in the two

spools m u st be that which would exist i f
‘

the t wo cores form e d a continu ou s straight

bar the wire being ap plied t o it in a sin
,

gl e coil and the cor e and wire s ubsequ ent

,

FI G . O43 —. F M H
RDI NA RYE OR OF ORSESHOE LECTROMA G NET .

l y b ent in the middle Or t h e rule for .

,

polarity already re ferre d t o in connec

,

tion with F i g 38 will Sho w which termi

.
,

h als to connect in order t o obt ai n the po

l a i t y req u ired
r .

The placing of the yoke y on the m ag ,

net shown i h F i g 4 3 provides an iron .

,
 ELECTR OMAGNETI SM . 13

circu it for the m agnetic flux both through

the cores of t h e t wo branches of the m ag
net and the yoke y leaving an i g p or
, a r a

s p ace only between the t wo poles N and S .

It is evident that the two coils instead

o f being connected so that the ne u tral

point is at the bent portion or yoke ,

which wo u ld res ult i f the adj acent poles

had Opposite polarities may b e so con
,

n e ct e d as to prod u ce a pole at the ne u tral

point This ens u es when the polarity

.

o f the appro a ched ends is the same as

shown in F.i g 4 2
, where each coil pro
du ces a south pole near the centre o f
their Common i ron core and north poles
,

at its extremities .

The magn et shown in F i g 4 4 woul d .

appear t o p ossess three poles only In .

reality it p ossesses fo ur poles t h e cen

, ,
.
114 MA GNETI SM .

tral pole at S being a double pole Such .

a magnet is sometimes called an n m l us a o a o

m gn t from the apparent anomaly of

a e

FI G . . U
44 —A NOMA LO S ELECTROMA G NET .

the odd num ber of poles A n anomalous .

permanent m agnet is shown in F i g 4 5 . .

Fi g 46
. shows the connection of t wo
 E ECTR L OM GNETI SM
A . 115

se ap rate s pirals wo und i n the same di

rection the c urrent entering one s p iral at
,

A and p assing o ut at C to the ne x t spiral

, ,

whence it emerges at B Under these .

ci rc u mstances the application of the

,

rule wil l show that the p ol arity at A will

b e so uth and at B north In the elec

, .

t rom agne t shown i n Fi g 4 2 in order .

.
,

FI G . 45 .
-
A NO MA LO U S MA G NET .

to provi d e a com plete iron or erric f

circuit it is only necessary t o connect
,

t h e poles N and S by a bar of so f t iron , ,

g enerally called an m t u a s shown in ar a r e,

F i g 4 7 where the armat ure

.
, when a,

placed on t h e electro magnet co m pletes ,

the ferric circuit and enables the magne t

to s ustain a large weight placed on t h e
p lat form as sh o wn .
1 16 MAG N ETI SM .

In any of t h e magne t s s h o wn i n F igs , .

4 2 4 3 and 4 4 the flu x p assing thro ugh

, ,

the m agnetic circui t when the same ,

strength o f c ur rent is sent thro u gh the

magnetizing coi ls will be far s maller whe n

,

the armature is re m oved fr om t h e mag net

poles so that the magn etic circu it is aero
,

ferric than when t h e arm ature is in place

, ,

F I G 46
. .
—CONNECTI ONS OF ELECTROMA G NETI C COI LS .

thu s makin g it a ferric circuit This is due .

to the fact that the armature when placed ,

on the m ag ne t poles adds its own m ag ,

netic flux to the flux produ ced by the m ag

net In other words un der the infl uence
. ,

o f the magnetic flu x o f the magnet the ,

molec ular magnetic flux of the armature

i s ali gned and co dir ected so as to pas s
-
,
 EL ECTR O MAG NET I SM . 117

through the magnetic circu it This fact .

is sometimes explained on the assump

tion that iron p ossesses a mu ch better eon
du cting power for magnetic flux than
does air ; that is its m gnet i c p erme bi li t y
,
a a

is so mu ch greater tha t t h e amount of flux

,

F I G 47 —HOR SESHOE ELECTROMA G NET D

PROVI DE
U
. .

A RMA T RE .

produ ced un der the infl uence of the elec

tric current increases This explanation
.
,

indeed forms a very convenient basis for

,

practical a pplications altho ugh it fails to

,

strictly re p rese n t the fact s .

118 GNETI SM
MA .

The amo unt of flux i n any non ferr i cir c

cui t such as that of an active coi l of wire

,

witho u t an iron core i ncre ases directly

,

with the magnetizing current Thu s i f a .

,

coil of a given number of turns is traversed

by a c urrent of one ampere the amo unt ,

of flux passing thro ugh the magn etic cir

cuit of the coil will be doubled i f the cu r

rent strength be increased t o t wo amperes ,

and trebled for three ampere s and so on

, , .

Since in the above cases no change oc

, ,

cu rs i n the form of the magnetic circuit ,

b u t only in the strength o f the cu rrent

traversing it it is evident when the m ag
, ,

netic flux through the c1rcu1t is do ubled ,

that the i ntensity of the fl ux is do ubled

at every point and so on for all changes
,

in the curre nt strength In other words.

,

the m agnetic intensity at all points of the

circuit within or withou t the coil varies
, ,

directly with t h e curr en t strengt h .

 ELECTR MA NET SMO G I . 119

If the number o f tu rns in a coil be al

to red the flux passing th rough the coil
,

will also be altered I f fo example a coi l

.
, r ,

consisting of 1000 tu rns wound on a cer ,

tain s pool be unwou nd and replaced by a

,

coil of 2 000 turns on the same spool the ,

flux which will be produ ced in the m ag

netic circuit o f the spool with an exciting
current strength o f say o n e amp ere will ,

be approximately twice as great in the sec

on d c a se as in t h e first In other words
.
,

the c urrent stre ngth remaining the same ,

the flux an d inten sity increase app roxi ,

mately directly as the number of turns

, .

A Single magnetizing tu rn carrying a cu r ,

rent o f o ne ampere is k n o wn t e ch ni cal l y

, , ,

as an mp t u
a er e A sin gle tu rn carry
-
rn .
,

i n g t wo am peres h as twice t h e m agn e t i

, z

i n g e ffect it wo u ld h ave i f it c arried o n e

ampere so th at in th i s s en se a si ngle
, , ,

tu rn carrying two amperes is spok en of

12 0 MA GNETISM .

as hav ing the e ffect of two ampere turn s -

.

F or example in a horseshoe el e ct om ag
,
r

net of t wo coils s u ch as shown in Fi g 43

, .
,

each spool having say 2 00 turns a cur , ,

rent of i ampere throu gh the two coils

co nnected i n s i that is p assing con
er es, ,

se cu t i v el y t hro u gh t h e t wo coils will pro ,

duce in e ach the e ffect of 100 ampere

turns and t herefore a total e ffect on the
, , ,

electrom agnet o f 2 00 ampere turns This -

.

ex i t ti n o
c a o , num ber o f am pere turns i s
r -
,

called the m gn t m t i f a in t h e
e o o ve or ce

magnetic circu it b e cau se it is t o thi s

,

force that the m agnetic flu x p rodu ced i n

the circu it is due j u st as in an electri c
,

circu it the electric fl u x o c u rrent is du e r

to the elect romotive force .

The term m agnetomotive force is u su al

l y abbre i at e d M M F
v Th e M M F is
. . . . . .

an i m por t ant co n si derati o n i n al l el ectr o

 L
E ECTR MA NET SMO G I . 12 1

magnets A n am pere tu rn is sometimes

.
-

u sed a s the uni t f m g t m ot i

o f a ne o ve or ce ,

an d this u nit is s u ffic ient for most

p u rposes o f compu tation However ah .
,

other u nit o f M M F named the gi lb t

. . . er ,

is in u se The gilbert is a somewhat

.

smaller unit than the ampere turn one -

,

g ilbert bein g a pproximately 8 1 0ths o f an -

ampere turn I f we ad d 2 5 per cent t o

-
. .

the n um b er o f am p er tu rns we obtain e -

,

practi cally the p u mb r of gilb rts ; or i f

l e e ,

we ded uct 2 0 pe c nt from the number of

r e .

g ilberts in the ma gnetic circ u it we pra e ,

tically ex p re s the M M F in ampere

s . . .

tu rns Thu s 100 gilbert s are practically

.
,

eq u al t o 80 am pere tu rns o 100 ampere-

, r

turns are practically equ al t o 12 5 gilberts .

The magnetic flux produced in any cir

cu it by applying a given M M F to it . . .
,

li ke the e ffect produ ced in any electric

12 2 MA GNETISM .

circuit by app l ying an electromotive force

t o it depends on the conditio n s o f the
,

circu it Before therefore proceeding to

.
, ,

di scu ss t h e m agnetic circ u it in further

detail it m ay be well first to allude
,

briefly to some o f the conditions exist

i ng in an electric circ u it .

The lawthe electric circuit known

of

l w f om i t s di scoverer Dr
’
as Oh m s a ,
r , .

Oh m may be briefly e xpres sed as follows

,

Th e cur r en t st r en
gt h in a ny co nt i n u ous

cur r e n t ci r cui t i s di r ect ly p r op or t i o na l t o t h e

E 111 F
. . . supp li ed t o t h a t ci r cui t , a n d i n verse

ly p r op or t i ona l t o i t s r esi st an ce .

llin g the unit of E M F the lt and

Ca . . vo ,

the u ni t of el ectric resistance the h m this , o ,

being approxi mately the resistance o ffered

by one foot of No 40 A W G cep . . . .

p e r w ire an d c alli n,g t h e u nit o f c ur r en t

 ELECTR OMAGNETI SM . 12 3

the mp a er e , O hm s law may be ex pressed

’

as follows
Th e a mp er es i n an y ci r cu i
q t e ua l th e v ol t s

app li ed t o t h e ci r cu i t di vi ded by t h e oh ms
i n t h e ci r cu i t .

In order to apply Ohm s law to a ’

magnetic circu it it is necessary t o Obtain

, ,

beside the u nit of M M F u nits ep e . . r r

senting qu antities similar t o magnetic re

si st an ce and cu rrent The uni t f m gn t i
. o a e c

i t n
r es s a ceor the lu t n as it is com
re c a ce ,

mouly called i s the ,

t d and is e q u al o er s e ,

t o the rel u ctance which is o ffered t o

the p assage o f magnetic flu x by a cu bic
centimetre of air measu red between
parall el faces The u i t f m gn t i flux
. n o a e c

is termed the w b and represents the e er ,

amou nt of flux which would pass thro ugh

a magnetic circu it in which the rel u ctance
was on e oersted and the M M F one gi l . . .
12 4 G
MA N ET I SM .

bert Conse qu ently t h e law for the m ag

.
,

netic circ uit can be expressed as follows

Th weh m i n ny m gn t i
e a i ui t ea e c c rc ar

equ a l t o t h e gi l ber t s di v i ded by t h e oer st eds .

In order t o increase the magnetic flux

in any circu it it is necessary either t o i h
crease the M M F acting on the circu it
. . .
,

or t o decrease the rel u ctance o f the ci r

cuit When therefore the magnetizing
.
, ,

cu rrent i s increased in any coil by i h

creasing the curren t strength supplied

through the coil the M M F i the m ag
, . . . h

netic circu it is thereby increased ; or ,

wh en an armatu re is placed across the

poles of an electromagnet the flux pass ,

i n g thro u gh t h e m agnetic circ u it is i h

creased becau se the relu ctance of the
,

armature is mu ch less than the rel u ctance

o f the air path thro u gh which the fl u x

formerly p as se d .
 L
E ECTR OMAG NETI SM . 12 5
p

There is this marked difference b e

tween the electric and the magnetic cir
cuit ; i in the case of the electric circ u it
V z .
,

the cu rrent can be entirely confined t o the

cond u ctor u s u ally a wire forming the
, ,

ci rcu it whil e in the case of the magnetic

,

circu it it cannot generally be so confined

, ,

b u t Spreads throu gh t h e s ur ro u ndin g air ,

which tho u gh an electric insu lator is

, ,

n ot a magnetic ins u lator It is there fore .

, ,

only in the case o f ferric circu its o in

‘

, r

aero ferric circuits in which the elu c

-
,
r

tance o f t h e air is small that Oh m s l aw ,

’

can be applied satis factorily .

In an electric circ uit the resistance of a ,

given wire varies with the character o f its

su bstan ce and disregarding temperature
, ,

chan ges 1s ndependent of the current

,
I

strength passing thro ugh it That is t o .

say,
a given length o f wire o f a given
12 6 MA NET G I SM .

su bstance at the sam te mper ature will e ,

possess a resis t ance o f the same nu m

ber of ohms whether the c urrent which ,

passes through it be one ampere or 100

amperes In the case o f t h e magnetic
.

circu it t h e rel u ctance of nearly all

,

s ubstances e xcept the magnetic metals ;

n amely iron steel nickel and co balt is
, , , ,

practically the same as that of air or o f ,

air pump vacuum In the case of the m ag

-
.

netic metals however a marked differ , ,

ence exists in the rel u c t nc e o ffere d by a a

g iv e n mass When the m

.
g n t i i l a e c h en

s i t y in the mass is weak ; i when the fl ux . e .

,

d n i t y is small
e s the relu ctance of the ,

mass will u s ually be very small in com

parison with a similar and e qual vol ume
o f air brass porcelain o r other n o n m ag
, ,
-

netic materi al A s the m gnetic i n t en . a

si t y increases the relu ctan c e o ffered by

,

the same mass of iron soon rapidly i h

 ELECTROMAG NETI SM . 12 7

creases u ntil when the iron is said t o be

,

s tu
a t d it possesses as high a rel u ctance
ra e ,

as the same volu me o f ai F or this rea r .

so n when a closed magnetic circ uit o r

, ,

ferric circui t s u ch as that sho wn in F i g

, .

4 8 is provided with a magnetizin g coil M

, ,

and a grad ually increa sing electric cur

F ERRI C MA G NETI C CI R C U IT .

rent is sent thro ugh the coil the flux ,

through the m agnetic circuit in the iron

is at fi st feebl e then rapidly increases
r ,

with the c u rrent strength an d finally i h ,

creases very slowly after the iron has b e

come nearly satu rated .
12 8 G
MA NETI SM .

Magnetic intensity as has already been ,

stated refers t o the density o f magnetic

,

flu x . A large flux may not have a high

density or high intensity i f it be spread
, ,

over a wide area F or example the total.

,

magnetic flux produ ced by the earth con ,

si de e d as a lar ge magnet is very great

r , .

B ut the area o f the s u r face over wh ich ,

this magnetic flux is distribu ted is so ,

g reat that the fl u x density is q u ite small .

In other words the flu x is distribu ted

,

over so many sq uare miles of s urface that ,

the amou nt of flu x passing thro ugh a lim

i t e d area s u ch as a s qu are inch or a
, ,

s qu are centimetre is very small The , .

un i t f o m g n t i ai net ncsi t y is ecalled the

ga uss, and is the density o f one weber
passing throu gh a perpendic ular area of
o n e s q u are centimetre Thu s i f the val ue
.
,

o f the magnetic flu x in an y instance is

e qu al t o say 100 webers and i f this flux ,

 L
E ECTR OMAGNETI SM . 12 9

passes u ni formly across a perpendicular

area o f 50 sq u are centimetres then the ,

average density or crowding o f the flu x

will be t wo webers thro u gh each s quare
centimetre or the intens i ty will be t wo
,

ga u sses .

The intensity of the earth s flux which’

,

aligns the compass needle varies at di f

,

fer e n t parts o f the earth s s u rface b u t is

’
,

u s u ally only a fraction o f a gau ss The i h .

tensity which is practically re qu ired to

satu rate very so ft iron is g a u sses

fi
,

or webers p e s qu are centimetre

r .

In cast iron about or g au sses

are practically satu rating intensities ,

while in hard steel 5000 gau sses will su f

,

c e for satu rati o n. In special cases i h ,

tensiti es in iron have been p u shed ex ,

p e r i m e n t al,l y as far as g a u sses or ,

far beyond the saturation limit the iron ,

130 G
MA NET SM I .

practically behavi ng as ai r at such ,

valu e s .

From the preceding it will be evident

that in the case of a non ferric magnetic -

circuit the magnetic flux or magnetic

,

current a nd also the magnetic i ntensity

, , ,

at any point in t h e circui t inc reases di

r e ct ly wi t h the c u rrent strength or num

ber of amperes s upplied t o the coil When .

,

however the magnetic circuit is either

,

acre ferric or ferric the magnetic flux

-
,

through the circu it de pends no t only on

the current strength b ut on the magnetic
condition of the iron By tabul ating the
.

relu ctance of iron at di fferent mag netic

intensities the magn etic flu x can usual
,

l y be calc ul ated with a degree of accur

acy su ffi cient for prac t ical purposes .
 TER VII
CHA P .

T HE ATTR ACTI VE P O WER OF MAG NETS .

ROU G HLY Sp eaking the p urposes fo

, r

which ele ctromagnets are generally em

plo yed commercially can be arrange d
, ,

u nder t wo c l ss e s a nam ely ,

( 1 ) Thos e in w hich the ma gnets h ve a

t o attra ct their ar m atu r e s with a c e rtain

degree o f forc e t a di st nc e
a a .

( )
2 Tho in
se w hich t h e m ag nets have
only t o s u stain a pow rful attraction up e

o n their k e e p ers .

Ma gnet s o f the form e r class called

a ttrac ti
ve m g t and those o f the latter
a n e s,

class p t t i m g t
or a ve a ne s .

No r ul e can be l aid do wn for the num

132 GN E I
MA T SM .

b er of ampere turns re quired to produce

-

either a given attractive or portative ef

fe e t u nless all the conditions o f t h e
,

m agnetic circu it are known These condi .

tions as have been briefly mentioned in

,

the preceding chapter are the M M F , . .

which is t o be ap p lied t o t h e circu it the ,

magnetic rel uctance o f the circu it and the ,

amo unt and character of the attraction

req uired .

The amou nt o f attraction existing b e

tween a m agne t and its armature or ,

between any t wo p arts of the magnetic

circu it de p en ds o nly o n the area o f the
,

attracting s u rfaces and o n the intensi t y

,

o f the flu x passin g t hro u gh them The i h .

t e n sity b ein g e qu al i f we do u ble the at

,

t racti n g s u rface ar e a s o p l ,
r as o ar ar ea s,

they are u su ally called we dou ble the at,

tractive force Again other things being

.
,
 ATTRACT VE PI OWER OF MA NETS G . 133

equal i f we dou ble t h e magnetic flux

,

through the s ur faces we quadr uple the

a t tractive force The attractive force
.

between t wo polar s urfaces therefore , ,

increases directly with the s urfaces i h

volved and as the s q u are o f the magnetic

,

intensity thr ou gh these s urfaces .

In order to obtain a powerful el ectro

magnet i t i s nec e ss ary t o have as large a
,

polar s u rface as possible n d at the same , a ,

time t o re ach magnetic sa t uration in

,

these polar s ur faces as ne arly as possible .

In other words it is n e cessary t o obtain

,

the m axim u m p o ssible m agnetic flu x pass

i ng thro u gh t h e pol ar s u r fac e s I f we .

m erely increase the area o f the polar at

tractin g s urfaces witho ut increasing the
,

total q u antity o f m agn etic flu x we nec ,

e ssa i l y red u ce t h e int e nsity or flu x densi

r

t y thro u gh t h e su r fac e s an d probably r e

, , ,
134 G
M A NETI SM .

d u ce rather than i ncrease the attractive

, ,

force Every s q u are inch of so ft iron

.
,

practically saturated ; i h aving an i h

. e

tensity of say g a u sses through it ,

can s upport a perpendicular p u ll o f .

,

ap p roximately 2 10 p ou nds so that in

, ,

order that a horseshoe mag net may su s

tain from its t wo poles a total weight
o f 2 100 po un d s it will be necess ary t o
,

have at an intensity o f
, ga u sses ,

in the polar s u rfaces a total polar sur

,

face o f 10 sq u are inches or 5 s qu are ,

inches on each pole .

A pproximate magnetic saturation is ,

therefore necessary fo the produ ction of

,
r

a p owerfu l portative electromagnet I n .

t h e case o f ferric m agnetic circ u its the ,

relu ctan ce o f t h e circuit is so small that a

com paratively fe eble M M F is re quired
. . .

to prod uce a p owerfu l magnetic flux and

 ATTR ACT V E I P O WER OF G
MA NET S . 135

intensity Consequ ently neither a great

, ,

number of turns nor a strong magnetizing

current is requ ired to produ ce an approach
to saturation so that electromagnets of

fi
,

the ferric type which co m plete all of

,

their magnetic circuit through iron do ,

n ot re q u ire to be very long since a com ,

p ar at i evl y sma l l n u mber o f t u rns su f

ces to prod u ce a saturating flux Since .

however powerfu l attractive magnets re

,

qu ire large polar s ur faces i t follo ws that ,

su ch magnets shoul d have a large cross

section and be of short length O in . r,

other words a short st umpy el ect rom ag

, ,

net when properly designed and excited

, ,

possesses powerful portative properties .

For an electromagnet to pos sess

marked attractive power at a distance it ,

i s of co u rse necessary that the circ u it o f

, ,

the magnet b e acre ferric or that the -

, ,
136 MAGNET SMI .

magnetic flux p asses through some length

o f air In s u ch c ases t h e rel uctance of
.

the circu it will be considerably greater

than in the case of the por t ativ e magnets ,

and conse qu ently the M M F required

, , . . .

fo r powerful intensities m u st also b e i h

creased Such magnets are therefore
.
, ,

u s u ally l on ger th an the portative m ag

nets i n order to provide s uffi cient space

,

fo r the ma gne t izi ng coil and also

, beca u se
s u ch magnets when short would waste
, ,

mu ch of the flu x by l k g that is fl uxea a e, ,

which wo uld n ot pass through the arma

ture or body which the magnet attracts
, , .

A portative magnet needs a high polar

intensity more than a large polar area ,

for the reason that as already observed

, ,

while the attraction incre ases with the

s qu are of the intensity it only increases,

directly as t h e extent of surface ar ea of

 I
ATTR ACT VE P O WER OF G
MA NETS
. 137

the polar s urfaces This fact is u tilized

.

t o i ncrease the portative power o f per

manent magnets by em ploying soft iron

FI G 49
. .
—COMPOUND PERMANENT MAG NET WITH CONSTA NT
POLE SURF A CES .

or so ft steel p ol p i e ; with a cross

e -
ces

section con si de ab l v les s than the cross

r

sectio n o f the permanent ma gn e t itsel f .

138 MA NET G I SM .

Thu s in the for m of horseshoe magnet

,

shown in Fi g 4 9 the pole pieces n and

.
,
-
, s,

are of so ft steel of comparatively small

,

cross section fitted b y clamps to the

-
,

ends of the horseshoe formed of strips o f ,

hard magnetized steel The intensity in .

th se permanently magnetized steel strips

e ,

probably does not exceed 2 000 gau sses ,

b u t by crowding the flu x into these so ft

iron pole pieces on its passage into and
-
,

o u t of the m tu ar the intensity in the

a r e,

polar s urfaces may be increased t o per ,

haps ga u sses o ei ght times as m,u ch r

as in the magnet strips and the intensity ,

o f the attractive force p er s q u are inch o f

polar s urface is therefore 8 x 8 or 64 times

, , ,

as great as it would be i f t h e poles were

n ot so m d
ar For a similar reason the
e .
,

c mp oun d b r m gn t
o -
a shown in Fi g 4
a e s, .
,

are armed with masses of soft iron having

a diminish ed cross section at their pole s
-
.
 I
ATTRACT VE P OWER OF G
MA NETS . 139

In a m agnetic circuit the resistance t o

the passage of the m ag netic flux increases
directly with the length o f the circuit
an d inversely as its area o f cross section -
.

Conseq u ently in designing the dime h

,

sions Of the core and yoke of a magnet ,

the same area of cross section sho uld -

,

when possible be maintaine d through

,

ou t ; since otherwise the iron i h the

, ,

narrowed cross section wo uld be magnet

-

i cal l y satu rated m u ch sooner than in

the balance o f the circuit and wou ld ,

thu s render saturation more di fli cul t to

be reached at the needed points ; namely ,

in the polar faces .

C are mu st be tak en that constriction

should take place in a magnetic circuit ,

only at the polar faces since as has , ,

been explained above the reluctance of

,

fere d b y a given vol ume o f air at or dinary

14 0 G
MA NET SM I .

flux densities is m u ch greater than that

o f iron . Where yoke pieces are u se d for
conn ecting t wo branches of an electro
magnet i t is necessary that the j i t or o n s,

fi
,

contact s urfaces be fitted to gether as truly

,

as possible so as t o ens ure an intimat e

,

contact between the two portions Of iron

and thu s redu ce the rel uctance at these
points A well t t ed joint between so ft
.
-
,

iron masses o ffers the same amount of e

,
r

l u ct an ce as wo u ld a film o f air ap p rox i

m ately 1 1000t h o f an inch in thickness
-
.

When a core o f soft iron is employed

fo an electromagnet it can as we have
r , ,

seen both lose and gain its magnetism

,

with great rapidity A very large core .

,

say two feet in diameter s uch as exists ,

in the electromagnets employed in some

large d ynamos re qu ires an appreciable
,

time for the full development of the m ag

 ATTRACTI VE P O WER OF G
MA NETS . 14 1

n etic flux near its centre although the ,

su perficial portions will acqui re their

magnetic condition almost instantan
e o u sl y. Thus fo u r minu tes might be
,

re q uir ed for the development of the

fu ll m agnetic intensity within say two ,

per cent of its maxim um at the centre of

.
,

a two foot core and the rapidity wit h

-
,

wh i ch t h e core th u s completely gains or

loses its magnetism varies inversely as t h e
squ are of the diameter of the core .

Iron wire of abo u t one tenth of an i nch

,
-

in diameter will acqu ire and lose its

,

magnetism in approximately “ mam of a ,

second In some forms of electromagnets

.
,

as in the case of some telegraphic i nst ru

ments which are capable of t ransmi t t i ng
,
‘

300 words per minu t e the magnetism has

,

t o be reversed 150 times per second .

14 2 MA NET G I SM
.

The rapidity with which any magnetic

circ uit loses its magnetism on the cessa ,

tion of the magnetizing current varies ,

m ark edly with the c h arac t er o f the m ag

netic circ uit In a non ferric circuit as
.
-
, ,

for example that prod uced by the coil o f

,

FIG . 50 — NON F ER R I C
.
-
MA G NETI C C I RC UI T .

wire shown n F i g 50 the magneti flux

I .
, c

instantly appears and disappears with the

ap pe aranc e and disappearance of the cur
rent i h the coil I n an a e ro ferric circ u it
.
-

ho wever as is sho wn I n Fi g 51 where

, .
,
 ATTRACTI VE P OWER OF G
MA NETS . 14 3

the magnetic flux completes its circuit

throu gh a con siderable air gap the bar -
,

neither immediately ac qu ires its magnet

i sm o n the e stablishment o f the c u rrent ,

n o r immediately loses it on its cessation ,

F IG . 51 —AERO F ERR I C
.
-
MA G NETI C C I RC U IT
.

but tends t o retain a small qu antity of

what is called i du l m gn t i m after
r es a a e s ,

the current has entirely ceased .

I n the ferric circu it as shown in F i g

, . 52 ,
144 GNE I SM
MA T .

where the en t I re path of the flux p o r

du ce d b y the m agn etizing coil is complet

ed through the iron the core tends t o ,

retain a large percentage o f its magnet

ism for an indefinitely great period after

fi
FI G . 52.
— F ER R I C MA G NETI C CI RC U
IT .

the cessation Of the m agnetizing current ,

b u t i f the core were arran ged in two halves

with tightly t t i ng joints so that the relu c
-
,

tance of the air gaps might be di sregarde d

-
,

it would be fou nd that althou gh the two

halves of the ring wou ld as the re sul t of
 I
ATTRACT VE P OWER OF MAG NETS. 14 5

this residu al magnetism tend to adhere ,

yet as soon as a separation was made

, ,

the ring wo uld instantly lose practical ly , ,

all its magnetism This is the reason for

.

provi ding p ermanent horseshoe magnets

with k p er the e ffect of which is to
ee s,

redu ce the reluctance in the magnetic

circui t b etween the pole s and thereby ,

redu ce the demagnetizing tendency o f the

poles u pon the molec ular stru cture of the
steel In b t h e words there e xists a
. r ,

g re ater tende n cy fo r the dem agnetization

o f a permanent m agn et when its k eeper ,

is removed fro m it than when its k eeper,

is in contact with its poles Conseq u ent .

l y b lows received by the magn e t while

,

its keeper is removed will be more likely ,

t o e ffect its demagn eti zation than when

the keeper is on .

The e ffect o f rapidly p ulling the keeper

14 6 MA GNETI SM .

from the poles of a magnet is t o s t rength

en i t s magne t ism owing to the fact that
,

this movement of the keeper sets u p

little l l or ddy u ent of electricity
oca e c rr s ,

in the pole pieces in su ch a direction as

-
,

tends t o strengthen the magnetism .

Since the p u tting on o f the armatur e o f

a m agn et sets u p currents in the pole
pieces in a direction tending t o weaken
the magnetism it is advisable to p u t the
,

k eeper on slowly so as to d ecre ase the

,

strength of s u ch cu rrents The keeper

m ay be detached as s u ddenly as may b e
desired .

Dan gero u s explosions sometimes occur

in flou r mills from the ignition of clou d s
,

o f flo u r du st by a spark prod u ced by the

,

friction o f the m ill stone against a pi ece

o f iron wire a nail a screw or a bit o f
, , ,

hoop iron accidentally introdu ced wit h

,
 ATTRACT VE P I OWER OF MA NETS G . 14 7

the W heat Considerable loss both o f

.
,

life and property h as occurred from this ,

cau se a clou d of flou r du st possessing

,

highl y Cxplosive p roperties In order t o .

avoid this danger vario u s application s ,

of magnets have been employed F i g 53 . .

FI G 53 — COMP O U ND PERMA NENT MA G NET EMP LOYE D FO R

V I F
. .

THE REMO A L OF R ON P A R TI C LES R OM W HEA T .

shows an arrangement of permanent

magnets fo the p u rpose The wheat
r ,

prior t o its introdu ction into the mill is ,

cau sed to fall in front of the magnets and ,

in this way any stray bits of ir on or of ,

iron ore are e ffectu ally remov ed

, .
14 8 G
MA NET ISM.

That finely divi ded inflammable m a

t eri al sho uld possess explosive properties,

is readily explained by the fact that ex

plosive combustion simply means ex
t r em el y rapi d u nion o f the combu stible
with the oxygen of the air The divided
.

condition of the material permits rapid

combination from all sides Even su ch
.

o rdinarily slightly comb u stible materials

as iron are readily burned in the flame of

an ordi nar x gas light i f the cohesion b e
-

overcome by filing .
 CHA PTER V II I .

SOME P R ACTI CA L LICATIONS OF ELECTRO

AP P

MAG NETS .

EVEN a cas u al exa m ination will show

the extent to which the di fferent p ract i
cal applications of electricity are depend
ent for their Operation on the existence
an d u se of electromagnets Without .

this valu able piece of mechanism nearly ,

all the practical applications of electric

ity would be impossible For exam ple. ,

telegraphy and telephony are based ab

sol u t el y on the attraction of an armat u re

by an electromagnet Electric b ells eu

.
,

n un ci at or s
, an d electromagnetic si gn al

in g apparat us are e q u ally dependent on

150 G
MA NET I SM .

the Operations o f this important devi ce .

A l l dynamo machines are electromagnets ,

in which the armature revolves Cou se .

qu ently withou t the application of elec

,

t ro m agnet s s u ch machines co u ld have

,

no existence The electric motor con

.
,

sisting as it does of a dynamo in reversed

act i on i s eq u ally dependent u pon electro
,

magnetism Withou t the el ect om ag

. r

net the alternating current trans former

,
-

would disappear and although the i n

, ,

candescent lamp wou ld remain yet at the ,

present time it wou ld be impossible t o

supply t h e current it requ ires even wit h ,

the u se of storage cells which coul d not ,

exist withou t the u se of dynamo genera

tors A rc lamp s employing as they do
. , , ,

electromagnets in their feeding mechan

ism would be similarly deb arred
, .

Since witho u t the electromagnet th ere ,

 AP P L I CATI O NS OF ELECTROMAG NETS . 151

wo uld be little o f practic al v al ue le ft in

electricity it will be o f interest rapidly
,

t o review some o f the m any use s o f the

electromagnet in di fferent branches of
e lectro te chnics c alling attention at the
-
, ,

F IG . 54.
— TELE G R A P H SO UD
N ER .

same tim e to some of the p e c uliarities

,

needed in their con stru ction in order t o

me e t the re quirem en t s of each partic ular
c ase
.
152 MAG NETI SM .

Fi g . represents a form of under

54 so

employed in telegraphy Here t h e .

‘

message I s recei ed as a series of sounds

v

produ ced by the striking o f a lever

against t wo metallic st e p s the move ,

ments of the lever being obtained by the

attractions of the armatu re A of the ,

electromagnet M M .

The electromagnet generally employed

in a t elegraphic sou nder like that shown,

in the fi gu re consi sts of t wo straight ver

,

tic al cores o f so ft iron connected to gether

at their lower ends by a y k or cross pie ce
o e -

of so ft iron The coils are wou nd on

.

hard rubber spool s i n case d i n hard

,

rubber shells so as to prote ct them from

,

inj u ry The length and size of the wire

.

empl oyed are s u ch that the resistance of

the two coils in series varies from one
ohm to six ohm s ac cording to cir cum
 AP P LI CATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETS . 153

stances The t wo ends of the wire wound

.

on the coil are connected t o the binding

~

posts b b by which t h e exciting c urrent

enters an d leaves the instru ment On .

the passage o f the c u rrent throu gh the

magnetizin g coils the M M F of the , . . .

coils produ ces a magnetic flux through the

m agnetic circ u it o f the apparatu s name
l y thro u gh the t wo cores and their con
,

n e ct i n g yoke t h e armatu re and the i

, a r

g p
a o
s, s p c
r e s bet
a we en the armat u re
an d the poles an d prod u ces an attra e
,

tion b e twe en the poles and armature .

Other thin gs being e qu al the greater the ,

distance between the armatu re and poles ,

the fe ebler the attraction between them .

On the other hand i f the armature be ,

bro u ght so close t o the poles as to come

into contact with them the amo un t o f ,

residu al magnetic flu x le ft in the magn et

i c circu it a fter the c e ssation of t h e m
, ag
154 MA NET G I SM .

current may be so considerable

n e t i zi n g ,

as to cau se the armatu re either to clin g to

the poles or to leave them sl uggishly
, .

For this reason the poles are often p ro

t e ct e d from contact with the armatu re
by a small wedge or projection o f non
, ,

magnetic material The adj u sting screws

.

s, s , s, lim it t h e play of the armature the

“

distance between the armatu re and the

poles and the tension o f the spring G
, ,

which Opposes the magnetic attraction .

When a telegraphic so under is situ ated

at a con si derab l e distance from t h e send

fi
i ng station the c urrents received by it
,

are too weak to energize its coils with

Su fli ci en t intensity to make the so u nd
cle rly au dible In order to obviate this
a .

dif cul ty the sou nder instead of being

, ,

placed directly in the circuit is repl aced ,

by an instrument call ed a t l g p h i c l y e e ra re a .
 I
A PPL CATI ONS OF ELECTROMAGNETS . 155

Su ch an instr ument is sho wn in F ig 55 . .

The telegraphic relay by the movement ,

of its arm atu re acts to o p en and close the

,

circuit of a l l b t t y through the

o ca a er

coils of a telegraphic so under Since the .

amo un t of po wer re q u ired to Open and

close the local circu it is very small com ,

pared with th at necess aryt o Operate the

telegraph ic sou nder a comparatively fee
,

ble cu rrent is s ufficient t o properly Op

e at e the relay
r The am o unt o f current
.

required t o Operate a sou nder is abou t 4th

ampere while that req uired t o Operate a
,

telegraphic relay powerfully is only abou t

, ,

1
3 3t h amper e wh ile it m ay be adj u sted
,

t o work u nder favorable conditions with ,

1“h t h ampere .

shows a form of telegraphic re

F i g 55
.

lay in extensive u se The magn et M M.

, ,

attracts the armature an d cau ses the

156 G
MA NET SM I .

lever connected with the armatu re t o o s

cill at e between the stops T T in Obedi ,, ,,

ence t o the changes i n the current taking

place in the relay coils The magnet con .

sists of two straight bars or cyli nders o f , ,

FIG .
—
55 TELEG R A P HI C R EL A Y
. .

soft iron connected by a yoke of so ft iron

,

at the back The armature of so ft iron

.

is s upported on a contact lever pivoted on

the screw pivots P P T h is contact lever
, .

closes the local circuit o f the sounder

th rou gh the pivot s P P an d the metallic
, ,
 APPLI CATI ONS OF ELECTR OMAGNETS . 157

st e p ofthe screw T a small Spiral of thin

,,

wire W assistin g in maintaining good

,

metallic connection between the base of

the pivots and the moving armatu re The .

ends of the local circu it are connected

with binding posts l l The magnet , .

coils M M are wo u nd with fine wire so as

, ,

to develop t h e n e c e ssary M M F from . . .

the feeble line c u rrents and a e protect ,

r

ed by being enc ased i h hard ru bber shells ,

or c ylinders The magnet an be moved

. c

forward and b ackward for p u rposes o f ,

adj u stment in a v ertical frame u nder the

,

action of the screw S The tension of .

t h e Opposin g spring attached t o the arma

,

ture can be varied by a rapid motion

,

clamp R and a slow motio n screw C

, .

Th e ends of the m agnet c e l ls are connect

ed to two terminals one of which only is
,

seen in the figu re at The resistance o f

a .

s u ch a relay is u s u ally abou t 150 ohms .

158 G
MA NET SM I .

represent s the p a ts of an or di
F i g 56 . r

nary Bell tel ephon e Here the co m

, .

po u nd permanent m agnet G is provid d

, , e

at on e extre m ity with a magnetizing coil

L which is con n e c t d t o the line circ u it
, e

thro ugh the terminals T T b y the W i r cs , .

FI G . 56 .
-
P A R TS OF A N OR DI NA R Y B ELL TELEP HONE .

sh o wn I m m di a t ely f g t h e e n d of
. e aci n

t h e p e rmane n t m agn e t i a di ap hragm D s ,

o f f rro type i on whi ch a ffords a thin

e -
r ,

e l ast c pl a t e o
i diaphr agm o f so ft iron r ,

se m g as t h ar m at ure o f t h e m agnet
rv e .

Wh en an el e ct ic c urr en t is se n t thro ugh r

 L
AP P I CATI ONS OF ELECTROMAGNETS . 159

the coil L the M M F in the magnetic cir

, . . .

cuit is varied b eing either increased or

,

decreased according to the direction o f

,

the c urrent The magnetic flux through

.

the iron core the air and the diaphragm is

, ,

therefore varied On an increase in this

, .

flu x the attrac t ion between the diaphragm

,

and the magnet is increased and on a de ,

crease the attraction between the dia

,

p h
r ag m and ma gnet is diminished the ,

elasticity of the plate cau sing it t o move

away from the magnet When a rapid .

series of electric c u rrents passes thro ugh

the coil of the receiving instru ment the ,

attraction upon the diaphragm is rapidly

varied and the diaphragm vibrates under
,

the influ ence o f t h e varying attraction and

agitates the air in its vicinity thu s per ,

mitting the transmission of speech .

F i g 57 . shows a fo rm of electromagnetic
160 MA GNETI SM .

bell in which the bell B is stru ck by the

, ,

repeated blows of the hammer u nder the

attraction of the armature A by the elec ,

t om agn e t M M
r Here the el e ct rom ag
, .

F I G 57
. . B
—ELECTROMA G NETI C ELL
.

net consists o f two sof t iron cores or ,

cylinders screwed directly int o the cast

,

Iron frame of the b ox which thu s serves

,

as a yo k e to connect them The one s of .

 APP LI CATI ONS OF ELECTROMAGNETS . 161

the coils 211 M are brou ght t o the binding

, ,

posts p p When the cu rrent p asses

,, ,
.

through the apparatu s it enters the bind

i n g post p passes to the armature A

fi
,

throu gh its Spring s u pport thence by the ,

small Spring to a contact screw to t h e

3, c,

magnets M 111 and the binding post p

, , ,.

A s soon as the M M F o f the magn et . . .

c ils i s s u f cie nt t o produ ce a flux through

o

the armature cap able of attrac t ing it

,

against the tension of its spring s upport ,

the hammer mov e s fo rward to strike the

bell and bre aks the circu it by the Spring 3 , ,

moving away from the point o f the con

tact screw The flux in the magnetic
0 .

circu it then di sappears and the ten sion of

the Spring s upport cau ses the armature
and hammer t o return to their original
positions again completing the circuit
, .

Th er e is thu s set up a rapid au tomatic

V ibration or to and fro motion of the ar
,
- -
162 G
MA NET SMI .

m atur e ,
that the b ell continues to ri ng
so ,

as long as the circuit is closed at t h e pu sh

bu tton fro m which the b ell is Operated .

FI G . .
—
58 ELECTROMA G NETI C ANNU NCI A TOR .

F i g 58
. shows a form of electromagn etic
 AP P LI CATI ONS OF EL ECTRO MAG NETS . 163

annun ci a t or In this ap p aratu s a number

.

of electromagnets have th e ir circ uits con

h ooted with v ario u s rooms or other sta

tion s pro i ded with pu sh bu ttons Each

, v .

pu sh bu tton is con n e ct e d with its own

electromagnet Each electromagnet is .

so arranged that on t h e closing o f its ci r

cu it by the p u shing o f its p artic ul ar b u t
,

t on its arm atu re is attract e d an d allows

,

a disc t o fall u n d r t h e ction of gra ita e a v

tion th u s in di cating t h e nu m ber o f the

,

circ u it o p u sh bu t ton from which the

,
r ,

sign l w s n t Su ch pp aratu s is u sed

a as e . a

in co nn e ctin g t h room s o f a hotel wi t h a e

central offi c e t o en bl e t h e gu est s t o co m

, a

m u n i cat e with the ofl i c e Th e el e ctro .

m agn e t o f n n u n ci ators
s
-
a e o f t h e ordi ar

n ary do ubl e coil typ e conn e te d by a yoke

-
, c

o f so ft iron V ario u s m e thods are adopt

.

ed so that t h e attraction of the armatu re

shall r e s u lt in t h e di splay of a signal the ,
164 G
MA NET ISM .

circu it conn ections being s uch that the at

tention o f the attendant at the ann unci
ator board is called t o the falling of the
drop by the ringing of a b ell .

Aningenio u s a p pli cation of the move

ments of a sm all electromagne t ic motor

FIG . 59 —.E DI ’
SO N S ELECTR I C P EN A ND DU I I
PL C A T NG P RESS
.

is t o be fo u nd in the c ase o f t h e l t i e ec r c

pen ill u str a t d in F i g

e 59 H ere the. t o .

and f o motions o f a bar connecte d to a

-
r

small motor a e u tiliz e d fo the perfo ation

r r r

o f a Sh ee t o f pap e by a r apidly moving

r,

n e dl e
e Th e m at t e r t o b e d u plicat e d is
.
 AP P LI CATI ONS OF EL ECTROMAGNETS . 165

either written o printed r as perforations

in a ste n cil sh e et o f paper , which is after
ward em ploye d in the u s u al mann er ,

with an inking roller for , manifolding or

duplicating .

An electromagnet forms an essential

featu re in all l mp m h ni m
ar c -
a Most ec a s .

ar e lamps contain at least two electro

magnets ; namely o n e for the separation

,

o f t h e carbons and another f o the f

, di ng r ee

m h ni m
ec a s . In addition most lamps that ,

are employed in series circuits u se a third ,

electromagnet for the pu rpose of auto

m at i call y c u tting a lamp o u t of the cir
cuit and providing a b y path by which the -

cu rr ent can flow past the faulty lamp to

the others in the circuit F i g 60 shows . .

the interior mechanism of a form o f arc

lamp in which the arc i s maintained b e
twe en the c arbon s C C Th e magnets M , .
,
166 MAG NET I SM
.

. .
—
F I G 60 A R C LA MP
.
- MECH A NISM
.
 AP P L I CATIO NS OF ELECTRO MAGNETS . 167

M , wo un d wi t h co r s wi e p laced di a e r ,

r e ct l y in t h e circ u it o f the carbons are ,

employed as the lif t i ng m gn t The a e s .

magnets m m wo u nd with fine wire are

, , ,

placed in a sh unt circ uit aro u nd t h e lamp

terminals These magnets a e emplo yed
. r

to attract the same armature A b u t i n ,

Opposite directions and by their joint ,

action maintain a constant distance b e

tw een t h e carbons .

Nearly all o u readers are familiar with

r

the metho d of electric gas lighting whe re ,

the pressing of one b u tton turns the gas

on and lights it and the p e ssm g of ,
r

another bu tton turns the gas Off and ex

t i ngu i sh e s it A form o f mechanism
.

employed for t his p u rpose is Shown in

Fi g 61
. . It consists as shown of two , ,

distinct electromagnet s M and m the ,

armatur es Of which act on a valve in t h e ,

168 MA NET G I SM .

interior stem thro ugh which the gas i s

,

s upplied t o the b u rner at the t op When .

the magnet M M is excited b y the pas

,

FIG . .

M
L
61 —ELECTR I C G
I
I AS EX U I
I G HT NG
EC H A N SM.
A ND TI N G SHI NG

sage of a current thro ugh the coils ,

and the contact of the platinu m tipp e d -

wire p with the p rojec t i on on t h e ring r

, ,
 AP P LI CATI ONS OF ELECTR OMAGNETS . 169

the armature A is li fted against gravita

,

t i onal force and strikes the lower en d q ,

o f the wire p th u s raising the wire and

,

causing it to break contact with the pro

j e ct i on r This
. ca u ses the c u rrent thro u gh
the coil s to cease and the armature t o fall
'

bac k u ntil contact i s ag ain made at p ,

thu s acting as an ut om t i m ke and br eak

a a c a -

device not unlike that in an electric b ell

, .

Du ring the impulses the ratchet c i s moved

, ,

forward b y the projection on the armatu re

A u ntil the gas is fully tu rned on and at
, ,

every interruption Of the circuit when the ,

wire p escapes from the ring r a spar k

, ,

produ ced b y a sp ar k oi l included in the

c

circuit passes between them thu s igniting ,

the gas which is at that ti m e escaping

from the b urner When t h e magnet m ,

is excited its armature lifts witho u t any

,

interr upting mechanism and acting on ,

t h e rat ch et cam 0 tur ns t h e val ve and cuts

,
170 G
MA NET I SM
.

Off the gas The magnets in this case con

.

sist Of short so ft iron cylinders scre wed

,

directly with iron screws t o an iron plate

F F which serves as a common voke
, ,

for both .

FI G . D O
62 — ELECTR I C
. OOR -
PE NER .

Electromagnets have been e mployed

fo opening doors from a distance thu s
r ,

permitting the services of an attendant to

b e dispens ed with By the closing o f a
.
 AP P L I CATI ONS OF ELECTROMAGNETS . 171

circuit on the pu shi ng of a button the

, ,

armature Of an electro m agnet is attracted ,

and the door is

all wed t o Open
!v .

The method of
O p e r a t i O n of

this m ay be fol
lowed by an e x
a m i n a t i O n of

F i g 62
. .

The u se of an
el e c t r o m a g n e t

in a sel f wind -

i ng clock is re p
r e s e n t e d in
F i g 63
. Here.

the el ect rom ag

—S F W D
net at t h e b ase
,
FIG C
. 63 . EL - IN I NG LOC K .

Of t h e cloc kwork receives a b rie f elec t ric

current say every fi fteen min utes and at

, ,
172 G
MA NET I SM .

tracts its armature which is SO perforated

that a fairly long motion Of t h e armature
is obtainable The ar m atu re i s SO con
.

n e ct e d with the Spring o f t h e clock that it

slo wly winds it to compensate for the

,

u nwinding that has taken place in the

preceding fi fteen minu tes .

A novel u se for an electromagnet is

seen in a form of li gh t ni ng st shown a rr e er

in Fi g 64 It not infre qu ently happens

. .

during the pro gress of a thu nderstorm ,

that a spark du e to a discharge from the

,

lines supplied by a central station estab ,

lishes an arc between the line and the

g ro u nd in the apparat u s at the station .

This arc practically short circuits the

g enerator ,and i f n o
, t promptly e x t i n

g u i sh e d, is apt serio u sly to inj u re the ap

parat us In the form of mechanism shown

'

in the fi gure t h e arc is cau sed to be set up

,
 APP I CAT L I O NS OF ELECTR OMAGNETS . 173

between the t wo metallic plates P P placed , ,

in the field Of flux of t h e magnet ex cited ,

b y the current wh ich will flow when the

arc is established The e ffect Of a p owe
. r

FI G . 64 . LI
—ELECTR OMA G A NETI C G HTNI NG RRESTER .

fu l m agn et c flu x u pon a v ol t al c arc is to

i

p sh it aside or violently distort it

u The .

electro m agn et th er efore acts as an ex

, ,

t i n gu i sh er o f t h e electric arc and in the , ,

174 G
MA NETI SM .

relative position s occ up ied by the m ag

nets and t h e poi n t wh e e the a e formsr r

nam ely at t h e n rro w gap betwe e n the

. a

plate s the a c is r ep ell e d u pward t o t h e

,
r

wider port ion of the gap where it is finally

extingu ished .

. . LI I
FI G 65 — ELEC TR OMA G NETI C G HTN NG A R R ESTER .

A noth e r fo rm o f el e ctrom agnetic light

nin g arr e ter i s sho wn in F i g 65 A Spark
s . .

a
g p i s p l ac d bet we een t h e ca bon points r

at d so th at i f a p owerful discharge from

,

the line sho u ld e n ter t h e sta t io n it will ,

 AP P LICATI ONS OF E ECTR L O MAGNETS
. 175

j
u mp to gro u nd t hro u gh t h is spar k a
g p .

I f the dynamos connected with the lines

should cau se a powerful arc to follow this
discharge the current mu st pass through
,

the electromagnet m which by the at , ,

traction Oi its armature lifts the bar into ,

the dotted position there b y b re aki ng the

,

are at both and b a .

erhaps the most important use Of the

P
electromagnet is fo und in the dynamo
electric machine This apparatu s con
.

si sts essentially of powerful field m ag

nets whose p urpose is t o produ ce the
,

magnetic flux with which t h e condu cting

loops on the armature are su ccessively
emptied and filled dur ing its revolution
, .

By the filling and emptyi ng Of this flux ,

E M F S are set up in the loo p s by

. . .
,

m ea n s of wh i ch either altern ati ng or con

t i nu ou s c u rrents are delivered at the
176 MAG NET SM I .

term inals o f the generator to the circui t ,

with which it is connected .

A fo rm of generator is Shown in Fi g 66 .
,

called a qu d ip l or f u p l g n t o
a r o ar o r -
o e e er a r,

s u ch as is fre qu ently u sed in a central

station fo s upplying cu rrents to electric
r

railway system s Here the magnets are .

shown at M M M and the armatu re b e

, , ,

tween th eir poles at A In this form o f .

machine the alternating or reversed u

, c r

rents generated i n the armature d uring

,

its rotation a e cau s ed by me ans Of t h e

, r ,

commu tator t o flow in o n e direction

c , c,

into t h e extern al circu it The cores of .

t h e elec t ro m agnets in thi s case ar e m ass

es Of c ast iron forming p art o f the en tire
cast iron frame F F which acts as the com
-
,

mon yoke o f all fo u r cores The alternate .

poles Of these m agn ets are Of Opposite p o

l ari t y The currents required to excite
.
 APP LI CATI O NS OF E ECTR L OMAG NETS . 177

n o . 66
.
—! U A DRIPOLAR B ELT- D RI VEN RA mWA Y G nm A .

TOR .
178 G
MA NET I SM .

these large magn ets are Obtained from t h e

rotatin g arm at u re When t h e machine i s
.

a t rest there will be n o c u rrent in the

armatu re . In order to bring the m achine

into Operation it is necessary to rely upo n
,

the residu al magn etism Of the field m ag

nets for the developing of t h e initial cu r

rent i n the armatu re which in its turn W i ll

,

aid in restoring the field magnets to their

f ull intensity.

The power which m u st be ex erted upon

a dynamo armature through its driving
,

belt on t h e pulley P is expended agains t

,

the m agnetic attraction of the cur rent in

the arm ature for the fo ur powerful m ag
n etic poles in the field The amo unt Of
.

flu x which a large dynamo will produ ce

, ,

may be very considerable Thu s each of .

t h e fo u r poles here represented may read

I l y carry a fl ux Of we bers .
 APP LI CATI O NS OF E ECTRL OMAGNETS . 179

An e q u ally important application of the

el ectromagnet is fo u nd in the l t m g e ec r o a

n t i c m ot
e which is itself a dynamo ma
or ,

FI G . 67 — ELEC TR O MA G N ET IC
. MOTOR .

chine in reversed o p e ation The machine r .

represented in F i g 67 h as a c apacity Of
.

abo u t 10 horse powe r The el ectric m o

-
.

tor lik e the dynamo co n sists essentially

, ,
180 MA GNETI SM .

Of a magnet or collection of m agnets the

, ,

fu nction Of which is t o produ ce a power

ful magnetic fl ux The armature carry
.

i ng an electric c u rrent is situ ate d in this

flux . U nder these circ u m stances the ,

tendency will be fo the condu cting loops

r

On the armat ure t o revolve and deliver

power from the pul ley P to a belt Here , .

the magnet coils m m receive their ex , ,

citing cu rrent from the sou rce of electric

press ure to which the motor is connected ,

and the armature A Si t u ated between the

,

p oles receives the flux which the M M F

, . . .

Of the field m agnets creat e s .

ingenio u s application has been made

An
of the ability po ssessed by an electro

magnet to attract to it particles of iron

ores in vario u s forms of l t om gnet i
,
e ec r a c

n
or e co nt tce the d e sign Of whic h is t o
r a or s,

concentrate granu lar ores Of i ron that are

 APP L I CATI ONS OF L
E ECTR OMAGNETS . 181

admixed with SO large a quantity of other

material as t o render their smelting in
, ,

the u ntreated state un profitable Such , .

apparatu s consists essent ially Of powerful

electromagnets so arranged that a stream
,

o f the p u lverized ore is permitted to fall

before their poles Under these circum

.

stances the particles of ore while falling

, , ,

are su ffi ciently defleCt e d from the verti

cal i n their downward path by the action
, ,

o f the ma gnet t o permi t them to fall

,

into a com p artment provided for them ,

while the n on m agnetic resid u e falls

-

vertic ally in a separate heap .

The di fferent types of electromagnets

that have been described in the preceding
par agraphs possess different attractive
,

power on masses of magnetizable material

brought ne ar their poles When the .

m as s Of iron i n t h e magnet is su ffi cientl y

182

g ,

fi
reat and the magnetizing current em
‘

ployed s uf ciently p owerful remarkable

strengths Of magnetic attraction can be
Obtained An illu stratio n Of this will
.
G
MA NET ISM
.

be found in the powerful magnet which

has been formed at the U nited States
Torpedo Station ; at Will et t s Point ’
,

Ne w York Harbor b y winding a si x ,

teen foot gun weighing fifty thou

-

sand p ounds with magnetizing coils of

,

wire Of about t en miles in length This .

length Of Wire produced 52 50 turns SO ,

that when the c urrent of 2 1 amperes was

employed as the magnetizing c urrent the ,

M M F Obtained was over

. . . am

pere turns A s might be expected s u ch

-
.
,

a magnet produ ced marked magnetic dis

t u b an ces at fairly great distances from
r

the gun and powerful m agnetic attraction

,

in the neighborhood F o ex am ple at a . r ,

distance Of ov er 70 feet from the gun t h e ,

 AP P L I CATI O NS OF ELECTR O M GNETS
A . 183

intensity o f flux produ ced in the air was

eq u al t o that Of t h e earth s magnetism ’
.

A t a distance o f abo u t 2 50 feet from the

p
FIG

e
. 68 —G
. UN ELEC TR OMA G NET, U S TOR P E
L I
W I LLE I T S
'' ’
S P O I NT ,

n the flu x is SO feeble that it is di f c u lt

,

t o detect
r
F i g 68 Sho ws the general ap
. .

a an ce p e se n t e d by the gu n ma net
r
g
ONG
. .

SLA N
D
D UDO
O
N .

fi
STATI ON ,

,
184

which is represented as s u staining e

MA

large cannon balls weighing 2 30 pou nd s

c ach .
GN ET SM

,
I .

fi v

We have h ere t ofo r e referre d

~
to the fact

FI G 69 —G UN ELECTROMA G NET A TT R ACTI ON o r I RON

U D
. . .

TH R O G H BO D Y o r SO L I ER .

that m g a netic flu x can p a s through

s
 APP L ICATI ON S OF L
E ECT R O MAGNETS . 185

m ost s u bstances with the same facili ty

that it does th rou gh air o air pu m p ,
r -

vacuum A st i ki ng ill u tration Of this is

. r s

F I G 70 —P OW ER F U L F ORC E
. . or G UN ELECTROMA G NET .

seen in F i g 69 where a man standing in

.
, ,

front o f o n e Of the p ole s o f the Willett s

’

Poin t gun ma gnet does no t pre ve n t t h e

-

,
186 G
MA NET I SM .

flu x f rom passing through his body as is ,

e ident by the fact t hat h eavy s pikes o f

v

iron are readily su pporte d at differe nt

parts o f his body in Opposition t o gravita
tion To a person so standing in front
o f t h e gu n n o physiolo ic al e ffects are
, g
experienced by the passage of the flu x
throu gh his body .

S ome idea Of the force with which t h e

armatu re is held t o the gun m agnet -

can b e gain ed by an inspe ction Of F i g 70 .

,

where a nu mber o f men are re p resented

as pu lling at a ro pe and ta kle in an eu c ,

de av o t o separate the armatu re from the

r

magnet pole piec e s .

While the to tal magnetic e ffects pro

du ce d by this large electromagnet are o f
a striking character yet it mu st be borne
,

in m ind that many of thes e effects aris e

 AP PLI CAT I ONS OF ELECTROM GNETS A . 187

f rom the size of t h e magn et an d the ,

scale u pon which the magnetic flu x is

p rod u ced,and n o t SO m u ch from the i n

tensity o f the magnet i c flux per sq uare

inch of polar s urface ; fo it is doubtful
r,

W hether the magnetic intensity in the

metal of s u ch a gu n h aving so extended
an aero ferric circ u it can be made as great
-

as t hat within the su bstance Of an o r

di n a y fe r ic electromagnet p o wer full y

r r

excited Conseq uently it is do ubtful

.
,

whether in this case t h e attractive force

per square inch Of the polar s urface ex
ce eds 2 00 po u nds wei ght
’
.

It was at on e time asserted that some

persons posses sed the power of percei in g v

m agn etic flux It was claime d for these

.

persons that when an electromagnet ,

Situ ated in a per fectly dark room was ,

Su dde n ly excited they co u ld by watch

, ,

i n g the magnet closely perceive a l u mi

,
188 G I
MA NET SM .

nous app earance emanating f om t h e

r

magnet More recent experiments have

. ,

however thrown do ubt On these state

,

ments and at the present time magnetic

, ,

flux is incapable Of being directly recog

n i e d by any Of o ur senses
z .
 CHA PTER I X .

M I LL ANEOU S MAG NETIC P HENOMENA

SCE .

OF al l k nown s ubstances no ne possess ,

s u ch powerful magnetic properties as

iron The m gn t i m t l ordinarily
. a e c e a s,

SO called
-
include iron and steel nick el
, ,

and cobalt Beside these there are many

.

other s u bstances which possess m ag

netic properties tho u gh in a less marked
,

degree Indeed the experiment s o f

. ,

Faraday and others have shown that

, ,

the property of magneti sm i s possessed ,

alth ou gh in a very feeble de gree by near ,

l y all s u bstances A ll u din g to these l n

.

v e st i gat i on s Of Faraday it may be sai d ,

that this early experimente r fo u nd when ,

 190 MA GNETISM .

the s ubstances were made in the form of

slender needles and SO s u spended b e
tween the poles of a powerful el ect o mag r

net as t o be able to move in a h orizontal

plane that when the magnetizing cu rrent
,

was turned On and the flu x passed b e

,

tween the magn et poles nearly every sub ,

stance experimented on came to rest un ,

der the influ ence Of the ether streamings ,

ei t he like iron with its greatest length in

r ,

the direction of the streamings or like bis ,

mu t h with its least dimensions in the

,

direction o f the streamings that is with

~

, ,

its length at right angles t o t h e stream

I ngs .

Farad ay consequ ently divided all

, ,

b odies magnetically into two classes ;

, ,

namely p ram gnet i s ubstances or

,
a a c ,

those which behave like iron and point ,

axially I n the magnetic flux and di m g , a a

 I
M SCELLANE O US P HENOMENA .

n et i cs ubstances or those which behave

,

li ke bismuth or point eq uatorially that

, ,

is come to rest at righ t angles t o the fl ux

, .

Faraday s views fo u nd general acceptance

’

until more care fu l Observations led most

i nvestigators to discredit them A ccord .

i n g t o the views Of those who followed

Faraday di m gn t i m w s s uppo sed to
,
a a e s a

be a force distinct and separate in itsel f ,

the diamagn etic rods o bars being re r

g arded as possessin g a distinct pol ari t y

termed di m gn t i p l i t y which cau sed
a a e c o ar

them t o p oint at right angles to the di

rection in which a paramagnetic body
would point .

According t o the m ore modern eW Vl ,

the exis tence Of diamagnetism as a ,

distinct entity is discredited When a

, .

Slen der needle o f bism u th is s u spended

in a power fu l magnetic flux and comes ,

192 MA G NETI SM .

to rest equ atorially o in a position ,

r

r ight angles to the flu x the action ,

F I G 71
. . D
-
I A MA G NETI C S U B STA N C E B ETW EEN MA G NET
P OLES .

not t o b e r egard e d as b eing du e t o an y

r ep ul siv e prop erty , or p e c u li a polari
r t y ,
 LLANEOUS P HENOMENA
MI SCE . 193

po ssessed b y the bismu th but rather

t o the fact that the m gn t acon duct i vi t y
e i c

Of the ether in the bismu th is less

th an the magnetic condu ctivity of the
ether in the air s u r oun ding the h i s
r

mu th Conseq u ently the ether stream

.
,

ings will continu e to act on the bar

u ntil it ass u mes a p osition in which it

O ffers the least resistance t o their pas

sage i n the Space between the poles and ,

this position will Obtain when the b ar is

at right angles to or presents its least di
,

m en si on s in the direction of the flux p aths

as Shown in F i g 7 1 When the experi
. .

m ent i smade i n atm ospheric air which ,

is generally the c ase it is quite possible

,

that o x ygen which p os sesses distinct

,

magn etic pro pertie s like those of iron ,

assists in the dis plac ement .

Th i s explanation Of the p henomena

 G

fi
194 MA NETI SM .

formerly attribu ted t o diam agnetism b u t ,

n ow reco gn i zed a s being only the ordinary

phenomena Of magnetism has only been

,

reached thro ugh the e f cient and laborio u s

investigatio ns o f many able scientists .

This case affords an excell ent illu stration

o f the fact that in a scientific in qu iry a ,

danger exists Of fixing the attention entire

ly on the phenomena p rod u ced u nder

g iven conditions an d losi n

, Si
g g ht o f the
fact that the ca u ses o f these phenomena
may n o t be fo un d in the particular regions
where they app arently wholly manifest
themselves b u t are rather t o be so ught
,

in the s u rro u nding region where their

manifestation is seemingly absent .

Fig . 72shows a convenient form Of

electromagnet s uitable among other p ur
p oses fo making ex periment s on di am ag
r

n e t i sm a n d param agneti sm I t consists

‘

.
,
ISCELLANEO US PHENOMEN
M
A 195
 MA GNETI SM .

as shown of t wo powerfu l magnetizing

,

coils placed on cores c onnected at their

lower extremities by a yoke of soft iron .

The poles Of the magnet are fu rnished

with massive pole pieces o f so ft iron pro
-
,

v i de d with smaller projections SO arranged ,

that t h e distance between them can be

r adily adj u sted The smaller pole pieces
e .
-

c n be removed and re placed by oth e rs o f

a

different shape s U nd er the se circu m

.

stances it is evident that an extrem ely

,

i nt e n se m agn etic flu x c n be made to a

pas s between t h e c oni c l x t remities Of the

a e

adj u stable pole pi ece s F o investigating

. r

t h e p ara o diamagn etic behavior o f solids

r

the apparatu s i s em ployed as follo ws ! A

Suitable stan d is placed so th at a needle

shap d mass Of the s u bstance is su s p ended

e

directly b e twe en the p oles as sho wn in

Figs 71 and 73 If the bar ex p erimented
. .

o n be of a p aramagnetic su b st ance lik e ,

 M I SCE LL AN E OU S P HEN OMENA . 197

iron it will u nder the infl uence Of the

, ,

magnetic flu x come to res t in the pos i tion

,

FIG . 73 .
—P A R A MA G N ETI C SU B STA N CE B ETW EEN MA G NET
P O LES .

Shown in F i g 73
. . That is , it will point
198 MA NET G I SM ..

axially b ut i f it b e Of bismuth or Of other

,

diamagnetic su b stan ce it will come t o ,

rest equ atorially as shown in Fi g 71 . .

and p aramagnetic pro per

Diamagn etic
ties are possesse d n ot onl y by solid sub
stances but also by liqu ids and gases
, .

When liqui ds are experimented Upon they ,

FI G 74 —MO V
AB LE P O LE P I ECES EMP LOYE D IN TESTS
B V L UD
-
ON
. .

P OLA R EHA I OR OF I! I S
.

are placed in su itable c ap sules or watch

gla sses In the latte r case the movable
.
,

projecting pole pieces are replaced by pole

-

pieces Shape d SO as to properly support

the watch glass or other vessel holding
-

the liqui d F igs 74 and 75 Show in gen

. .
,

eral the shap e of t h e movable pole

, .
 MI SCE LLANEOUS P HEN OMENA . 199

pieces and the arrangement of the appara

t u s when the s ub stances to b e e x periment
ed Ou are in the liq uid form Here as will .
,

b e seen the h qui d is placed in a shallow

,

g lass vessel sha p e d

, li k e a watch c ry stal .

If t h e li qu i d un d er e x ami natio n b e p ara

FI G 75 BEHA VI OR or PARAMA G NETI C A ND D I A MA G NETI C

L F U D
. .

P W M
I ! UI D I N O EBF U L A G NETI C L I .

m agn etic s u ch for exam ple as solu tions

, , ,

of iron or co b alt then on the passage o f

,

the flux b etween the poles the column Of ,

liquid will undergo curiou s distortions ,

elon gating b etween the poles or tending ,

to place the greatest mass Of i t s sub

2 00 MAG NET ISM .

st ance in the di rection Of the flux On the .

contrary i f the solution b e di amagnetic

, ,

it will elongate in the O pposit e dirce

t i on the shapes in e ach case b eing
,

represente d in Fi g 75 at A and B re .
,
.
,

sp e ct i v el y .

A nother way of experimenting wi th

para and di amagnetic liqui ds consists in ,

placing them in thin tubes of glass and in ,

s upporting the tubes like needles between

the poles It is to be Observed that the
.

e ffect produced is dependent both on the

effect produ ced by the glass i t self and
its liqu id contents For this reason the
.

g lass t u bes are made as thin as p ossible .

W hen tub es containing the li quids are

so su s pended in the flux they will when , ,

filled with diamagnetic sol u tions tend ,

to set themselves axially in the direction

Of the flu x and when filled with dia
, ,
 M I S ELL
C OUS
ANE OMENA
P HEN . 2 01

magn etic solutions , angles to

the flux .

G as es also posses s marked di amagn etic

and paramagnetic properties I f a stream .

o f gas b e permitted to flow between the

poles of a powerfu l electromagnet it will ,

be sensibly deflected on the p assage of

the flux Most gases are invisible b ut
.
,

these e ffects can be rendered evident b y

mixing a small q u antity of some visible
vapor with the gas s u ch as smoke or
, ,

iodine vapor U nder these circu mstances

.
,

the streams Of gas tend to set themselves

as wo uld the needles be fore referred to ,

paramagnetic gases endeavoring t o align

t hemselves axially and diamagnetic gases
,

eq u at o ri al l y .

The e ffect of m agnetic flux on a

stream Of gas s u ch as that produ ced in a
,
2 02 G
MA NETI SM .

ca n dle flame i s very striking If as

, .
,

shown in F i g 76 a candle flame be p laced

. ,

between the p oles of an ele ctromagne t ,

on the passage of the flux a mark ed ,

repulsion occurs Here as will b e seen

.
, ,

t h e iss uing gas jet is placed at ri ght

angles to the fl ame or i s di amagneti c , .

F I G 76 CAN DLE F LAME I NTRO DU DCE I NTO POWERF UL MAG

UD
. .

NETI C FL I .

If the field is strong the dis placement ,

is powerful enough to e xtingui sh the

candle .

The phenomena Of paramagnetism and

diamagn etism are by no means at variance
with t h e working theory Of magnetism
 I
LLANEO U S
M SCE P HEN OMENA . 2 03

which we have provisionally adopte d in

this book Tak e for exam ple the case
.
, ,

Of a p aramagn etic gas like oxygen eu

, ,

closed i n a needle Shaped tube NO mat

-
.

ter i n what position the tube may be

placed prior t o t h e p assage Of the flu x
, ,

as soon as the flux passes through the tu be ,

Owing possibly t o the pecul iarity in the

Shape o f the oxygen molec ules an ali gn ,

ment tends t o occu r in the molecular

magn ets t h e ether streams possessing
,

the power Of taking hold Of an d moving

them into line The entire t ube therefore
. , ,

becomes a m agnet like the iron bar al ,

though very m u ch feebler .

In the case o f a tu be filled with a di a

magnetic s ubstance the ether streams
,

are powerless t o produ ce any molecular

ali gnment since the molecul es do not
,

possess the re quisite structure The

2 04 MA GNETI SM .

molecules therefore instead Of faci li t at

, ,

i ng the p assage o f the ether thro u gh them ,

tend rather t o di Splace o resist the ether r ,

so that equilibrium will exist only when

the tub e is in a position which O ffers the
least resistance to the passage Of the ether
stream between the poles that is t o say , ,

when i t s least dimensions are at right an

gles t o the stream as when it ass u mes
,

the eq u atorial position .

The following list gives in the order Of ,

their paramagnetic properties the names ,

of some Of the commoner ma gnetic met

als ; namely iron nickel cobalt m an

, , , ,

ganese , platin u m ceri,u m osmi u m and ,

palladium .

The following list gives in a similar or

der the names of the princip al diamagnet
i c s ubstances ; namely bi sm u th antimony
, , ,
 MI SCEL L ANEOU S P HEN OMENA . 05

zinc tin mercury lead Silver copper

, , , , , ,

gold and arsenic .

A ltho ugh mangan ese h as been men

t i on e d as a paramagnetic s ubstance fo u rth ,

in order Of power and althou gh iron and ,

steel are the most powerfu l paramagneti c

su bstances known yet an alloy Of man ,

g anese carbon
, and iron k nown a s m , an

ga n t
ese s ee l contai
,
ni ng abo u t 12 p er cent .

o f m anganese is almost completely i n

,

capable of being magnetized .

Temperature exerts a marked e ffect On

the magnetic qu alitie s Of substances .

F or exam ple iron the most p owerfu lly

, ,

magnetic metal loses all traces o f m ag

,

netic properties and cannot be magnet

,

i e d at a d u ll red heat
z It again becomes .

m agnetizable on cooling .

An alloy of steel and nickel cont aini ng ,

2 06 MA GNETI SM .

abou t 2 5 per cent Of nic kel has b een .

,

fo u nd t o be almost n on magnetic in its -

Ordinary condition b ut i f heate d to 600

,
°

C it b ecomes m agnetizable o n cooling

.
, ,

u nless coole d to abo u t 4 C wh e n it again °

.,

becomes almo st n on magnetic u nless re -

heated .

We have all uded on page 2 7 t o what is

called the m gn t i et nt i i t y of iron ; name
a e cr e v

l y that property in the molec ul ar str uct

,

u r e Of iron whereby the magnetic co n

dition tends to persist aft er the ce ssation

Of the magne t izing force which prod u ce d

it Thi s e ffect although very prono unce d

.
,

in iron and steel can nevertheless be

, , ,

rendered appreciable in a great variety of

su b stances s u ch for example as glass
, , , ,

q u artz s,u lph u r cell u

,
l oid etc These e f , .

fe ets can be Observe d by s u spending a

Sphere Of the material to b e e x periment ed
 I
M OU S
SCELLANE P HEN OMENA . 2 07

on by a thin Silk thread in a p owerful

m agnetic flu x and deflecting the Sphere
through an angle abo u t the thread w h i le ,

un der the magn etic in flu ence The .

Sphere will n o t retu rn t o its Origin al posi

tion b ut will assume a distinct deviation

,

in the direction toward which it was

moved thu s indicating the exis t ence of a
,

p olarized condit ion i n its mass A s these .

effects are always very feeble it is n ot ,

yet certain whether t hey a e du e to re r

t en t i v i t y in the materi als o r whether they

,

may not be du e to the presence Of ac

ci den t al im pu rities o f iron o r its salts .

The marked difference p resented in the

behavior Of hardened steel and so ft iron is
du e as already mentioned to a d i fference
, ,

in the readiness with which the molecular

magnets are align ed I n so ft iron they
.

are both readily brought into alignment

2 08 MA NET G I SM
.

and readily dislodged ; while in hardened

steel they resist both tendencies When .

a bar of iron is s ubjected to cyclic changes

in magnetization as for exampl e wh en its
, , ,

magnetism i s periodically revers e d the ,

m agnetization o f the b ar doe s n o t instan

t an e ou sl y follow the m agnetizing forces
which produ ce it b u t l ags behind them
, .

Thu s i f the b a h as been magnetized by

,
r

the ap plication Of a directing m gnetic a

flu x an d this latter is reversed the m ag

, ,

n e t i at i on o f the b a i s n o t reversed at
'

z r

the same tim e t hat the magnetizing flu x

is reversed so that t h e magnetizing flu x
,

may be n egative while the m agnetism in

the bar m ay st ill remain po sit iv e This .

p heno m enon i s a ssu m c d t o be du e t o t h e

g ro u pi n g o f the m agnetic molec u l e s which

resist bre aking u p and also t o the h ard

,

ness Of the material u ndergoing magnet

i at i on
z The phenomenon is called mag
.
 M I SCE LL ANEOU S P HEN O MENA . 2 09

net i c h yst er esi s f , rom the G reek verb , I

l ag behind .
”

Ow ing t o the existence of hysteresis ,

work is e xpended in the bar both in m ag

n e t i i n g and i n dema gnetizin g it
z If a .

n on ferric magnetic circ u it

-
su ch fo ex , , r

ample as the coil Of wire represented in

,

F i g 4 1 has its magnetism rapidly re

.
,

versed the m agneti c flux will develop

, ,

disappear and reverse witho ut appreciable

los s Of energy from the magnetiz ing coil .

In other words air does n ot possess ap ,

‘

p r ec i ab l e ma g netic hysteresis o r does ,

not waste energy in its magnetization and

demagnetization ; b u t i f the same process ,

Of magne t ic reversals be cafri ed o n in a

ferric magnetic circ uit s u ch as a ring Of ,

iron o even in an aero ferric circuit the

, r -
,

al t ern ate magnetizations and dem agn et i ,

z at i o n s o f t h e iron are attended by a small

,
2 10 GNETI SM
MA .

loss o f energy in the iron du ring each

cycl e This energy is taken from t h e
.

circu it Of the magnetizing coil and ap

pears i n the iron as heat ; so that the elec
t ri cal circ u it loses energy i n the form o f
electrical energy at each reversal Of m ag
n et i at i on and the iron becomes heated
z , .

To a novice in m agn etic science one of

the most curio u s experiments in magnet
ism is t h e following ! A heavy copper disc
is so m ou nted on a horizontal axis b e
tween the pole s of a powerful el ect rom ag
net as Sho wn in F i g 77 as t o be capable
, .
,

o f easy rotation abo u t its axi s The rota .

tion of the disc is started when the m ag

n et i i n g c u rr ent is n o t passing an d little
’
z ,

resistance is O ffered t o its acquiring a

high velocity I f now wh i le rapidly rO
.
,

tating the cu rrent is s u ddenly tu rned

,

on the space between the poles thro ugh

, ,
 MI SCELLANE OUS P HEN OMENA . 2 11

wh i ch magnetic flux is passing will

th e ,

ap p arently ac quire a retarding power o n

the disc n o t u nli ke th at which wo ul d b e
prod uced by the presenc e Of a very visco us

FI G 77 —COPPER DI SC ROTA TE D IN A P OWERF U L MA G NETI C

UX
. .

FL .

liquid s uch as m ol asses Th e same ef

, .

fe e t will be Observe d i f a strip o f coppe r

be moved thro ugh a magnetic field When .

the copper di sc i s fairl y t h ic k and t h e

field very inte nse a po werful re sistan ce
,
2 12 GNET ISM
MA .

its motion and i f the d i sc b e

i s O ffered t o , ,

moved against this resistance it will b e ,

come heated j u s t as i f it had act u ally

overcome a frictional resistance The .

explanatio n of this pheno m enon is not

so simple as it might seem at first
sight The cau se of the resistance is not
.

to be fo und in the direct frictional e r

si st an ce o f the ether streams b u t to ,

the production of ddy u nt or cu

e c rr e s, r

rents Of electricity set u p in little whirls

,

throughou t the s ubstance Of the disc .

The presence Of these eddy currents

serves to produ ce local electromagnetic
actio n in the dis c as thou gh it were
,

wo und with a coil Of wire and a cur

rent circulated therein Electromagneti c
.

forces set u p between these eddy c u rrents

and the m agnetic flu x which produces
them cau ses the retarding e ffect Oh
,

served .
 ISCELL
M OU S
ANE O MENA
P HEN . 2 13

The ability Of eddy c urrents to prod uce

retarding motion in a disc ro t ating in a

F I G 78 —RECOR
. . D I NG W ATTMETER WITH MA G NETI C B R AK E
.

magne ic field h as received a number O f

t ,

practical applications in t h e arts One o f .

2 14 MA GNETI SM .

th e m ost
oted Of these is t o be found in
n

the form of or di ng w t t met er Shown

r ec a

in F i g 78 A horizontal disc Of copper C

. .

revolves abo ut a vertical axis in the flux

prod uced by three magnets M M and AL ,, ,, .

Each ma net sets up eddy currents both

g
,

at the part of the disc w h ich is entering

and at the part where it is emergin g from
its field Consequ ently six of s u ch ed
.
,

dies are produ ced in the mass of the o r

tating disc The influ ence Of these eddies

.

is t o produce m agnetic retarding forces ,

whose intensity depends upon the rapid

ity with which the disc is rotating The .

disc therefore forms a m gnet i b r k

, , a c a e,

with ou t the friction produced by contact

o f material s ubstances .

The recording wattmeter represented

o n p age 2 13 is desi gned for meas u ring and
,

recordi ng the electric energy delivered

 M I SCE LL ANEOU S P HEN OMENA . 2 15

thro ugh the particular condu cting circu it

with which t h e apparatu s is connected .

It consists essentially o f a magnetic

‘

motor rotated by the cu rrent passing

,

through the instru ment The nu mber Of .

tu rns made by the axis being recorded on

the dial forms a basis fo determining the
,
r

q u antity o f ener g y delivered t h e retard ,

i n g disc being necessar y in order t o pre

vent an unduly high speed being attained .

There remains t o be described a p ecu

liar action which magnetism exerts o n a
ray of light while p assin g thro ugh a p ow
e fu l ma gnetic field
r A S sho wn in F i g . .

79 t wo c o axial po wer fu l magnetizing

,
-
,

co i ls M and N are wou nd on hollow cyl

, ,

inders Of so ft iron with their poles facing

each other the iron framework of the
,

apparatu s serving as a yoke t o connect

their distant poles When a piec e of .
2 16 G
MA NET I SM .

heavy flin t glass is placed b etween t h e

poles as shown a ray o f light cau sed t o
,

pass through the h ollow cores and the

glass from the Object glass l to the eye ,

piece a un dergoes no change in its prop

,

F I G 79 U
A PPA RA T S F OR PR O DU C IN G MA G NETI C
L
-
. .

POLA RI ! A TIO N O F I G HT .

provided the magnetizing cu rrent

e rt i es,

is cut Off and n o flux is passing through

the glass On the completion Of the cir
.

cu it and the passage Of the fl ux the light

, ,

W hich pass es throu gh t h e glas s undergoe s

 I SCELL
M OUS
ANE P HEN O MENA . 2 17

an alteration known as r ot y p ol r iz t i n ar a a o .

That is t o say the plane in which vibra

,

tions Of the ether occ ur which constitu te

,

light is rotated as the light advances

,

thro ugh the magnetized glass This e ffect .

is most powerfully Observed in heavy flint

g lass
, b u t exists also in a great variety Of

transparent s ubstances t o a greater or

less degre e .

The property of rotary polarization ; i . e

o f rotating the plane o f polarization o f

light is not confined t o magnetized trans

,

parent s ubstances Many transparent

.

su bstances possess this property in their

ordinary condition while in others it is
,

called forth only u nder the action Of m ag

n et i sm.A ll s ubstances however which , ,

po ssess this property can b e divided into

t wo sharply marked classes ; namely ,

those which possess i gh t h anded r ot y

r -
ar
2 18 G
MA NETISM .

p o la r i z a t i on ,or the ability to deflect the

plane Of polarization t o the right and ,

those which possess l ft h nded ot y e -

a r ar

p l
o ar i z a t i o n,or the ability to deflect the
plane Of polarization t o the left But the .

cur iou s fact exists that bodies wh i ch

,

acqu ire this property u nder the influ ence

o f t h e magnetic field can be made to de
,

fle ct the plane of polarization either to

the right or t o the left according t o the
direction of the magnetic flu x In the .

majority of cases when the flux is passed

,

through the s ubstance in a certain di ec r

tion a rotation takes place say right

, ,

handed and when the direction of the flux

,

is reversed the rotation becomes le ft

handed as it wou ld appear t o an Ob
,

server who does n o t change his position .

A few s ubstances however form an ex

, ,

c e p t i on to this r u le since in them the

,

p as sage Of flux in t h e direction name d

 M I SCELL O
ANE U S P HEN OMENA .

produ ces left h anded inste ad

-
of

handed polarization .

Referring t o the theory of magnetism

provisionally adopted in this book ; name
l y that it is du e t o a streaming motion Of
,

the ether rather than t o a vort e x o whirl

, r

i n g motion in the ether it might b e

,

assu med as h as be en done by some that

, ,

the phenomena described in the preced

i ng paragraphs ; namely o f m gn t Op t i
, a e o -
c

ro a t t i n wo u ld establish the cl aim Of the

o ,

vortex or whirling theory of magnetism ,

since su ch whirls might re asonably be ex

p e c t e d t o prod u ce in matter a rotary
stress capable of deflecting the plane o f
,

the ether vibration s constitu ting light b u t ,

the fact of the exceptions above allu ded

t o and also Of the fact that mech anical
,

stresses are capable Of produ cing a similar

rotation Of the p olarization plane calls ,
220 G
MA NET I SM .

into qu estion the alleged s uperior claims

Of the v e t i c al theory Of magnetism over
r

the theory Of ether streamings .

When an ordinary time piece s uch as a -

,

watch i s bro u ght into a po wer ful m ag

,

netic field the magnetization of the steel

,

it contains in its me chanism will produ ce

magnetic dist u rbances which will prob ,

ably Stop i t s motion entirely ; and when ,

remove d from the field t h magne t ism it , e

will permanently retain may considerably

alt e r its rate A v e ry small change in the
.

rate Of vibratio n o f the balance whe el Of

a watch say t o t h e extent of of on e per
,
1
T?

cent will prod u c e an error in on e day

.
,

amou nting to 86 seconds 4

-

1 1, .

The cau se Of t h e change in t h e rate Of a

magnetiz e d watch lie s in t h e fact that at
leas t t wo of its parts become magn etized ;
 M ISCELLANEOUS PHENOMEN A . 22 1

namely the large steel main spring and

, ,

the small hair spring If the hair spring

-
.
-
,

or t h e main sprin g only were ma gnet,

i ed it wo uld have very little influ ence

z ,

u p on the rate Of the watch b u t the m ag ,

n et i e d hair sprin g acts like a small com

z -

p ass needle in the presence Of a bar

,

m agnet and tends t o oscillate either more

,

rapidly or m ore slowly according t o the ,

position in which its poles lie with re ,

Spect to the poles o f the m ain S pring .

When a watch has once had its rate af

fect e d by p ermanent magnetism there are ,

t wo way s in which this inj u ry can be rem

e di e d ; namely either t o dema gnetize the
,

watch o t o re place the hair spring by an

,
r -

u nmagnetized Spring The demagn et i a

. z

tion of the watch can be e ffected by ex

posing the entire watch t o a ra p idly lt a er

n t i ng m gn t i flux
a a e that is a magnetic
c , ,
222 I
MAG NET SM .

flu x ,the direction of which is rapidly re

versing The watch is expos e d to the full
.

influ ence of the field and then gradu ally

withdrawn from its infl u ence so as to be
exposed t o a gradu ally decreasing i n t en
si t y Of m agn etization an d demagne t ization .

The e ffe ct produ ced by this treatment

is t o al t ern at ly m agnetize all the parts in
e

a definite d rection ; so that by rapidly ex

i

posing the part s t o s u ccessive magnet

i at i o n s and demagneti zations on the
z ,

g rad u al w i thdra wal o f t h w a tch f

erom the
field t h e s u c ce ssive m gn etizations b e
, a

come w aker an d w aker until when the

e e , ,

watch is fin lly completely withdra wn

a

from the m agn tic fl u e th ere is n o sensi

x,

ble magnetiza t ion le ft in i t .

A imilar m ethod o f d emagnetization

S

Of watch es which i s ap t t o b e le s e ffe ct

,
s

ive consists in the e m plo ym en t o f a con

,
 I S ELL
M C ANE OU S OMENA
P HEN . 223

t i nu ou s fluxs u ch a s the flu x in the neigh

,

b o h ood of the poles of a dynamo machine

r ,

the reversals in the m agne t iza t ion Of the

watch being Obtained by a spinning or
rotation Of the watch while exposed to
magnetic flux and the gradu al withdrawal

fi
Of the same while this rotati on is contin

u ed .

A fe w decade s ago magn etic fields Of ,

suf cient inte nsi t y t o seriou sly e ffect the

rate Of a watch were very rare A t pre s .

ent ho wever the rapid introdu ction of

, ,

apparatu s employing po werfu l magnetic

fields enders s u ch inj u ry fa m ore com
r r

m on A necessity th e re fore exists to

.
, ,

prote ct wat ches from this sou rce Of inj u ry .

V rio u s method s ha e been introdu ced

a v

with this end in vie w They are h ow

‘

.
,

eve Of t wo ge n eral class e s ; n amely

r, ,

those in which m gn t i w t h h i ld are

a e c a c s e s
224 MA NET G I SM .

employed and those in which the hair

,

Spring is made of some n n m gn t i ll y o -

a e c a o .

The first Of the above named methods -

consists essentially in placing the watch

inside an iron case o shell provided fo
r ,
r

carrying in the pocket When a watch . ,

so protected is brought into a magnetic

,

field the iron shield will protect the

,

watch inside it by condu cting practically

all the magnetic fl ux throu gh its m ass ,

and thu s preventing an y appreciable

portion from passing through the watch .

If however the field be po werfu l the

, , ,

protective influ nce o f t h e shield will be

e

i n su fli ci e n t and the watch may become

,

seriou sly inj u red Su ch shields will o

. r

di n a i l y protect a watch o u tside a radi u s

r

o f three or fo u r feet from a dyn amo .

The other method for the protection of

 I SCELL
M ANE OUS P HEN OMENA . 225

a watch from accidental expos u re t o m ag

netic flux requi reS that the hair spring be
,
'

made Of non m agn etic m aterial Bu t in

-
.

order t o preven t a change in the rate of

the watch it is necessary that these ma
t e i al s shall n o t be liable t o oxidatio n
r ,

shall possess the requ isite elasticity and ,

shall n ot have their elasticity seriou sly

affecte d by change s o f te m peratu re The .

Obtaining of s u ch an alloy has been a

very serio u s problem fo watchmak ers r ,

sinc e the elasticity of steel is so mar

v el o u s that m illions o f vibratio n s are
execu ted by a h air spring withou t any
-

evidence of fatigu e and n o pu re n On m ag

,
-

netic metal possesses elasticity in SO emi

nent a degree A number of alloys have
.

been produ ced b u t the most s u ccessful

,

have been either alloys Of p alladium or Of

ni ckel .

Watches possessing a hair sprin g of -

226 G
MA NET SM I .

a n on m agnetizable lloy can b e carri ed

-
a ,

with impu nity into the strongest magnetic

fields The main spring which has yet t o
.

be m ade Of steel becom e s indeed m ag

, ,

n e t i e d b u t s u ch ma gnetization
z ,
s not i

fo u nd t o e xert any appreciable infl u ence

u pon the rate Of vibration o f the n on

m agn etic h air Sprin g an d consequ ently

-
, , ,

o n the rate Of the watch Experiments .

made with watches so protected have

Sho wn that when s u ch a watch is placed

in a very powerful m agnetic flu x the hair

Sprin g is mome n tarily accel e rated o wing ,

t o the dev elopment in its Spires o f eddy

currents Of t h e same general character as
those prod uced in the case already e r

ferr e d t o o f the copp e r disc between the

“

poles of a magnet b u t as soon as the,

watch is remove d from su ch flu x it re

g ains its ori gin l rat
a e .

El e ctromagn ets are almost invariably

 MI SCELLANE OU S P HEN OMENA . 2 27

x ite d by
e c continu ous currents I t i s .

possible however to Ob tain som e very

, ,

cur iou s e ffects of electromagnetic attrae

tions and repulsions by sending alternat
i ng c u rrents thro u gh the e x citing coils .

In su ch cases the cores Of the mag nets

,

are s t ill made of so ft iron b ut instead Of

,

form i ng one contin uo u s mass it is n ece s

,

sary that they be thoro ughly divided or

l ami n a t ed so as to avoid the formation Of

,

eddy currents by the rapidly alternating

magnetic flux In s u ch cases the lami
.
,

nations are made at ri ght angles to the con

du cting loops Conseq u ently a s uitable
.
,

core for an alternating current magnet

,
-
,

can be readily obtained b y wrapping t h e

magnetizing coils or Spiral s arou nd b un
dles Of so ft iron wire Although the m ag
.

netic polarity produ ced in s u ch magnets

alternates with the change in the direction
of the c urrent yet u nd er certain circ um
, ,
228 GNE I SM
MA T .

s tances e ffe cts both of attractio n and

,

rep ul sion can b e O b tained .

A n or dinary continu o u s current elec

-

t rom agn et does not possess the power o f

di recting or repelling other than the m ag
netic metals b ut in the case Of the alter
,

nating cu r ent magnet both the magnetic

-
r ,

and the non magnetic metals are capable

-

Of presenting s u ch phenomena For ex .

ample discs Of copp er can readily be

,

made t o manifest strong attractions and

repu lsions when brought b etween the
poles Of a powerful alternating current -

magnet The cau ses Of these attractions

.

and repulsions can be trace d to the fo r

mation Of eddy currents in t h e metal

masses bro ught into t h e flux .
 CHA P TER X .

P HEN OMENA OF THE EARTH S MAGNETISM

’
.

PR OB AB L Y o n e Of the most important

generalizations m de ain the h i story o f
magnetis m was that which res ulted from
a series of simu ltaneou s magnetic Observa
tions u nder t aken in 1836 at the sugge s
, ,

tion o f Hu mboldt These Observations

.

were made simu ltaneo u sly at points on ,

the earth s s u rface widely distant from

’

o n e another and extendin g from the A c

, r

tic t o the A ntarctic Circles A S a res ult

.
,

the remarkable fact was ascertained that

not only were many of the marked varia
tions which as we now know occu r in
, , ,

the strengt h of the earth s magnetism ’

,
2 30 MA GNETI SM.

b ut also some of the minor variations ,

o c curred sim ul taneou sly The only ap

parent explanation for this phenomenon
is t o regard the earth as a huge m ag
net so that i f the magnetization varied in
,

any portion o f i t s s ubstance it wo uld

necessarily produce a variation in its
flu x which wo u ld a ffect the distrib u tion

fi
,

througho u t its entire mass and n ot be

confined t o any particu lar locality .

It is n ow generally conceded by sci en .

t i c men that the phenomen a of t h e

earth s magnetism can best be studied by
’

regarding the entire e arth as a h uge m ag

net with its sou th m agnetic pole Situ ated
,

near Baffi n s Bay at abou t latitu de 70 N

’
,
°
.

The popular belief th at the m agnetic

needle u nerrin gly points t o t h e north geo
g raphical pole over
, all parts of the

N orthern H emi sphere is fa r, from b ein g

 ’
EARTH S MA N ET SM G I . 2 31

corr ect alth o ugh fo considerable p or

, ,
r

t ions of the eart h the nee dle ge nerally

,

points to the earth s geograph i cal nort h

’

y e t i n so m e districts the de vi ations

, from
the north pole of the earth or as it is , ,

called the magnet i c d li na t i on m ay b e so

, ec ,

g reat that the needle may point d ue east ,

d u e west or e ven due so u th

, Indeed the .
,

nu mber of places on the earth s s urface ’

,

where the north pole Of the needle points

accurately t o the geographical north are ,

co mparatively fe w and m ay b e read ily

arran e d on t wo line s kno wn as g n
g a o es,

or lines of no declination of the needle .

The declination is said t o be east or wes t

accordi ng as the needle points east or
wes t o f t h e geograph ical north The .

declination is meas ured in degrees east

or west or minus and plu s ; th us i n a l o
, ,

cal i t y which has a m agnetic declinatio n

Of 30 degre e s east the m agnetic ne edl e at

,
2 32 G
MA NETI SM .

that locali ty comes t o rest with its north

end pointing 30 degrees eastward of the
tru e north .

In order b est to study the variation s in

the magnetic needle at different parts of
the earth s s urface a map or chart called
’
, ,

a d li n t i n h t may be employed on
ec a o c ar , ,

which are traced lines connecting all

places on the earth s s urface tha t have ’

the same val ue of the declination Su ch .

lines are called i og n l li n or lines of

s o a es,

eq ual magnetic declination and are ,

mark ed on s u ch maps in degrees east or

west of the tr u e North The lin es of no .

declination are cal le d gones or goni a a c

li n
es, and are here indicated by a zero .

Su ch a declination chart is Shown in

F i g 80
. .

An inspection of this isogonal chart for

 EARTH S
’
G
MA NET SM I . 2 33

th e Uni te d States
will sho w that the,

agone or line o f no declination

, mark ed ,

passes thro ugh South Carolina Ohio ,

and Mich i gan SO that p laces on this line

,

F I G 80 - ISOG ONI C CHA RT OF THE

. . U NITE DS TATES F OR THE
Y EA R 189 0 .

had the needle pointing truly north and

south in 1890 Place s e as t of this line
.

have west erly declination as indicat e d by ,

2 34 MA GNETISM .

ar id all west
this line easterly
of ,

declination as indicated by
,

F i g 81 shows a similar iso gonic ch art

.

o f the U nited States calcu lated for ten

years later or for A D 1900 I t will be

, . . .

FI G . 81 —I SOG O NI C CH AR T O F
. THE U NI TED STA TES F OR THE
Y EA R 1900 .

observed that the agone has traveled west

ward ab ou t hal f a d egree A stu dy o f .

t h e chart will Sho w the amo u nt o f varia

tion that has occurred in the other line .
 ’
EARTH S MA NET SM G I . 2 35

When a m agn et i c needle is so s u spended

as t o be free to move in a vertical as well ,

as in a horizontal plane as shown in

, ,

D I N D
FI G 82
. .
— I P P NG EE LE .

82 it will as in the case o f an ordinary

, ,

needle come t o rest in the direction of

.

the m agn etic flux at tha t point of the

earth b u t exce pt in a very few p arts of
, ,
2 36 MA GNETI SM .

the earth it will no longer remain in a hor

,

i ont al position b u t will incline or dip

z ,

toward the ear t h This departure of the .

needle is called the i n li n t i n or dip o f thec a o

needle In order t o prevent the dip from

.

occurring in an Ordinary compass needle ,

which is only intended t o move in a hor

i on t al plane the n eedle is pu rposely
z ,

balanced not at its centre of gravity b ut

, ,

at a su fficient distance from this point t o

remain horizontal despite the force tend
i ng to mak e one end incline .

The phenomena o f the dipping of the

magnetic needle or of the earth s m gnet
,
’
a

i i n li n t i n is best stu died b y re fer ence

c c a o ,

t o a ma gnetic chart called an i li n t i on nc a

h t
c ar . Su ch a chart consists essential
ly o f lines conn ecting all places on the
earth s s urface whose magnetic inclination
’

p ossesse s the same val u e Su ch lines are .

 ’
EART H S MA NET SM
‘

G I . 2 37

called i o li n l li n s and as shown in Fi g

s c a e , , ,

83 extended irre gularly east and west

, .

I t will be seen that in 1885 the dip of the ,

needle on the northern shore of Lak e Su

FI G 83 —I SOCLI NI C
. . MAP or THE UNI TED STATES F OR THE
Y EA R 1 885 .

perior was while at the so u thern ex

t rem i t y o f Florida it was 55 In the °

Northern Hemisphere it is the north ,

magnetic pole of t h e needle which dips ,

2 38 MA NET G I SM .

and in the Sou thern Hemisphere the ,

sou th magnetic pole A line connecting .

points on the e arth s s u rface possessing

’

no dip or inclination is called the m gn t i c a e

FI G . 84 . DI P P I NG NE E D LE
.

or li ni li n and lies not far

equ a t or , ac c e,

from the geo graphical e qu ator .

In order t o meas u re the angle of m ag

netic inclination at any place an i n st ru
m ent c alled a dip i l is employed c rc e .
 ’
EARTH S MAG NET SM I . 2 39

Su ch an instrument is shown at F i g 84 . .

I t consists of a m agnetic needle M su s ,

pended so as t o be free to move in a -

horizontal plane and provided with two

,

g r ad u ated circles ; n amely a vertical

, cir
cle C an d a horizontal circle H The
, .

in stru ment is provided with levelling

screws at L so as to ens u re horizontal ity
, .

I n order to ascertain the ngl di

f p
a at e o

an y pl ace the vertical ci cle is moved ove r

,
r

the horizont al circle until its plane lies

i n the pl ane o f the magnetic meridian ,

and the angle of dip is then read from the

vertical circle being measured between
,

the horizontal line and the extremity of

the needle .

Recalling the statement made in a

previo u s chapter that a magnetic needle
comes to rest when placed in an y flux ,

when its flux coincides in direction with

 GNE I

fi
2 40 MA T SM .

that of the flux in which it is placed it ,

will be s e en that the phenomena of the i n

cli n at i on o f the magnetic needle are mere

l y an e x em p li cat i on o f this principle .

Co u ld we see the magnetic flu x o f the

earth iss u e from a region in the vicinity of
its so u th geo graphical pole and after , ,

passing th ro ugh the air s urro unding the

earth e entering at the sou th magnetic
,
r -

pole in the Northern Hemi sphere we ,

should see these lines were no where gen

erall y pa allel t o a water s u r fac e ; i
r . e

n owhere horizontal except in the neigh

,

b o h oo d of the magne t ic e qu ator

r The
.

inclination of the needle over other parts

o f the earth ari ses Simply from the ten

den cy o f t h e n e edle t o set itsel f in t h e di

rection of the earth s fl ux Conseq u ently
’
.
,

Over the earth s magne t ic poles the i n

’

cl i n at i on Of the needle wo u ld be or the

needle would point vertically d ownward .
 ’
G
EARTH S MA NET SMI . 2 41

B eside the direction of the earth s ’

magnetic flux at any point on the earth s ’

Su r face which is defined by the dip and

,

declination that is to say by the inclina

, ,

tion and declination of the n e e dle the i n ,

tensity of the magnetic flux requ ires to be

separately considered Since all the flu x
.

m ay be either conceived as leaving the

earth s north m agnetic pole in the So u th
’

ern Hemisph ere whence it spreads over

,

and re enters at the earth s sou th pole

-
’
,

in the Northern Hemi sphere it is evident

,

that the inte nsity of the earth s flu x mu st ’

be greates t in the neighb orhood o f the

poles and weakest near the e quator in ,

g eneral increasin g with increasin g lati

tu de Its directive tendency however
.
, ,

on a compass needle is greatest at the

,

equ ator fo the reason that altho ugh the

r

total force is weakest in this region yet , ,

acting entirely in the horizontal plan e i t s ,

2 42 G
MA NET I SM
.

e ffect on the compass needle is compara

t i v el y great while at the magnetic poles
, .

where the force is strongest the e ffect on ,

a magnetic compass needle disappears .

Variou s methods may be adopted to

F I G 85 —
. . MA G NETOMETER .

meas ure the intensity of the earth s m ag ’

netic flux in any locality though all ,

consist in comparing the earth s local i n ’

tensity with that pro du ced by a standard

magnet at a given distance or by a stan d ,
 ’
EARTH S MA NET SM G I . 2 40
0

ard electric curren t A form of appara .

t u s called a magn t om t employed fo

e e er , r

this pur pose is shown in F i g 85 consist

, .
,

i ng of a magnetic needle s u spen d ed at ,

the centre of the apparatu s b y a bundle

of silk threads so as to be free t o swing in
,

a horizontal plane The standard bar .

m ag net M is s u pporte d at a definite dis

,

t an ce from the swinging magnet on the

horizontal b ar B B and a deviation p ro
, ,
f

du ce d b y this magnet on the s winging

m agnet is ob served th ro ugh the eye
piece e.

A map or chart connecting places on

,

the earth s s urface possessing the same

’

magnetic intensity is called an i odyn mi

, s a c

char t t h e lines of e q u al intensity being

,

called i sodynami li n c es .

Th e three characteristics of the earth s ’

2 44 G
MA NET ISM
.

magnetism ; namely the declination i n

, ,

cl i n at i o n and intensity are called the

, le e

m nt of the earth s magnetism

’
e s On e of .

the most valuable di scoveries in the phe

n om en a o f the earth s magnetism made at
’
,

an early date in the history o f the science ,

was the fact that none of these elements

possessed fixed valu es b ut are constantly
,

changing In order to ascertain the char

.

acter and extent of su ch changes bui ld ,

ings called m gn t i b
a e ct i have
o ser va or es

been established provided with i n st u

,
r

ments capable of continu o u sly meas u ring

and recording s u ch changes Magnetic .

obser vatories are carefully bu ilt so as t o

be as fr ee as possible fro m local magnetic
disturbances For this reason no m ag
.
,

netic m aterials are employed in thei r con

stru ction The records made by the i n
.

st u m en t s are continu o u sly recorded by

r

Sui table photo graphi c m eans A very .

 EARTH S
’
MA NET G I SM.

gr eat nu mber of s u ch magnetic observa

tories are now in existenc e and by means , ,

of the continuou sly recording i n st u r

ments the variou s phenomena concerni ng

,

changes that occur in the earth s m agnet ’

i sm are receiving care ful stu dy .

FI G 86 — P HOTOG RAP HI C RECOR D F ROM REC OR D D I NG EC LI N A

O V Y
. .

I
T ON MA G NETOG RAP H AT A MA G N ETI C B SER A TOR SHOW
D U DU D
,

I NG I ST R BA N CE P RO CE BY ELECTRI CAL RA I LWAY IN

THE NEI G HB O RHOO D .

Figs and 87 are taken fro m the pho

. 86
t og ap h i c records o f a magnetic observa
r

tory F i g 86 represents the horizontal

. .

force c u rve taken on t wo consec u tive days .

The straight line in each case is the zero

o re ference line representing a fixed val u e
r

of magneti c int ensit y and t h e wav y lin e ,

2 46 G
MA NET I SM .

is the phot ographic trace of the position

of a beam o f li gh t reflected from a mirror

attached to the recording magnet The .

curve commences on the right hand at 9

P M and pro gresses toward the le ft u ntil
. .

9 P M the day following at the le ft hand

.
,
-

end of the line The main waves or irreg

.

—PHOTOG RA P HI C RECOR
F I G 87 DF R OM DIP MA G
R EC OR D I NG
O V
. .

NETOG RA P H A T A MA G NETI C B SER A TO R Y SHOWI NG DI S

DU D
,

T U RB A N C E P RO CE BY ELECTRI C A L RAI LW A Y I N THE

N EI G HBO R HOO D .

are variations in the earth s i n

u l ari t i e s
’

tensity o n the day considered while the ,

smaller an d more rapid fl u ctu ations are

du e t o the magnetic infl u ence o f elec t ro
m agnetic motors o n a stre e t rail way abo u t
a qu arter of a mile from the Observatory .

It will be Obs erved that the distu rbances

 ’
EARTH S MA NET SM G I . 2 47

from the street cars stop at 1 A M with . .

the last car and recommence Shortly ,

be fore 6 A M when the cars be gin ru n

. .

n i ng .

F i g 87 i s similar t o F i g 86 except that

. .
,

it is a photographic record o f the dip i n

stead of t h e declination The s t reet car .

disturbance is still more cl e arly indicated

in this fi gu r e .

The vari tions i n t h elem ent s o f the

a e

earth s ma gnetis m can b arrange d under

’
e

fo u r distin ct head s ; n m ely first di u l a , ,

rn a

v i ti
ar a o those which tak place at
on s , r e

di fferent ho u r s of t h day ; Second nu l e ,

an a

i ti
v ar a o thos e which occ u r at di ffe r
on s, r

e n t tim s o f the year ; t h ird

e ul i ,
sec ar v ar a

t i n or tho s wh ich o c u r at co n siderable

o s e c

inte rv ls o f tim e ; fo urth i gu l

a i ,
rr e ar v a r a

ti o nso those attendin g SO called m ag

r -

netic storms .
2 48 MAG NET I SM .

A ll three element s o f the earth s m ag ’

n e t i sm simultaneo u sly u ndergo varia

tions The mo st im p ortant o f the three
.

variations is ho we ver tha t o f t h e declina

, ,

tion since s u ch v ri tions immediately

, a a

affect t h e direction of the compass needle

and conse qu ently al l t h e p u rposes fo
, ,
r

which the directiv e t e ndency o f the com

pa ss ne e dl i s e m p loy ed ; s fo example
e a ,
r ,

in ste ring a v e ss l acro t h e oc e an o

e e ss , r

s u rvey s m ad by t h e i d f the needle

e a o

o n l and Th di u n l
. i tio n f t h e m g
e r a v ar a o a

netic ne dl i s s fo llo w in t h e morn

e e a s!

i n g bet we e n i ght an d ni n e O cl o ck the

’
, e ,

n orth pole o f the n e e dl mov e slo wly to e s

the we st Thi s m o v m nt conti n u e s u n e e

fi
.

til shortly ft e r noon wh n i t i s re v rsed

a , e e ,

S lo wly ret urning e stw d u n t il abo u t t e n

a ar

o clock at night wh en a Smaller oscilla

’
,

tion occu rs in t h e O p p o sit e di ection The r .

cau s e of these motion s altho ugh n ot de ,

 ’
EARTH S MA NET SM G I . 2 49

ni t el y k nown is ascri b ed t the in fl u ence

, o

of the su n s heat u pon the air

’
. The total

THE SCALE VALUES ARE G IVEN l N PARTS OF THE FORC E )

( NA B
. .

F I G 88 —
. . D I U RNA L V A RI A TION OF THE VERTI CA L COMP O NEN T
O F T HE MA G NETI C F O R CE AT LO S A N G ELES , CA L .
, 1883 1884
-
.

r ange of daily v ariation in declination is

2 50 MA GNETISM .

very small am ounting only t o 4t h of on e

,

degree The annu al variations of the

.

needle are quite small and like the diurnal , ,

variations correspond t o the distribu tion

,

o f t h e solar heat thro u gho u t the di fferent

seasons of the y ear .

F i g 88 . shows the diu rnal variation o f

that portion of the e arth s magnetic i n t e n ’

Si t y which acts in a vertical direction o ,

r,

as it is u s ually called the v t i l m , er ca co

p o n n
e t at f,o u r di fferent localities in North
A merica Le s A ngeles Toronto Wash
—
, ,

i n gt on D C ,
n d Phil a delphia
. a B ere it .
,

will be Observ d th t the greatest varia

e ,
a

tion occu rs at ch place n ear noon the

ea ,

time of vari ation an d also t h e amo un t o f

,

v ariation b eing differ ent at the different

,

localities .

F i g 89 . rep resents th e average diurn al

 ’
EARTH S MA NETI SM G . 2 51

variation o f the horizontal component in

the earth s magnetic intensity at one 10
’

UT. 800

TOTAL SOM R '

MURNAU ARIATION OF H.FROMA LL

NORMAL u u m u n LARG ER m waam cea m m

F I G 89 —C
. . UV
R D
ES or V TOTA L SOLA R I URNA L A RI ETI ES ON THE
H C M
ORI! ONT A L M OF L
PONENT O F A G NETI C O R CE F OR OS
A NG ELES,
C C F MO V
A L. , OMPI LED
883 RO B SER A TI ON I N 1 -
1888.

cali t y Lo s An geles at di fferent times o f

, ,

the year compiled fr om ob servations dur

,
2 52 GNETI SM
MA .

i ngthe years —
1883 1888 inclusive In the “

curves for the vernal and autumnal q uar

ters there is only on e marked maximum
and minim um while f or the s ummer and
,

winter quarters there a e t wo well marked

,
r -

maxima and minima It has b een su g

.

gested that these di u rnal ma gnetic varia

tions differing fo different places and
, r ,

for di ffe rent seasons at the same place ,

are du e to local infl u ences depending on

the solar rays .

The secular variations of the needle are

Slo w variations which apparently repeat

themselves in periods o f abo u t 32 0 years .

To o little is y et known abo u t them t o

hazard any general statements .

It m ay be mention ed as an example o f
,

secular magnetic vari ations that in Lon,

don Engla n d Ob serv atio n s made on the

, ,

needle as early as 1580 showed that the

,
 ’
EARTH S MA NET SM G I . 2 53

declination was 11 30 East In 1657 the

° '
.
,

declination was zero the needle pointing

,

du e north and so u th In 1816 the needle

.
,

had attain ed its m ax im um w e sterly dec

l i n at i o n amo unting t o 2 4
, It then °

retu rned toward z ero and is expected in

1976 t o a gain point du e north and so u th .

B eside these regul ar vari ations of the

m agnetic ne edle there are others which
occur with apparent irre gu larity aecom ,

panying the development of an y u nu su al

electrical discharges in the air s u ch as ,

are e ffected by the u That a relation

a r or a .

exists betw een t h e occu rrence of u p t s ns o s

an d vari ations in all the elements o f the

e arth s magnetism is proved by the gen

’

eral coincidence bet ween the two sets of

phenomena I f for example a curve be
.
, ,

plotte d o f su nspot activity at differ

ent tim es and also of the magnetic ac
,
2 54 G
MA NET I SM .

or of m gn t i t orm it will b e
t i vi t y, a e c s s,

fo u nd that the t o c rves present

w u u n m i s

FI G 90 C UV
R E SHOW I NG CON NECTI ON B ETWEEN SU NSPOTS
D U
-
. .

A ND TERR ESTRIA L MA G NETI C I ST RB A N CES

tak able evidence of agreement in their

g eneral f eat u res .
 EARTH S
’
G
MA NET SM I . 2 55

Su ch a set of curves is shown in F i g .

90 These com p rise Observations taken

.

b etween the years 1873 and 1888 The .

first line represents the area of the sun

covered by facul ae or clo u dy areas ; the
,

second the area covered by whole spots

, ,

incl uding both nu clei and faculae while ,

the third gives the area of the nu clei ,

o r blac k areas only The fourth fi fth

, .
,

and sixth c u rves Show t h e range Of

magnetic disturbance from the mean or
average instrumental records It is evide nt .

from the fi gu re that the p eriod o f solar

,

activity and of magnetic disturbance is

completed in abou t eleven years .

F i g 91
. shows a form of appearance in
the heavens presented during t h e prev
alence Of the u a b a li
r or a This p h e
or e s .

n om enon is now ge n erally believed to b e

du e to discharges o f electricity in the

2 56 MA GNE ISM T .

u pper regions f the air

o presence of
. Th e

these discharges is very frequ ently attend

ed by the exi stence Of mark ed electrical

FIG . 9 1
.
— A U ROR A B OREA LI S .

currents in the earth called r t h u n t s

, ea c rr e ,

which cau se consi derable distu rbances

on t elegraphic lines due t o the pass age
 ’
EARTH S MA NET SM G I . 2 57

through them of electric currents What .

ever may be the explanation the times ,

when these phenomena occu r are coi nci

dent with mark ed magnetic distu rbances .

The m ari ner s omp s consists of an ap

’
c a s

paratu s for s u spending a magnetic needle

o n board a Shi p in s u ch a manner that its
,

directive tendency shall be least interfered

with by the motions of the vessel In order .

to accomplish this the compass is sus

,

pended On what are called gi mb l In a s .

the apparatu s shown in F i g 92 these con .

,

sist of two metallic rings AB and C D ,

‘
’
,

pivoted on two horizontal axes at right

angles in the manner Shown Si gh t are
, . s

provided at G and H The ball of the com

.

pass is wide so that the centre of gravity

,

of the apparatu s is well below the axis .

The magnetic needl e is fixed to the lower

su r face of a c ard called the mp ss c d co a ar
2 58 MA NET SM G I .

which b ear s u pon its face 32 points called ,

the c di n l p i nt o f the compass I t

ar a o s .

u sed to b e an in ariable c u stom to steer

v

vessels by reference to t h e points of the

compass the co urse o f the vessel being
,

counte d as north north by east nort h , ,

FIG . 92.
— MA R I NER S COMP A SS
’
.

north east north east by north north

, ,

east etc accordi ng to the parti en

,

lar point t oward which the vessel was

sailing In modern n avigation however
.
, .

the cou r se is frequ ently exp ressed in

 EARTH S
’
G
MA NET I SM. 2 59

d egrees so that North East would b e

,
N .

4 5 East etc
°
.

To the popular mind the steering of a

ship by means of a compass is apparent , ,

ly an easy tas k ; fo in the absence of the

,
r,

heavenly bodies it is apparently easy t o

,

determi ne the exact cou rse the vessel is

taking by re ference to the compass needle .

In the Olden times when Ships carried,

little or no iron with them pro vided the ,

local variations of the compass were

known laying out a course b y d d
,
ea

k ni ng was in deed a simple proc

r ec o

ess Since the introdu ction of iron

.

ves sels and the massive iron machinery

,

the y employ the local devia t ion of the

,

needle cau sed by the magnetism of the

ship is so great as t o render the plotti ng
o f a co urse by the mere variations o f the

needle very fallaciou s This diffi c ulty .

2 60 MA NET G I SM.

is enhanced not on l y by t h e fac t that

all masses of soft iron change their p o
l ari t y on crossing the magn etic eq u a t or ,

b ut especially by the fact t h at the val u e

of the deviation cau sed by the local at
,

traction of the ship undergoes mark ed ,

variations in intensity according t o the ,

direction in which the vessel is sail

i ng
. When the magnetic axis of the shi p
coincides with the magnetic m eridian ,

the local variati n is a m inimum b ut

o ,

when they are at right angles s uch varia ,

tion is a maximum and when in addition

, ,

to this there are re quired to be tak en

,

i nto acco unt the loc al d e clination of the

needle the problem becomes exceedingly

,

intricate .

The errors in the direction of the ship s ’

compass needle o wing t o m agnetism of

,

the Ship are capable of being classed as

,
 EARTH S
’
MA GNETI SM . 2 61

follows ; namely the semi circular error

,
-
,

the q uadrantal error and the heeling e

,
r

r or .

( )
1 The mi i u l
se -
c rc o that due
a r er r or , r

to the permanent magne t ism Of the Ship s ’

iron considered as a steel bar magnet .

This is called the semi circular error -

beca u se it produ ces easterly deviation

thro ughou t one hal f circle and westerly ,

deviation when the ship s head points ’

any where n the re m aining hal f circle

i .

( 2 ) The qu d n
a t l ra or that
a d u e to
er r or ,

the induced magnetizations o f the ship s ’

iron considered as a bar o f So ft iron u nder

the influence of the earth s magnetism ’
.

A s we ha e se en the Ship s magnetism

’
v ,

n o t only u nder goes variation o f intensity ,

b u t even chan ges its direction when the

ship crosses the magnetic e qu ator It is .

called the q u adrantal error becau se it is

ea st erly in two q u a dr ants or q uarter cir ,
.
2 62 MA GNETI SM .

cles and west erly in the remaining alter

,

n ate q u adrants .

( 3) The h li ngee o or that d

er ru e t
r, o

the indu ced and permanent magnetism

o f the Ship in a vertical plane and which ,

produ ces n o influence upon the needle

u ntil the shi p heels over as u nder a p res s
,

o f canvas .

C ompensation fo local deviation of

r

the ship s com pass by these errors is

’
,

u s u ally obtained both by the u se of

permanent magnets placed near the com
pass so as to exert upon it an influ ence
,

appro ximately e qu al and Op p osite t o that

o f the Ship s iron and also by the u se o f
’
,

masses o f so ft iron so placed in the neigh

b orh o o d of the compass that the i r i n
du ce d magnetis m u n der the earth s fl ux
’

shall be approximately e qu al and oppo

si t e in i t s e ffect s u p on the compass to tha t
 ’
EARTH S MA NET SM G I . 2 63

of the Ship s soft iron The mp ens t i ng

’
. co a

m gn et em ployed for this p u rpose are

a s

u s u al ly fastene d to the woo d en dec k

o f the vessel lunder pieces of sheet

,

lead at the proper distance in the fore

,

an d aft lines from the centre of the

n eedle . The compensating masses of
so ft iron are s u pported on each side o f

t h e compass needle u s u ally in the form

,

of hollow iron spheres .

Th e b est formcompass provided

of

with these compensating adj u stments is

Shown in F i g 93 The compass card is
. .

form ed o f a thin di sc with its centre cu t

away as m u ch as possible so as to com ,

bine stability with lightness Si x slender .

rods of hard steel are s u s pende d in a

cradle near the centre of the card and ,

form a compo u nd magn etic needle p o s

sessin g the maximu m directive force ,
2 64 MAG NETI SM .

FIG . 93
.
— ’
THOMPSON S COMP ENSA TI NG B I N NA CLE.
 ’
EARTH S MA GNETI SM . 2 65

un ite d with the mini mu m of weight .

The bowl of the comp ass is u su ally filled

with Oil or other viscid liquid to check
, ,
‘

oscill ation Beneath the compass case is a

.

magne t fixed in s u ch a position as to com

pensate for the semi circ ular error as well
-
,

as a m agn et to com pensate for the heel

i n g error A so ft iron globe to com p e n
.

sate fo q uadrantal error is p laced on each

r

side of the comp ass The Optical appa.

ratu s which su rmo u nts the cover is i n ,

tended for check ing the deviation o f the

needle by re ference to the s un s posi ’

tion in the heavens at any time .

Variou s theories have been advanced as

to the cau se of the earth s magnetism ’

.

A n y theory for this p u rpose Sho uld be

able to satis factorily acco u nt for the varia
ti ons which ex ist in the Ob serve d l e e

ments of the magne tic flux whi ch have

2 66 MAG NETI SM .

already b een allu ded t o in discussing t h e

variations which occur in the declination ,

inclination and intensity Ignoring some

.

of the earlier theories which wer e O ffered ,

a theory which is held to some extent at

,

the present day ascribes the earth s m ag

,
’

n et i sm t o the e ffect of electric cur rents

circul ating aroun d it from east t o west ,

approximately parall el to the equat or .

The cau se of these currents according to

,

this theory is ascribed to the un eq ual

,

heati ng of the materials of the earth s ’

cru st by the sun The maxim um tempera

.

tu re of the earth of course is situated ap

, ,

proximately under the vertical rays and ,

since by the earth s rotation this point of

’

maximum heat wou ld cross the earth s sur ’

face once d uri ng a complete r ot at i on t h ere ,

wo uld it is claimed be electric currents

, ,

developed by t his u ne qu al heating which,

woul d cross t h e ear t h in a di recti on

 ’
EARTH S MA NET SM G I . 2 67

Opposite to th at in wh i ch it rotates ; name

l y from east t o west Su ch an electric cu r

fi
, .

rent wo uld prod u ce a sou th magnetic pole

in the northern hemisphere and this as ,

we have seen is what is requ ired t o explain

,

the earth s a ct i on u pon a m agn et i c needle

’
.

It is dif cult t o conceive h ow the di f

ference of temperatu re wo u ld prod u ce
the re qu isite electric cu rrents especially ,

Since the greater part o f the earth s su

’
r

face i n the e qu atorial regions is composed

of water areas Moreover the varying
.
,

obliqu ity of the s u n s rays at di fferent

’
,

seasons of t h e year should prod uce a

,

g reater infl u e nce in the variations Of the

cu rrent distribu tion and conse qu ently , ,

on the magn etic distribu tion than is act ,

u al l y Observed .

A modification of this theory refers the

cau se of the ea th s magnetism to p ract i
r
’
2 68 G
MA NET SM I .

cally the same so urce ; i solar heat . e ,

b ut p laces the re gion in which this di s

'

t u ban ce occ u rs in the atmos p here rather

r

fi
,

than in the earth s cru st Judging from

’
.

experiments in air pump vacu a it is

-
,

probable that at an elevation of abou t 80

miles ab ove the earth s s urface the rare
’

e d air h as an electric cond u ctivity h i gh

er than that of the best condu cting solu

tions of s ulphuric acid in water When .

it is remembered that variations in the

solar radiation occu rring during the di f
ference o f tem p eratu re of day and night ,

or d uring the different season s of the year ,

or possibly during di fferent cycles of time ,

m y accou nt fo the diu rnal annu al an d

a r , ,

secular variations of m agnetism some ,

theory which connects the magn etic phe

n emena of the earth with the solar radia
tion would appear to be e x tremely prob
able b ut here as be fore the fact that
, , ,
 ’
EARTH S MA NET SMG I . 2 69

variations in o bliqu ity of the sun s heat ’

do not produ ce more mark ed variations

with the seasons would appear t o ren
,

der these t heories fa from satisfactory

r .

Some have even ascribed the earth s m ag

’

n et i sm to magnetic fl ux produ ced b y the

su n or by the moon b u t calc u lations Show

,

that neither the sun n or the moon cou ld

produ ce at their dis t ances any sensible
magnetic e ffect on the earth even i f com ,

posed Of hard steel powerfully mag

‘

n et i e d
z .It mu st be acknowledged that
there has yet t o be produ ced a theory

fi
w h i ch shall accou nt in a satis factory
m anner for the phenomena of the e arth s
’

magnetism .

The ins uf ciency of any theory to ao

co u nt for the earth s magnetism is es p e
’

ci al l y seen in the case of some O b sc u re

terrestrial magnetic phenomena t hat are

2 70 GNETI SM
MA .

appare ntly irreconcilable with any th eory

which has yet been pr eposed For ex .

ample F i g 94 shows the isoclinic lines

, .

served in the northern part of France re

ferred to in the A nn u aire o f the Bureau

F I G 94 —
. I LI
SOCLI N I CN P F
NES I N THE ORTHERN A R T OF RA NCE
.

o f Lon gitu des o f Paris fo the year r

1891 .The dotted lines represent the

g eneral co u rse o f the iso gon als 16 °

and 17 West In the neighborhood of

°
.
 ’
EARTH S MA NET SM G I . 2 71

Pari s, it will be ob served that the gener

al co u rse of the iso gonals u nder goes a very

m ark ed a n d Sharp ben ding which can ,

i t wo u ld ap p ear only be acco u nted for

,

by local terrestrial cau ses not connected

wi th the general phenomena of the earth s ’

magne ti sm as a whole .

In order t o accou nt for the secular

v ariations in the ear t h s ma gnetism it
’
,

was formerly assumed that the positions

o f t h e earth s magnetic poles chan ged
’

their situation cyclically upon the eart h s ’

su rface More recent Ob servations seem

.

t o indicate that in each hemisphere there

is a m ag n etic pole over which the ne edle
stands vertically and that in addition to
, ,

these there are in each hem is phere two

,

places where the intensity of the earth s ’

flu x is a max imu m It wo ul d seem that

.

these poles and positions of maximum i n

2 72 MA NET G I SM .

tensity do not sensibly vary in position ’

b u t that the earth s flu x varies along cer

’

tain lines of m ag netic activity In other .

words there wo uld appear t o be regions

,

o f peri odically waxing and wani ng m ag

netic infl uence whereby the intensity of

,

the flux alters as tho ugh feeble f a lse

,

m gn t i p ol were developed
a e c es .

When dynamos are operated on board

ship an additional sou rce of local m ag
,

netic distu rbance is produ ced on the com

pass needle This may be du e either t o
.

the electromagnetic influ ence of the wires

fi
carrying cu rrents in the neighborhood of
,

the compass needle or it m ay be du e to ,

the magnetic infl u ence of the poles of the

dynamo situated within the Sp here o f the
needle s influ ence The first dif cul t y
’
.

can be entirely overcome b y employing

double wires througho ut the vessel ; i e . . ,
 ’
EARTH S G
MA NET ISM . 2 73

employing an Ou tgoing and a return con

d u ctor placed side b y side thro ughout
,

their length so that the m ag netic i nflu

,

ence of the cu rrent in one wire is equal

and Opposite t o the influence o f the Op
p o si t e c u rrent in the other wire The
second diff culty can be entirely overcome
i

by employing an ironclad type of gener

ator ; i a dynamo in which the magnetic
. e
’

poles are completely Sheltered by and

enclosed within the yok e or frame of the
machine .

The ir regularities Observed in the dis

t ri b ut i on of the iso gonal isoclinal and
,

isodynamic lines on t h e earth s s urface as ’

,

seen from an inspection o f Figs 80 and 81

, .
,

to natu rally arise from the varying charac

ter of the materials forming the earth s ’

crust The occasional presen ce of large

.

b ed s of magnetic oxide of iron or other ,

2 74 MA GNE I SM
T .

magnetizable material is ap t to produce ,

local magnetic poles and so dis t urb what ,

m ight b e otherwise a more u niform di st ri

b ut i on of the earth s flux That beds of
’
.

iron ore do exist in the earth is not only

established by actu al mining Operations ,

b u t also by the u se of a s uitable dipping

needle .

A n apparatu s employed for the ab ove

,

pu rpose has sometimes been called a m g

, a

n tie di i ni ng od ; for by its u se the locali

c v r , ,

zat i o n o f lar ge bodies o f ma gnetic iron ore

is possible withou t uncovering the s urface .

U n fort unately however owing to the f act

, ,

that a thin mass of ore near the s urface

produ ces approximately the same effect as
a thick and concentrated mass of ore at a
g reater depth the indicatio
, n s o f the
needle have t o b e taken with great
caution ; b ut when taken in connection
,

with b or ings o utcrop observations and

'

,
 EARTH S G
MA NETISM . 2 75

other evidence of a geological character ,

they furnish valuable data for mi ni ng i n

t ercets
.

THE END
 I NDEX .

A cli ni c Li nes, 2 38 .

A ct i o n of Mag net i sm on C andle F l ame , 2 01 .

A ct i ve C o n duct o r, Ci rc ular F l ux P ro duced aro un d,

86 .

C o nd uct o r, D eflect i o n o f Needle by, 83 .

C o n duct o r, Mag net i c P ro pe rt i es A cqui red

b y, 83 .

He li x , D i rect i ve P ro pert i e s o f, 9 9 .

Hel i x , N o n Fe rri c i rcui t o f, 6 4

-
C .

A c r e F e rr i c
-
Mag ne t i c Ci rcui t ,
6 0, 1 4 3 .

A go nal Li ne s, 2 31 .

A g o ne s, 2 3 1 .

Ai r G
-
ap B e t wee n P o l es Of Elect ro magnet , 1 13 .

A llo y, N o n Mag net i c 2 2 4

-

,
.

A l t e r nat i ng Mag net i c F l ux 2 2 1 , .

A mpere s T h eo ry o f Mag ne t i sm
’
,
103 .

A ng le of D i p, 2 3 9 .

A n n ual V ari at i o n s Of Ear t h ’

s Magnet i sm , 2 47 .

2 77
2 78 I N D Ex .

Annunci at o r, Elect romagn et i c, 16 3 .

A no malo us Elect ro magne t , 1 14 .

A rc -
L am
p Mech ani sm ,
16 5 .

A re as, P o la r , Of Magn et s ,
1 32 .

A r m at ure of Magn et P o le, 1 3 8 .

A rm at ure O f Ma net 1 15 and 13 8

g ,
.

A rrest e r, Li gh t ni ng, 1 72 .

A t t ract i ve Magnet s 13 1 , .

P o wer o f Mag net ism , 2 .

A urora, 2 53 .

B o reali s, 2 55 .

A ut o mat i c Mak e and Break , 16 9 .

B
Bar Magnet ,
F lux o f, 58 .

B at t e ry, L o cal, 1 55 .

Bell, Ele ct ro magnet i c, 16 0 .

Tel e ph o ne, 158 .

B l ue P o le of Magnet , 20 .

B o re al i s, A uro ra, 2 55 .

Brak e, Magnet i c ,
2 14 .

C
C andl e F lame, A ct i on o f Magnet i sm on, 2 01 .

C ardi nal P oi n t s O f p C
o m ass, 2 5 8 .

C h aract eri st i cs O f Eart h s Magnet i sm, 2 4 4

’
.
 I ND EX . 2 79

Ch art ,
D ecli nat i o n, 2 32 .

I ncl i nat i o n, 2 3 6 .

I so dynami c, 2 4 3 .

Ci

fi
rcl e , D i p, 2 3 8 .

Ci rcui t , A e rO F er ri c, 6 0 -
.

F er ri c Magne t i c, 6 0 .

Magnet i c, 13 and 55 .

Magnet i c ,
A cre Fe rr i c, 14 3
-
.

Magnet i c an d Elect ri c, D i erence Be

t ween, 12 5 .

Mag net i c ,
A ppli cat i o n Of C li m s Law t o,
’

12 4 .

Mag net i c Ferri c 14 4 , , .

Mag net i c No n Fe rri c ,

-

,
1 1 8, 14 2 .

S i mple Magnet i c 56 ,
.

Ci rc ular ,
C
Fl ux o nvent i o n as t o D i rect i o n o f, 87 .

F lux P ro duced A ro un d A ct i ve o nd uc t o r, C
86 .

L o o p, D i rect i o n o f F lux Th rough , 92 .

Cl k S lf “f i di g 1 71
oc , e -
n n , .

C i F
oe rc v e 27 o rce , .

C i l S p k 16 9
o ,
ar , .

C i l El t m g t C
o s, ec ro a ne ,
o nnec t i o n O f, 1 16 .

Magnet i z i ng ,
of Ele ct r o m ag net , 108 .

C om
p a ss, C a rdi n al P o i nt s o f, 2 58 .

Heeli ng Erro r o f, 2 62 .

Mari ner s ’
,
6, 2 5 1 .
2 80 IN D EX .

C om
pass, ! uadrant al Erro r o f, 2 6 1 .

S mi
e ci rcula r Error o f, 2 6 1 .

S igh t s, 2 57 .

C om
p e n sa t i ng Magn et s for Sh i p C ’
s om
pass, 2 63 .

C o m o ne n t , Ho ri
p z o n t al , of Eart h ’
s Magne t i sm ,

2 51 .

Ve r t i cal, of Eart h ’
s Magnet i c I nt e n si t y,
2 50 .

C o mpo un d B ar Magnet ,
13 8 .

Magn et s ,
22 .

P er manent Magn et ,
13 7 .

C o nduct i v i t y M ,a g n e t i c 19 3 , .

C o nduct o r , A ct i v e Mag ne t i c ,
P ro pert i es A cqui red
b y, 83 .

C o n st ruct i o n o f Elect ro magne t , 107 .

C o nv e n t i o n a s to D i rect i o n o f Ci rcul ar F l ux , 87 .

C o n v en t i o n al D i rect i o n o f Mag net i c Fl ux , 52 .

C o re o f He l i x , 97 .

C o res fo r Magne t s ,
L am i nat ed, 227 .

C urre n t s, Eart h , 2 56 .

Eddy, 1 4 6 , 2 12 .

L ocal, 14 6 .

R
D ead eck o ni ng, 2 59 .

D ecl i n at i o n h artC ,
2 32 .

Magnet i c, 2 31 .
 IN D EX . 2 81

z
D emagnet i at i o n Of W at ch es, 2 2 1 .

D e nsi t y o f F l ux , 1 2 6 .

D i amag net i c G ases, A ct i o n o f Mag ne t i sm o n, 2 01 .

Li q ui ds, A ct i o n of Magnet i sm o n, 19 7 .

Met als ,
Li s t o f, 2 05 .

P o lari t y, 1 9 1 .

S b
u st an ce s, i 91 .

S ub st an ce s, A ct i o n o f Magnet s o n, 19 6 .

D i am ag ne t i sm , 19 1 .

D i aph ragm o f Tele ph o ne, U se o f, 15 9 .

D i p, A n gl e o f, 2 39 .

Ci rcle , 2 38 .

Mag ne t i c ,
2 36 .

D i ppi ng N eedle, 2 3 5 .

D i rect i ve P o wer o f Magn et i sm, 2 .

P ro pe rt i e s O f A ct i ve He li x , 99 .

D i ssec t e d Mag ne t , P o lari t y o f 3 3 , .

D i urnal Var i at i o n s o f Ear t h s Magne t i sm,

’
2 47 .

D i vi n i ng R o d Mag ne t i c 2 74
, , .

D o o r O pe n e r Elect ri c 1 70
, , .

D yn a mo Ele ct ri c Mac h i ne, 1 75 .

F o u r P o l e 1 76 , .

! uadri po l ar, 1 76 .

E M F , U n i t Of , 1 2 2
. . . .

Eart h C
urre nt s, 2 56 .
2 82 I D EX
N .

Eart h ’
s F alse Magne t i c P o le s 2 72 , .

F l ux , Val ue o f i n G ausse s , ,
12 8 .

Magne t i c Equat o r 2 3 8 , .

Magne t i c I n t e nsi t y Ve rt i cal ,

C o mpo nen t

o f, 2 50 .

Magne t i sm 2 3 0 , .

Magne t i sm A nn ual V ari at i on s o f 2 4 7

, , .

Magnet i sm C h aract er i st i cs o f 2 4 4
, ,
.

Mag net i sm D i ur nal V ar i at i o ns o f 2 4 7

, ,
.

Mag ne t i sm I r re g ular V ari at i o ns o f 2 4 7

, ,
.

Mag n et i sm S ec ular Vari at i o ns o f 2 4 7

, ,
.

Mag ne t i sm Th eo ri es o f 2 6 5
, , .

C
Eddy ur re nt s, 2 12 .

Ed i so n s Ele c t ri c P e n, 1 6 4
’
.

C
Ele c t r i c i rc ui t , La w o f, 1 2 2 .

D o o r O pe ne r ,
1 70 .

G as Li g h t i ng Me ch ani sm ,
16 8 .

P e n , 16 4 .

C
Ele ct ri ci t y, Eddy ur re n t s o f, 1 4 6 .

Elect ro m agne t , A i r G a p B e t wee n P o le s, 1 13

-
.

A n o m al o us, 1 1 4 .

fi
D e ni t io n of 9 7 ,
.

Ho rse sh o e 1 1 7 , .

Mag ne t i zi g Cn o i l o f, 1 08 .

Ordi n ary F o r m o f, 1 12 .

Yo ke o f, 11 .

Elect ro m agnet s, U ses o f, 14 9 .

 I N DE X . 2 83

Elect ro magnet i c A nnunci at or, 163 .

B e ll, 16 0 .

C o ils, C o nnect i o n o f, 1 16 .

L i gh t ni ng A rre st er, 1 73 .

Mo t o r , 179 .

O re C o nce nt rat o r , 1 80 .

Elect ro Mag ne t i sm , Oe rst ed s D i sco ve ry of,

-
’

Ele m e n t s o f Ear t h s Magne t i sm , 2 4 4

’
.

Equat o r, Mag ne t i c, o f Ea rt h , 2 3 8 .

Erro r, Heel i ng o f o m pass, 2 6 2, C .

! uad ran t al , o f C o m pass, 2 61 .

S e m i - ci rc ul ar , o f C o m pass, 2 61 .

Et h e r -
St re am i n
g T h eo r
y Of Magnet i sm ,
46 .

Vort i c es, 4 6 .

F
F alse Magnet i c P o l es o f Eart h 2 72 , .

F e e d i ng Me ch an i sm o f A rc am p 16 5 L , .

C
Fer ri c Mag ne t i c i rcui t 6 0, 1 2 7, 14 4 ,
.

F i gu re s Mag ne t i c 6 7
, , .

F lux A l t e r nat i ng Mag net i c, 2 2 1

, .

D e nsi t y, 1 2 6 .

D i rect i o n o f Th rough i rcular ,

C L oo p, 92 .

e ak a eL
g 6 9 , .

Magn e t i c 5 7 ,
.

Mag ne t i c C o n ve nt i o n as t o D i rect i o n of
, ,
52 .

Mag ne t i c U n i t o f 1 2 3
, , .
2 84 I N DEX .

F lux of Bar Magnet ,

58 .

F o rce , C o e rc i ve, 27 .

Li ne s o f Mag net i c , 57 .

Magnet o mo t i ve D e ni t i o n o f, ,
fi
Mag net o mo t i ve U ni t o f, 12 1 , .

F o ur P o le Dynamo, 1 76
-
.

G as- L i gh t i Mech ani sm Elect ri c 168

ng , , .

C ases, D i a magne t i c Ac t i o n O f Magn e t i sm o n 2 01

, , .

P ara magne t i c A ct i o n o f Mag net i sm o n, ,

2 01 .

fi
G auss, D e ni t i o n o f, 1 2 8 .

,
fi
G i lb e r t D e n i t i o n o f 1 2 1 , .

G i m b als, 2 5 7 .

G un , Ele ct ro magnet i c, 1 82 .

H
Heeli ng Error o f o m pass, C 2 62 .

Hel i x C
o re o f , 9 7
, .

L
e f t Han de d, 1 01 -
.

R i gh t -
h an de d, 101 .

Ho rsesh o e Elect ro magne t , 1 17 .

Mag ne t 2 4 , .

Hyst eresi s Mag ne t i c , ,

2 08 .
 IN D EX . 2 85

I ncli nat i on Ch art ,

2 36 .

Magnet i c 2 3 6 , .

I nt ensi t y Magn et i c 12 6
, ,
.

I rregular Va r i at i o ns of Eart h ’
s Magne t i sm ,

I socli nal Li n es, 2 37 .

I sodynami c Ch art ,
2 43 .

Li n e s, 2 43 .

I so gon a l Li n es, 2 32 .

Jo i nt Magne t i c
,
Rl e uct ance o f, 14 0 .

K
K eepers of Magnet s ,
2 4 , 14 5 .

L
Law o f El ect ri c Ci rcui t ,
12 2 .

of Mag net i c A t t ract i on s and Repulsi o ns ,

’
Oh m s, 12 2 .

L am i n at ed C o re s f or Magnet s ,
227 .

L k
ea age , F l ux , 69 .

Magnet i c ,
13 6 .

L e ft Han de d
-
R o t ar
y P o l ari z at i o n, 2 18 .

S o l e n o i d, 101 .

Li ft i n
g Magnet s fo r A rc L am
p, 16 5 .
2 86 IN D EX .

Li gh t ,
Magnet i c y P o R
l ar i i
o t ar
at o n z o f, 2 16 .

R
o t ar
y P o lar i at i o n o f, 2 1 7 z .

L i gh t n i ng A rrest e r, 1 72 , 1 73 .

A rrest e r, Elect ro magnet , 1 73 .

Li n e s, A cl i ni c, 2 3 8 .

A go nal, 2 3 1 .

I so cli nal, 2 3 7 .

I so dyn am i c, 2 4 3 .

I so g o nal , 2 3 2 .

of Mag ne t i c Fo rce ,
57 .

Li q ui ds, D i am ag net i c, A ct i o n of Magnet i sm

on, 187 .

P aramag ne t i c, 1 9 9 .

L o cal B at t e ry, 155 .

C urre n t s, 14 6 .

L o dest o ne, 2 .

M M F U ni t o f
. . .
, ,

Mach i ne D ynam o Elect ri c

, ,
1 75 .

Magn e t A r mat ure o f 1 15

, , ,
13 8 .

B lue P o le o f, 20 .

C o m po un d, Bar, 13 8 .

C o mpo un d, P e r manent , 13 7 .

Ho rse sh o e, 24 .

K e e pe r o f, 25 .

Mark e d P ole o f, 20 .
 I N D EX . 2 87

Magnet ,
N e u t ral P o i n t o f ,
3 0 .

N o r t h P o le o f , 1 1 .

-
S
N o r t h e e k i ng P o l e o f , 20 .

P o l e P i e ce s o f, 13 7 .

R e d P o le o f, 20 .

Mag net s ,
A t t ract i ve, 1 3 1 .

C o m po un d, 22 .

fi
Ele ct ro U ses o f, 14 9 .

K e e pe rs o f, 14 5 .

Li f i t n g, f o r A rc L am
p, 1 6 5 .

P o l a r A re a s o f, 13 2 .

P o rt at i ve , 1 3 1 .

Mag net i c and Elec t ri c Ci rcui t ,

Di e re nces

B e t wee n, 1 2 5 .

A t t ract i o n s an d R ep ulsi o ns, L a ws o f , 18

.

B rak e 2 14 .

Ci rcu i t ,
1 3 , 55 .

Ci r c ui t ,
A ero -
F err i c, 14 3 .

Ci rc ui t ,
F e rri c 12 7 , ,
14 4 .

Ci rc ui t ,
N o n F e rri c, -
60 .

Ci r c ui t ,
N o n F e rri c -

,
1 13 .

C o n d uc t i v i t y, 1 9 3 .

D ec l i nat i o n 2 3 1 2 3 6 , ,
.

D e vi a t i o n o f h i p s o mpass,
’
S C 2 59 .

D i p, 2 3 6 .

D i v i n i ng R o d ,
2 74 .

Equa t o r of Eart h , 2 38 .
2 88 I N DEX .

Magnet i c F igures ,
P h o t ograph i c P o si t i ves o f, 70 t o
81
F i g ure s 6 7 , .

F lux , 5 7
F lux A pparent
, I nab i li t y t o P ro duce
P h ysi o lo gi c al Eff ec t s, 1 87 .

,
C
F l ux o n ven t i o n as t o D i re ct i o n o f, 5 2 .

Fl ux , P erm eab i li t y o f Human B o dy t o, 1 85 .

F l ux , U n i t o f, 1 2 3 .

Fo r ce T ub es o f 56
, , .

Hyst eresi s, 2 08 .

I n t e n si t y, 1 2 6 .

I nt e n si t y, U n i t o f, 12 8 .

Jo i n t ,
Rl e uct an ce o f, 14 0 .

L ea k age ,
69 t o 13 6 .

Me t als ,
189 .

N e e dl e, 14 .

F o rce i nes o f, 5 6
,
L .

Ob se rv at o ri e s 2 4 4 , .

P e r me ab i li t y 1 1 7 ,
.

P o l a ri t y of Ea rt h ’
s N o rt h ern Hemi s
ph e re , 2 0 .

R e t en t i vi t
y,
2 7,
2 06 .

Sta urat i o n , 3 6, 1 2 6 .

St o r m s, 2 54 .

St o rm s a nd Sun Sp ot s, C onn ect i o n Be

t wee n, 2 55 .
 IN D EX . 2 89

Magnet i c St ream Li ne s, 57 .

St ream i n
g ,
s 46 .

W at ch Sh i el ds, 223 .

Magnet i sm ,
A mpere ’
s Th eo ry o f, 103 .

A t t ract i v e P o we r o f, 2 .

D i rect i ve P o we r o f, 2 .

Effect of Tempe rat u re o n, 2 05 .

Et h er -
St re a m i ng Th eo ry of, 4 6 .

O ri gi n of W o rd ,
3 .

R esi d ual, 14 3 .

T h eo ry o f, 35 .

Mag ne t i z at i o n o f W at ch es 2 2 0 , .

Mag net i z i ng C o i ls Seri es C o nnect i on

-
,
o f, 12 0 .

T urn , 119 .

Mag net o met e r 2 4 2 ,

.

Magnet o mo t i ve F o rce ,
Abb revi at i on o f, 12 0
.

F o rc e, De fi it i n o n o f, 12 0 .

Magne t o Opt i c o a on 2 1 9
-
R t ti , .

Mak e and B reak A ut o mat i c 1 69

- -
, , .

Manganese S t eel 2 05 , .

Mari ner s C o mpass 6 2 5 7

’
, , .

Mark ed P ole o f Magne t 2 0 , .

Me ch an i sm A rc L am p 1 6 5
,
-

,
.

F eedi ng F o r A rc ,
L am
p, 1 6 5 .

Mem o ry Mag net i c 2 7

, ,

Met als D i amag ne t i c Li st

, , o f, 2 05 .

Mag n e t i c 1 89 , .
2 90 I ND EX .

Me t al s P aram agnet i c L i st o f 2 04
, , ,
.

Mne mo n i c fo r P o lari t y o f Ele ct ro Magnet -

,
102 .

Mot o r ,
Elect ro m agne t i c, 1 79 .

Ne e dle, D e flect i o n o f, b y Act i ve C o n duct o r, 83 .

D i ppi ng ,
2 35 .

Mag ne t i c ,
14 .

Ne u t ral P o i n t o f Magne t , 3 0 .

-
C
N o n F e rri c i rc ui t o f A c t i v e He l i x , 6 4 .

Magn e t i c Ci rc ui t ,
6 0, 1 1 8, 1 4 2 .

No u -
Mag net i c A l lo y, 2 2 4 .

N o rt h P o l e of Magne t ,
11 .

No rt h e r n He mi sph ere , Magnet i c P o l ari t y o f, 20 .

O
Ob ser vat o ri e s, Mag net i c ,
2 44 .

Oe rst ed, 6 .

fi
D e n i t i o n o f, 12 3 .

O h m s Law, 1 2 2
’
.

La w, A ppli c at i o n o f, t o Magnet i c Ci rcu i t ,

12 4 .

Ore C o nce n t rat o r, Mag n e t i c ,

1 80 .

P
P alladi um A llo y, N o n Mag ne t i c P ro pert i e s o f
-

,
225 .

A l lo y fo r N o n Mag n e t i c W a t c h 2 2 5
-
, .
 I N DEX . 2 91

P aram agn et i c G ases, A c t i o n of Mag net i sm o n,

2 01 .

Li q ui ds, 19 9 .

Met al s ,
Li st o f , 2 04 .

S ub st an ces, 1 80 .

S ub st ances, A ct i o n of Magnet i sm o n,

19 7 .

P e n , Elect r i c, 164 .

P e r me ab i li t y, Magn et i c ,
117 .

Human B o dy t o Magnet i c F l ux , 185

of .

P h o t o g raph i c P o si t i v es o f Mag net i c F i gu re s, 70

t o 81 .

P o i n t , Ne ut ral , of Magnet ,
30 .

P o lar A re as of Magne t s ,
13 2 .

P o lari t y, D i am agn e t i c 1 9 1 , .

o f D i ssec t e d Ma n e t 33
g , .

of Ele ct ro m ag net , Mne mo n i c fo r, 102 .

P o l ar i z at i o n , 2 17 .

L ft H d d R
e -
an e o t ar
y, 2 18 .

R igh t H d d R -
an e o t a r , 2 17
y .

P o le, N o rt h -
S ee k i ng ,
of Mag ne t ,
20 .

Magne t 1 1
of , .

P i e ce s o f Mag ne t 2 2 13 7 , , .

S o ut h o f Mag ne t 1 1
, ,
.

P o le s F al se Mag ne t i c o f Ear t h 2 72
, , , .

P o r t at i v e Mag ne t s 1 3 1 , .

P o we r D i rec t i ve o f Mag ne t i sm 2
, , ,
.
 I ND EX .

!
! uadran t al of Erro r C o mpass, 2 61 .

! uadri po lar D yn a mo ,
1 76 .

R
R at e o f W at ch es Effect o f Magnet i sm o n
, ,

R e co rdi n
g W a t t me t e r 2 1 3 , .

R e d P o le of Mag n et ,
20 .

R l y T l g ph i 154
e a ,
e e ra c, .

Rl t 12
e uc an ce , 3 .

R i d l M g t i m 14 3
es ua a ne s , .

R it El t i U i
es s an ce , e c r c, n t o f, 12 2 .

Mag ne t i c U ni t o f , , 12 3 .

R e t e nt i v i t
y Ma g ne t i c 2 7
, , ,
2 06 .

Ri gh t -
Han de d R o t ary P o l ar i z at i o n , 2 17 .

S o l e n o id, 1 01 .

R o d, Magne t i c D i vi n i ng ,
2 74 .

R o t ary P o l ari z at i o n , 2 17 .

P o lar izat i o n o f Li gh t , 2 17 .

R o t at i o n, Magne t o -
Opt i c, 2 1 9 .

S
S at urat i o n , Magnet i c ,
3 6, 1 2 7 .

S e cul ar V a r i at i o n s of Ear t h ’
s Magnet i sm ,

S e lf- W i n d i ng Cl oc k ,
171 .

S em i -
Ci rcul ar Mag n e t i c D e vi at i o n , 2 49 .
 I N D EX . 2 93

S i C
e r es ti f M g t izi g C
o n ne c on o a ne n o i l s, 12 0.

S h i ld M g t i W t h 2 2 3
e s, a ne c a c , .

S h i p C mp C m p t i g M g
’
s o ass, o e nsa n a ne t s o f, 2 63 .

C mp M g t i D i t i
o ass, a ne c ev a on o f , 2 59 .

S i mpl M g t i C i i t 56
e a ne c rcu , .

S l i d 1 01
o e no , .

L ft H
e -
ande d, 101 .

R igh h t -
an de d, 101 .

S d T l g ph i 15 1
o un er, e e ra c, .

S t h P l f M g t 11
ou o e o a ne , .

Sp k C il 169
ar o , .

St l M g
ee , 2 05 an anese, .

S t m M g t i 2 54
or s, a ne c, .

St m Li M g t i 57
re a - n e s, a ne c, .

S t mi g M g t i 4 6
re a n s, a ne c, .

S bt Di m g t i 19 1
u s a nces, a a ne c, .

P a ra magne t i c, 1 9 0 .

Sun Sp o t s, 2 53 .

Sp ot s an d Magnet i c St o rms, C o nnect i o n

B e t wee n, 2 55 .

T
Tel egraph i c Rl e ay, 154 .

S o un de r, 15 1 .

Te le ph o n e, 158 .

B ell , 15 8 .

D i aph ragm o f, 159 .

2 94 I N D EX .

Te m perat ure, Eff ec t o f, o n Magne t i sm

T h eo ri es of Ea rt h ’
s Mag ne t i sm , 2 65 .

T h e o ry of Magnet i sm 3 5 , .

Tub es of Mag ne t i c F o rce ,

57 .

T urn, Magne t i z i ng ,
1 19 .

U
U nit of Elec t r i c R esi st an ce, 12 2 .

of M M F 12 1
. . .
, .

of Mag net i c F lux 1 2 3 , .

of Mag net i c I n t en si t y 12 8 , .

R
Mag net i c esi st ance 1 2 3

fi
of , .

U ses o f Elect rom agne t s, 14 9 .

V
Ve rt i cal C o m po nen t o f th e Eart h ’
s Magnet i sm , 2 51
.

Vo l t , D e n i t i o n o f, 12 2 .

Vo r t i ce s of Et h er, 46 .

W
W at ch es D emagne t i z at i o n o f
, ,
221 .

Eif ect of Magnet i sm on R at e o f,

Mag ne t i z at i o n o f, 220 .

W at t me t e r Re cordi ng 2 1 3
, , .

W eb er D efi ni t i o n o f 1 2 3
, ,
.

Y
Yo k e of Elect ro mag n e t , 11 .
 A DICTIONARY O F

El ect ri cal W or ds ,
Term s,
an d P h r a ses .

By EDW IN J HOU STON P h D ( P r i n ce t o n )

.
. . . .

A U T HO R O F

Hundr ed Year s Ago an d To day ,

- 4 6 , et c.

fi
Clot h , 66 7 large oct a ve 5 82 ill ust rat i o ns ,
Pri ce .

fi
Some idea o f t h e scope o f t h i s i m port ant work and of t h e im
mense amo unt o f lab o r may be formed wh en i t i s
i nvo lved i n i t ,

fi
St a t ed t h a t i t co nt a i ns de n i t i o ns o f abo ut 6000 di st i nct words,

t erms, o r ph rase s T h e di ct i o nary i s not a mere wo rd bo ok ; t h e

.
-

words, t erms, and ph rases are i nvari ab ly fo llo wed b y a sh o rt , 00n

ci se de ni t i o n , gi vi ng t h e sense i n wh i ch t h ey are correct lye mployed ,

a nd a genera l st at emen t o f t h e p ri nci p les o f e lect r ca l sci ence oin

wh i ch t h e de n i t i on i s fo unde d . Each of t h e grea t classes o r di

vi si o ns o f elect ri cal i nvest i ga t i o n o r ut i li zat i o n co m es unde r care ful

a nd exh a ust i ve t rea t ment ; and wh i le cl ose at t en t i on i s gi ve n t o t h e

mo re se t t led and h ackneye d ph raseo lo gy o f t h e o lder b ra nch es o f

wo rk, t h e newer words and t h e novel depart ment s t h ey b elo ng t o

are n o t less t h o ro ugh ly h andle d Every so urce o f i nformat io n h as
.

b een re fe rred t o , and wh i le l i b rari es h a ve b ee n ransa cked , t h e no t e

b oo k o f t h e lab o rat o ry and t h e ca t a log ue o f t h e ware roo m h ave no t
been fo rgo t t en o r neg lect ed . So fa r h as t h e work b ee n carri ed in

fi
re
s pect t o t h e po li cy o f i n clusi o n t h at t h e boo k h as b een b rough t
down t o dat e by means o f an a ppendi x , i n wh i ch are placed t h e
very newest words, a s well as many wh ose rareness o f use h ad con

si gned t h em t o obscuri t y an d ob li vi o n .

Cof za qf t h t s
' ’
or a ny ot h er ( d w w wrfl h m t b m l
POSTA G E PREP AI D, t o any a dd r ess i n t h e wor ld , on r e m ) ! Jf ri ar .

Th e W JJ
oh nst on company
. .
, Publish ers,
 E
LECTRICITYANDM TISM
AGNE .

A Se r i e s of A d va n c e d P r i m e r s .

ED W I N JHO
. U STO N, PH D ( Pri n ce t o n) . . .

AUTHOR OF

“
4 Di ct i onary of Elect r i ca l Wor t h , Ter ms a nd
”
P b r ases, et c , et c , et c . . .

Clot h . 3 06 pa g e s. I 1 6 i llus t r a t io ns. P ri ce ,

Duri ng t h e Ph i ladelph i a Elect ri cal Exh ibi t i on of 1 884, Professo r Hou st on

iss
ued a se t o f elemen t ary e le ct ri ca l p ri mers for t h e b e nefi t of t h e v isi t ors t o
x
°

t h e e h ib i t i o n, wh ich a t t a i n ed a wi de p o p ulari t y . D uri ng the last t en

years, h owe ver, t h e advances i n t h e a ppli ca t i ons o f elect ri ci t y h ave been so

great and so wi despread t h at t h e p ub li c wo u ld n o lo nger b e sa t isfi ed wi t h

i nst ruc t i o n i n rega rd t o o nly t h e mo st ob v i o us and si mple po i n t s, an d

accordi ngly t h e a ut h or h as p re p ared a se t o f n e w p ri me rs o f a more ad

fi
ve nced ch aract er as rega rds mat t e r a n d e t e n t x
T h e t rea t me n t , ne v ert h e
.

less, re mai ns such t h a t t h ey ca n be easi ly u n de rst oo d b y a nyo ne wi t h o ut a

i o u k n o wle dg e o f elect ri ci t y E l e ct ri ci an s wi ll fi n d t h ese p ri mers o f
p rev s .

fi
marked i n t erest fro m t h e i r l uci d e p lana t i o ns o f p ri nci ples, and t h e ge ne ral
p u bli c wi ll n d i n t h e m an easi ly re ad an d agr ee able i nt rod uct i o n t o a fas
ci nat i ng sub ect j T h e fi rst vol um e , as wil l be seen fro m t h e con t e nt s,
j
.

deals wi t h t he t h eo ry and ge n e ral aspe ct s of t he sub ect . As no

ma t h e ma t i cs i s used and t h e e xpl a na t i o ns are co uch e d in t he si m plest

t erms , t h i s v o l ume i s an i deal bo ok fro m wh i ch t o o b t ai n t h e p re li mi

rst

nary i deas neces sary fo r t h e pro pe r underst andi ng of more advan ced works .

Cof i e! of t ki r or a ny o t h er el ect r i ca l book p u bl i c/t ed wi l l be sent by

m i l , POSTAG E PREPAI D , t o a ny a dd r ess i n t h e wor ld , on r eceef t of f r icc .

The wJ J ohnston Co mpanyPublish ers

. .
, ,
Th e Measurement of Electrical Cur
rents and Ot h er Advanced
Primers of Electricity .

By EDW I N J . HOU STON PH D ( P ri nce t o n ) , . . .

A U T HO R O F

A D i ct i ona ry o
f El ect r i ca l Wor d s ,
Ter mr , a nd

Ph r a ses , et c et c .
, e t c.

Clot h . 4 2 9 pages, 169 illust rat ions . Price,

T h i s vo l ume i s t h e P ro f Ho ust o n s ad mi rab le seri e s

’
se co n d o f .

of A dva n ced P r i mer s o f El ect r i ci t y , an d i s devo t ed t o t h e meas

urem ent an d p rac t i ca l a pp li ca t i o ns o f t he e l ect ri c curre n t . Th e
d i fferent so urces o f e lect ri ci t y a re t aken up i n t urn , t h e ap parat u s

descri b ed wi t h re fe ren ce t o co mmerci a l forms, a nd t h e dlfle ren t

syst e m s o f di st ri b ut i on e x plai ned . Th e sect i o ns on al t erna t i ng

curre n t s wi l l b e fo und a use ful i nt rod uct i o n t o a b ra nch wh i ch i s

dai ly assumi ng l arger p ro po rt i o ns , an d wh i ch i s h e re t reat ed wi t h
o ut t h e use o i m a t h ema t i cs . A n e x ce l le n t feat ure o f t h i s se ri es o f

p ri m e rs i s t h e ca re o f s t a t e m e n t a n d l o g i ca l t r ea t m e nt o f t h e sub

j ec t.s I n t h i s res p ec t t h e re i s a m a rk e d co n t ra st t o m o st pop ula r

t rea t i ses , i n wh i ch o n ly t h e m ost si m p le an d me re ly cu ri o us po i nt s
a re gi ven , t o t h e e xclusi o n o r sub o rd i nat i o n o f mo re i m po rt an t

o n es . T h e a b st ract s fro m st a ndard e lect ri ca l aut h o rs at t h e end o f

e a ch p ri mer h ave i n ge n e ra l re fe re nce a nd furn i sh a n e x t e n si o n t o

so me i mpo rt a n t po i n t i n t h e p ri me r, a nd a t t h e sa m e t i me gi v e t h e

reade r a n i nt ro duct i o n t o e l ect ri ca l l i t e ra t ure . Th e a b st ract s h ave

b een ch o se n wi t h ca re fro m h o ri t a t i ve p ro fessi o n a l so urces
a ut or

fro m t rea t i ses o f ed ucat i o na l va lue i n t h e va ri o us b ranch es .

Copi es of t h i s or a ny ot h er elect ri cal book publ i sh ed wi ll be sent by ma i l ,

POSTA G E PREPA I D, to a ny a dd r ess i n t h e wor ld , on r ecei pt of pr i ce .
 E
LECTRICALTRANSM ISSIONOF
INTE
LLIGENCE .

i nd Other Advanced Primers oi Electricity .

By EDW I N JH O U
. STO N, PH D ( Pri n ce t o n
) . . .

AUT HOR OF

A D i ct i ona ry f
o Elect r i ca l Wor ds , Ter ms a nd
”
P h r a ses, et c. , et c. , et c.

C lot h . 3 3 0 p a g e s, 88 i l lust r a t i o n s. P r ic e ,

fi fi
Th e t h i rd an d concl udi ng v ol ume o f P ro fe sso r Ho ust o n ’
s se ri es of

A d va n ced P r i m er s f El ect r i ci t y
o i s de v o t e d t o t h e t e leg rap h , t elep h one ,

and mi scella neo us ap pli cat i o ns o f t h e e le ct ri c c urre nt I n t h i s volume t h e

j
.

di f cul t sub e ct s o f m ul t i ple and cab le t e leg ra p h y a nd elect ro lysis, as we ll

as t h e t e le p h o ne , st orage b at t e ry, e t c a re t re a t ed i n a man ne r t h at eu

ab les th e beg i nner t o easi ly grasp t h e p ri nc i p les, a nd ye t Wi t h no sacri ce

i n co mp le t e ness of prese n t a t i o n Th e e lec t ri c ap parat us fo r use i n
.

h o uses, such as elect ric be lls, a nn uncia t o rs, t h erm ost at s, elect ri c locks,
gas- li
g h t i ng syst ems, e t c. , are e xp l a i ned a nd i llus t ra t ed . T h e p ri mer o n
e lect ro- t h e ra pe ut i cs descri bes t h e me di ca l co i l , a n d gi ves i nst ruct i o ns fo r
it s use , as wel l as ex plai ni ng t h e act i o n o f v ari o us curre nt s o n t h e h uma n
body . T h e i n t erest i ng p ri mers o n cab le t e legra ph y a nd o n t ele ph o ny wi ll
b e a pp reci a t ed b y t h ose wh o wish t o o b t a i n a c lear i de a o f t h e t h eory o f
t h ese a t t ract i ve b ra nch es of elect ri ca l sc i e n ce , and a knowledge o f t h e de

t a i ls o f t h e appara t us A t t ent i on i s cal le d t o t h e fact t h a t each o f t h e

.

p ri m e rs i n t h i s seri es i s, as far as po ss i ble , co m p l e t e i n i t se lf, and t h a t

t h ere i s n o nece ssary co nnect i on b e t wee n t h e se ve ral v olumes .

Cop i es of i h i s or a ny ot h el ect r i ca l book p u bl i sh ed wi ll be sen t by

e
r

sna i l , POST A G E PEEPA rD , t o a ny a dd r ess i n t h e wor l d , on r eceipt of p r i ce .

The WJ J ohnston Co mpan yPublish ers

. . , ,

2 5 3 B RO A D W A Y, NEW YO RK .
 ELEC TR IC IT Y
One Hundred Year s Ago and To Day-
.

By EDWI N JHOU.STON, PH D .
( Pri ncet on) .

AUT HOR OF

“
A D i ct i onary f
o Elect r i ca l Wor d s , Ter ms a nd

C lo t h . 1 7 9 p a g e s, illust r a t e d. P r i ce ,

I n t ra ci ng t h e h ist ory of elect ri cal sci ence fro m pract icall y i t s b irt h t o
t h e p rese n t day, t h e au t h or h as, wh e rev er poss i b le , co nsul t ed ori g i nal

fi
so urces of i nforma t i o n .As a resu lt o f t h ese researc h es , sev e ral revi si ons

fi
as t o t h e da t e of di sco v ery o f so me i m po rt a nt p ri nci ples i n e lec t ri cal

sci e nce are made n ecessary Wh i le t h e co mpass o f t h e b ook does not

j
.

pe rmi t of any o t h er t h an a g e n e ral t re a t me nt o f t h e sub ect , ye t n umerous

re fere nces are gi ve n i n fo o t n o t e s, wh i ch also i n man y cases q uo t e t h e

words i n wh i ch a disco v ery was rst a nn o unced t o t h e world, or gi ve more

j
Speci c i nforma t i o n i n regard t o t h e s ub e ct s me nt i o ne d i n t h e ma i n po r

t i o n o f t h e book .T h is fea t ure i s o n e o f i n t ere st and val u e, for oft en a

clearer i dea may b e o b t ai ned fro m t h e words o f a di sco v erer o f a ph eno me o

non or pri nci ple t h an is po ssi ble t h ro ug h o t h er so urces T h e wo rk i s not

j
.

a mere cat al ogue of sub ect s and da t es, nor i s i t couch ed i n t ech n i cal lan

fi
guage t h at o nly appeals t o a few O n t h e cont rary, o ne o f i t s most admi r
.

ab le fea t ures i s t h e agreeabl e st yle i n wh i ch t h e work i s wri t t en , i t s

fi
p h i losoph i cal di scussi o n as t o t h e ca use and e flect o f vari ous di sco ve ri es,
'

an d i t s person al re fe re nces t o great n am es i n elec t ri cal sci e nce Much i n .

fo rmat i o n as t o elect ri cal ph e no m e na may al so be ob t ai ned fro m t h e b oo k,

as t h e aut h or i s not sa t i s ed t o m erely gi ve t h e h i st ory o f a di scovery, b ut

also adds a conci se an d cl ear e x plana t i on o f i t .

Cop i es af t /i h er elect r i ca l boob p u bl i cized wi ll be sent by

'

t s or a ny ot

m il, POSTAG E PREPAI D, t o a ny a dd r ess in th e wor ld , on r eceip t of i cc ‘

.

TheWJ J ohn ston Co mpanyPublish ers,

. .
,
 ELEMENT S O F

STATIC ELECTRI C ITY

W lt h F u l l Do ae r l p t l o n a of t h e Ho lt ! a nd To p le r
Ma o h l ne a a nd Th o le Mo d e of O p e ra t l o n .

fi
BY P HI LI P A T K I NSO N , A . M .
, PH D . .

Cl ot h . 2 2 8 pa ges , 6 4 i llust rat i o ns . P ri ce ,

T h iswo rk h as b een pre pared fo r t h e bene t o f t h ose wh ose

knowledge o f e lect ri ci t y i s l i mi t ed t o t h e pract i cal det ai l s o f t e le
graph y, t eleph o ny, and e lect ri c li gh t i ng ; a lso t h ose amo ng t h e
li be rally ed ucat ed wh o desi re t o re vi e w e lect ri c sci e nce i n t h e l i gh t

fi
o f rece nt i nve st i ga t i o n and t h ose wh o wi sh t o st ud y i t s elemen t ary

pri nci ples preparat o ry t o a more e x t ended co urse

fi
Th e aut h o r .

t reat s t h e sub ject i n a p ract i ca l rat h e r t h an i n a sch o last i c ma nn er ,

t h e t h eo ri es b ei ng i llust rat ed and e luci da t ed b y reference t o pra ct i ca l
ap parat us a nd a p pl i ca t i o n s T h e sub ject o f elect ric po t en t ia l ,
.

usually so di f cu l t t o be gi nners, is t reat ed very successfully by t h e

aut h or , so t h at t h e st uden t a ft er re a di ng t h is sect i o n wi ll nd h is

pa t h much smoo t h e r wh en h e e nt e rs o t h e r b ranch e s o f elect ri ci t y

no t co nsi de red i n t h i s b oo k . A n i nst ruct i ve ch apt er i s devo t ed t o a

con side rat i on o f t h e n at ure o f e lect ri ci t y T h e Leyde n jar i s fully

.

t rea t ed , and o ne fo urt h o f t h e book i s devo t ed t o descri pt i o n s o f

st at i c g era t o rs and
e n pract i ca l e x peri men t s wi t h t h e same . T h e re
is a n ext ensi ve ch a pt er o n el ect ro me t ers, and a very i n t erest i ng o ne

descri b i ng appa ra t us fo r i ll ust ra t i ng e lec t ri ca l t ransm i ssi o n in

vacaa . An i mpo rt ant sect i o n o f t h e b o o k i s t h a t on t he e lect ri ci t y
of t h e eart h and t h e a t mo sp h ere, co nsi st i ng o f t h ree ch a p t e rs —o u
eart h current s, t h e aurora , and t h under an d l i gh t ni ng .

Copi es f t bis or a ny ot h er elect r i ca l book M i cIced wi ll be

-
sent by ma i l ,
POST AG E PR EPAI D , t o a ny a dd r ess i n t h e W ld , on r ecei fl af f r i co .

he W JJ
T OHSTONOONPAN
N Y, Publishers,
. .
 Dynamo Mac h i ne ry
A ND A LLIED SUBJECTS .

By J OH N HO PK N SO N , F R S I . . .

( A nt /i or i z ed A m er i t -
an E d i t i on ) .

Clo t h 2 4 9 pages 9 8 Illus t rat i o n s. P r ice ,

fifi
. .

V e ry few cont ribut i o ns t o e l e ct ri cal li t erat ure si n ce t h e days o f Faraday

h ave bee n o f such an i mp ort a n t ch aract e r as t h ose co nt ai ne d t n t h e p re se nt
v o lu m e a n d t h i s i s t ru e , wh e t h e r co nsi de re d fro m a t h e o re t i ca l or fro m a

fi
p ra ct i cal st a nd po i n t I n t h e rs t p ap e r t h a t i nv a lua b le a id t o t h e st udy a nd
.

de si g n o f dyn a mos, t h e c h a rac t e ri st i c c urve , was rst a n n o un ce d , and t h e

t wo fo llo wi ng p a p ers are de v o t e d m o re o r le ss t o de v e lo p i ng i t s a p l i ca t i o ns
p .

v a ri o us po i n t s co n ne c t e d wi t h t h e s u b e ct j
T h ese t h ree p ape rs co n t a i n a v ast a m o un t o f i nfo rma t i o n re la t i n g t o t h e
T h o ug h t h e st yle i s si mp le
a n d p o p u lar , t h e st a t e me n t s a re a u t h o ri t a t i v e a n d sup pl i e d t h e b eg i nn i ng s
o f e le c t ri ca l e n g i n e e ri ng T h e fo u r t h a n d ft h
. a p ers o n t h e t h eo ry a nd ,

desi gn o f co n t i n u o us c urre nt dyn a mo s, fu rn i s e d t h e p ri n ci ples upo n

-

wh i c h t h e de s i g n o f su c h dyn a m o s i s no w b ase d T h e si t h p a pe r est a b . x

l i sh ed t h e i m p o rt a n t ri nc i p le s i n regard t o co up l i ng a l t e rn a t i n g c urren t -

ma ch i ne s t h e n ex t t ree p ap e rs a re o n t h e t ra nsfo rme r, and t h e re ma i n i ng

t wo a re o n t h e t h e o ry o f t h e a l t e rna t e cu rre n t d yn a mo an d e le ct ri c l i h t
g
-

h o uses resp e ct i v e ly .T h e majo ri t o f t h e pa p e rs co nt ai n n o m a t h e mat i cal

form u la , a n d se v e ral o t h e rs so l i t t e as n o t t o p re ve nt t h e ir be i ng under
st oo d by a no n ma t h e ma t i ca l rea de r
-
.

C O NT ENT S .

I I I On Elec t ri c Li h t i ng — I I I So me P oi n t s i n El ec t ri c Li b ri ng
I V , V D yna mo El ect ri c ach rne ry —VI T h eo ry o f Al t e rn a t i ng urre nt s
. . . .

-
. . . .
.

-
V I I A n U n n o t i ce d D an ger i n Ce rt a i n A p p ara t u s fo r D i st ri b u t i o n o f
V
Elec t n ci t — I I I I nduct i o n Co rls a n d T ran sfo rm e rs —I X Re po rt o f a
. .

Test o f wo W at t T ransfo rmer — X T h eo ry o f t h e A lt e rna t i ng

c urre n t D ynamo —X I
s .

.Th e Elect ri c Ligh t h o uses o f Macquai re a nd o f

.

T i no .

Cof i es of t it i s or a ny ot ker elect r i ca l bookp ubl i sh ed wi ll be sent by

ma i t , POSTAG E PREPA I D , to a ny a dd r ess in Me wor ld , on r ecerjot of f r i ce .

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Alt e r n a t e Cu r re n t s
Of High Pot ent ial and High Frequency .

B y N I K O LA T ESLA .

Cl o t h , 1 5 6 p a g es, wi t h P or t r ai t an d 3 5 I l l us t r a t i on s .

P ri c e ,

fi
Si n ce t h e d i sco v er y o f t h e t e le p h o n e f e w rese ar ch es i n e l ect ri ci t y
h ave cr ea t e d as wi d e sp r e a d an i n t e r e st as th o se o f N i k o l a T e sl a
Mr

fi
i nt o a l t er n at e c u rr e n t s o f h i g h p o t en t i al an d h i g h fr e q u e n c y . .

T e sla wa s a cco r d e d th e u n u su a l h o n o r o f a n i n v i t a t i o n t o re p e a t

fi
h is e x p er i m e n t s b e fo r e d i st i n g u i sh e d sc i e n t i c b o di e s of Lo n d o n
an d P ar i s, an d th e l e ct u r e d e l i v e r e d b e fo re t h e I n st i t u t i o n of El e c
t r i oni En g i n e e rs, Lo n d o n , i s h e r e p re se n t ed i n b o o k fo r m -
. Th e

e l d o p e n e d u p , t o wh i ch t h i s b o o k act s a s a g u i d e , i s o n e i n wh i ch
th fu t u r e m a y d e v e l o p r e su l t s o f t h e m o st
e r e m a r k a b l e ch a r ac t e r ,

a n d p e r h a p s l e a d t o a n e n t i r e r e v i si o n o f p r e se n t sc i e n t i c
our

co n c e p t i o n s, wi t h c o rr e sp o n d i n g l y b ro a d p r act i ca l r e su l t s Th e .

c u rr e n t s o f e n o r m o u sl y h i g h f r e q u e n c y a n d v o l t a g e g e n e r a t e d b y

Mr T e sl a d e v e l o p e d p rop e rt i e s p re v i o u sl y
. e nt i r e l y u n su sp e ct ed,

a n d wh i ch p r o d u c e d p h e n o m e n a o f st a rt l i n g ch arac t e r . N o i n ju r
i o us e ff e ct s we r e e x p e ri e n ce d wh en t h e h um a n b o dy was su b

je ct e d t o th e h i gh e st g e n e rat e d
v o lt a g es La m p s wi t h o n l y o n e
.

co n d u ct o r we re r e n d e r e d i n ca n d e sc e n t , a n d o t h e r s wi t h n o co n

n e ct i o n wh at e v e r t o th e c o n d u ct i ng c i r cui t g l o we d wh e n m er e l y
x
b ro ug h t i n t o p ro i m i t y t o t h e sam e Th e . b o o k i n wh i ch Mr T e sl a .

x
d escri b e s h i s m a rv e l o u s e p e r i m e n t s i s o n e t h at e v er y o n e wh o

t a k e s an i n t e r est i n e l e c t ri c i t i t s fu t u r e sh o u l d r e a d Th
j e su b
y or .

c eti s p o p u l ar l y t r e a t e d , a n d a s t h e a u t h o r i s t h e m ast er o f a
si m p l e a n d a g r e e a b l e st yl e t h e b o o k i s fa sc i n at i n g r e a di n g A .

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Jo h n st o n s
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St ree t Rail way C o mpani es—Elect ri c, Ho rse and Cab le
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Th i rd edi t i o n . reat ly enl ar ged . 66 7 do ub le co lumn

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By T C Mart i n an d J o s W et zler Wi t h an appendix

D
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A lt e r n ati n g C u r r e n t s An Analyt i cal and raph . G

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edi t i on es . .
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JHo ust on
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E l e ct r i c I n c a n d e sc e n t Li g h t i n g . By E .
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enerat i o n, Measurement , st ri b ut i o n and Applicat i on .

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way Const ruct i on, Ope rat ion , Syst ems, Mach i nery,
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