Emergency procedures[edit]

The most urgent underwater emergencies usually involve a compromised breathing gas supply.
Divers are trained in procedures for donating and receiving breathing gas from each other in an
emergency, and may carry an independent alternative air source if they do not choose to rely on a
buddy.[78][6][77] Divers may need to make an emergency ascent in the event of a loss of breathing gas
which cannot be managed at depth. Controlled emergency ascents are almost always a
consequence of loss of breathing gas, while uncontrolled ascents are usually the result of a
buoyancy control failure.[92] Other urgent emergencies may involve loss of control of depth and
medical emergencies.
Divers may be trained in procedures that have been approved by the training agencies for recovery
of an unresponsive diver to the surface, where it might be possible to administer first aid. Not all
recreational divers have this training as some agencies do not include it in entry-level training.
Professional divers may be required by legislation or code of practice to have a standby diver at any
diving operation, who is both competent and available to attempt rescue of a distressed diver. [78][77]
Two basic types of entrapment are significant hazards for scuba divers: Inability to navigate out of an
enclosed space, and physical entrapment which prevents the diver from leaving a location. The first
case can usually be avoided by staying out of enclosed spaces, and when the objective of the dive
includes penetration of enclosed spaces, taking precautions such as the use of lights and guidelines,
for which specialised training is provided in the standard procedures. [93] The most common form of
physical entrapment is getting snagged on ropes, lines or nets, and the use of a cutting implement is
the standard method of dealing with the problem. The risk of entanglement can be reduced by
careful configuration of equipment to minimise those parts which can easily be snagged, and allow
easier disentanglement. Other forms of entrapment such as getting wedged into tight spaces can
often be avoided, but must otherwise be dealt with as they happen. The assistance of a buddy may
be helpful where possible.[5]
Scuba diving in relatively hazardous environments such as caves and wrecks, areas of strong water
movement, relatively great depths, with decompression obligations, with equipment that has more
complex failure modes, and with gases that are not safe to breathe at all depths of the dive require
specialised safety and emergency procedures tailored to the specific hazards, and often specialised
equipment. These conditions are generally associated with technical diving. [47]

Depth range[edit]
See also: Deep diving

The USS Spiegel Grove dive near Key Largo, Florida requires divers to have an advanced diver certification [94]

The depth range applicable to scuba diving depends on the application and training. Entry-level
divers are expected to limit themselves to about 60 feet (18 m) to 20 metres (66 ft).[95] The major
worldwide recreational diver certification agencies consider 130 feet (40 m) to be the limit for
recreational diving. British and European agencies, including BSAC and SAA, recommend a
maximum depth of 50 metres (160 ft)[96] Shallower limits are recommended for divers who are
youthful, inexperienced, or who have not taken training for deep dives. Technical diving extends
these depth limits through changes to training, equipment, and the gas mix used. The maximum
depth considered safe is controversial and varies among agencies and instructors, however, there
are programs that train divers for dives to 120 metres (390 ft).[97]
Professional diving usually limits the allowed planned decompression depending on the code of
practice, operational directives, or statutory restrictions. Depth limits depend on the jurisdiction, and
maximum depths allowed range from 30 metres (100 ft) to more than 50 metres (160 ft), depending
on the breathing gas used and the availability of a decompression chamber nearby or on site. [74]
[43]
 Commercial diving using scuba is generally restricted for reasons of occupational health and
safety. Surface supplied diving allows better control of the operation and eliminates or significantly
reduces the risks of loss of breathing gas supply and losing the diver. [98] Scientific and media diving
applications may be exempted from commercial diving constraints, based on acceptable codes of
practice and a self-regulatory system.[99]

Applications[edit]

Shooting underwater video on scuba

See also: Recreational diving, Technical diving, Public safety diving, Scientific diving, Combat diving,

and Professional diving
Scuba diving may be performed for a number of reasons, both personal and professional.
Recreational diving is done purely for enjoyment and has a number of technical disciplines to
increase interest underwater, such as cave diving, wreck diving, ice diving and deep diving.[100][101]
[102]
 Underwater tourism is mostly done on scuba and the associated tour guiding must follow suit. [43]
Divers may be employed professionally to perform tasks underwater. Some of these tasks are
suitable for scuba.[1][3][43]
There are divers who work, full or part-time, in the recreational diving community as instructors,
assistant instructors, divemasters and dive guides. In some jurisdictions, the professional nature,
with particular reference to responsibility for health and safety of the clients, of recreational diver
instruction, dive leadership for reward and dive guiding is recognised and regulated by national
legislation.[43]
Other specialist areas of scuba diving include military diving, with a long history of military frogmen in
various roles. Their roles include direct combat, infiltration behind enemy lines, placing mines or
using a manned torpedo, bomb disposal or engineering operations.[1] In civilian operations, many
police forces operate police diving teams to perform "search and recovery" or "search and rescue"
operations and to assist with the detection of crime which may involve bodies of water. In some
cases diver rescue teams may also be part of a fire department, paramedical service
or lifeguard unit, and may be classed as public safety diving.[43]
Underwater maintenance and research in large aquariums and fish farms, and harvesting of marine
biological resources such as fish, abalones, crabs, lobsters, scallops, and sea crayfish may be done
on scuba.[43][74] Boat and ship underwater hull inspection, cleaning and some aspects of maintenance
(ships husbandry) may be done on scuba by commercial divers and boat owners or crew.[43][74][1]

Diver taking photos of a shark

Lastly, there are professional divers involved with underwater environments, such as underwater
photographers or underwater videographers, who document the underwater world, or scientific
diving, including marine biology, geology, hydrology, oceanography and underwater archaeology.
This work is normally done on scuba as it provides the necessary mobility. Rebreathers may be
used when the noise of open circuit would alarm the subjects or the bubbles could interfere with the
images.[3][43][74] Scientific diving under the OSHA (US) exemption has been defined as being diving
work done by persons with, and using, scientific expertise to observe, or gather data on, natural
phenomena or systems to generate non-proprietary information, data, knowledge or other products
as a necessary part of a scientific, research or educational activity, following the direction of a diving
safety manual and a diving control safety board.[99]
The choice between scuba and surface-supplied diving equipment is based on both legal and
logistical constraints. Where the diver requires mobility and a large range of movement, scuba is
usually the choice if safety and legal constraints allow. Higher risk work, particularly in commercial
diving, may be restricted to surface-supplied equipment by legislation and codes of practice. [74][43]

Safety[edit]
Main article: Diving safety

The safety of underwater diving depends on four factors: the environment, the equipment, behaviour
of the individual diver and performance of the dive team. The underwater environment can impose
severe physical and psychological stress on a diver, and is mostly beyond the diver's control. Scuba
equipment allows the diver to operate underwater for limited periods, and the reliable function of
some of the equipment is critical to even short-term survival. Other equipment allows the diver to
operate in relative comfort and efficiency. The performance of the individual diver depends on
learned skills, many of which are not intuitive, and the performance of the team depends on
communication and common goals.[103]
There is a large range of hazards to which the diver may be exposed. These each have associated
consequences and risks, which should be taken into account during dive planning. Where risks are
marginally acceptable it may be possible to mitigate the consequences by setting contingency and
emergency plans in place, so that damage can be minimised where reasonably practicable. The
acceptable level of risk varies depending on legislation, codes of practice and personal choice, with
recreational divers having a greater freedom of choice. [43]
Hazards[edit]
Main article: Diving hazards and precautions

Scuba diving in a cave

Divers touring a World War II shipwreck

Divers operate in an environment for which the human body is not well suited. They face special
physical and health risks when they go underwater or use high pressure breathing gas. The
consequences of diving incidents range from merely annoying to rapidly fatal, and the result often
depends on the equipment, skill, response and fitness of the diver and diving team. The hazards
include the aquatic environment, the use of breathing equipment in an underwater
environment, exposure to a pressurised environment and pressure changes, particularly pressure
changes during descent and ascent, and breathing gases at high ambient pressure. Diving
equipment other than breathing apparatus is usually reliable, but has been known to fail, and loss of
buoyancy control or thermal protection can be a major burden which may lead to more serious
problems. There are also hazards of the specific diving environment, and hazards related to access
to and egress from the water, which vary from place to place, and may also vary with time. Hazards
inherent in the diver include pre-existing physiological and psychological conditions and the personal
behaviour and competence of the individual. For those pursuing other activities while diving, there
are additional hazards of task loading, of the dive task and of special equipment associated with the
task.[104][105]
The presence of a combination of several hazards simultaneously is common in diving, and the
effect is generally increased risk to the diver, particularly where the occurrence of an incident due to
one hazard triggers other hazards with a resulting cascade of incidents. Many diving fatalities are the
result of a cascade of incidents overwhelming the diver, who should be able to manage any single
reasonably foreseeable incident. [106] Although there are many dangers involved in scuba diving,
divers can decrease the risks through proper procedures and appropriate equipment. The requisite
skills are acquired by training and education, and honed by practice. Open-water certification
programmes highlight diving physiology, safe diving practices, and diving hazards, but do not
provide the diver with sufficient practice to become truly adept. [106]
Scuba divers by definition carry their breathing gas supply with them during the dive, and this limited
quantity must get them back to the surface safely. Pre-dive planning of appropriate gas supply for
the intended dive profile lets the diver allow for sufficient breathing gas for the planned dive and
contingencies.[107] They are not connected to a surface control point by an umbilical, such as surface-
supplied divers use, and the freedom of movement that this allows, also allows the diver to penetrate
overhead environments in ice diving, cave diving and wreck diving to the extent that the diver may
lose their way and be unable to find the way out. This problem is exacerbated by the limited
breathing gas supply, which gives a limited amount of time before the diver will drown if unable to
surface. The standard procedure for managing this risk is to lay a continuous guideline from open
water, which allows the diver to be sure of the route to the surface.[93]
Most scuba diving, particularly recreational scuba, uses a breathing gas supply mouthpiece that is
gripped by the diver's teeth, and which can be dislodged relatively easily by impact. This is generally
easily rectified unless the diver is incapacitated, and the associated skills are part of entry-level
training.[6] The problem becomes severe and immediately life-threatening if the diver loses both
consciousness and the mouthpiece. Rebreather mouthpieces that are open when out of the mouth
may let in water which can flood the loop, making them unable to deliver breathing gas, and will lose
buoyancy as the gas escapes, thus putting the diver in a situation of two simultaneous life-
threatening problems.[108] Skills to manage this situation are a necessary part of training for the
specific configuration. Full-face masks reduce these risks and are generally preferred for
professional scuba diving, but can make emergency gas sharing difficult, and are less popular with
recreational divers who often rely on gas sharing with a buddy as their breathing gas redundancy
option.[109]

Risk[edit]
See also: Scuba diving fatalities

The risk of dying during recreational, scientific or commercial diving is small, and on scuba, deaths
are usually associated with poor gas management, poor buoyancy control, equipment misuse,
entrapment, rough water conditions and pre-existing health problems. Some fatalities are inevitable
and caused by unforeseeable situations escalating out of control, but the majority of diving fatalities
can be attributed to human error on the part of the victim. Equipment failure is rare in open circuit
scuba.[92]
According to death certificates, over 80% of the deaths were ultimately attributed to drowning, but
other factors usually combined to incapacitate the diver in a sequence of events culminating in
drowning, which is more a consequence of the medium in which the accidents occurred than the
actual accident. Scuba divers should not drown unless there are other contributory factors as they
carry a supply of breathing gas and equipment designed to provide the gas on demand. Drowning
occurs as a consequence of preceding problems such as unmanageable stress, cardiac disease,
pulmonary barotrauma, unconsciousness from any cause, water aspiration, trauma, environmental
hazards, equipment difficulties, inappropriate response to an emergency or failure to manage the
gas supply.[110] and often obscures the real cause of death. Air embolism is also frequently cited as a
cause of death, and it, too is the consequence of other factors leading to an uncontrolled and badly
managed ascent, possibly aggravated by medical conditions. About a quarter of diving fatalities are
associated with cardiac events, mostly in older divers. There is a fairly large body of data on diving
fatalities, but in many cases the data is poor due to the standard of investigation and reporting. This
hinders research that could improve diver safety.[92]
Fatality rates are comparable with jogging (13 deaths per 100,000 persons per year) and are within
the range where reduction is desirable by Health and Safety Executive (HSE) criteria,[111] The most
frequent root cause for diving fatalities is running out of or low on gas. Other factors cited include
buoyancy control, entanglement or entrapment, rough water, equipment misuse or problems
and emergency ascent. The most common injuries and causes of death were drowning or asphyxia
due to inhalation of water, air embolism and cardiac events. The risk of cardiac arrest is greater for
older divers, and greater for men than women, although the risks are equal by age 65. [111]
Several plausible opinions have been put forward but have not yet been empirically validated.
Suggested contributing factors included inexperience, infrequent diving, inadequate supervision,
insufficient predive briefings, buddy separation and dive conditions beyond the diver's training,
experience or physical capacity.[111]
Decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism in recreational diving have been associated with
specific demographic, environmental, and diving behavioural factors. A statistical study published in
2005 tested potential risk factors: age, asthma, body mass index, gender, smoking, cardiovascular
disease, diabetes, previous decompression illness, years since certification, number of dives in the
previous year, number of consecutive diving days, number of dives in a repetitive series, depth of
the previous dive, use of nitrox as breathing gas, and use of a dry suit. No significant associations
with risk of decompression sickness or arterial gas embolism were found for asthma, body mass
index, cardiovascular disease, diabetes or smoking. Greater dive depth, previous decompression
illness, number of consecutive days diving, and male biological gender were associated with higher
risk for decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism. The use of dry suits and nitrox breathing
gas, greater frequency of diving in the previous year, greater age, and more years since certification
were associated with lower risk, possibly as indicators of more extensive training and experience. [112]
Risk management has three major aspects besides equipment and training: Risk
assessment, emergency planning and insurance cover. The risk assessment for a dive is primarily a
planning activity, and may range in formality from a part of the pre-dive buddy check for recreational
divers, to a safety file with professional risk assessment and detailed emergency plans for
professional diving projects. Some form of pre-dive briefing is customary with organised recreational
dives, and this generally includes a recitation by the divemaster of the known and predicted hazards,
the risk associated with the significant ones, and the procedures to be followed in case of the
reasonably foreseeable emergencies associated with them. Insurance cover for diving accidents
may not be included in standard policies. There are a few organisations that focus specifically on
diver safety and insurance cover, such as the international Divers Alert Network[113]

Training and certification[edit]

US Navy SEAL divers train in 2019

Scuba training is normally provided by a qualified instructor who is a member of one or more diver
certification agencies or is registered with a government agency. Basic diver training entails the
learning of skills required for the safe conduct of activities in an underwater environment, and
includes procedures and skills for the use of diving equipment, safety, emergency self-help and
rescue procedures, dive planning, and use of dive tables or a personal decompression computer.[6]
Scuba skills which an entry-level diver will normally learn include: [6][114]

 Preparing and dressing in the diving suit

 Assembly and pre-dive testing of the scuba set.
 Entries and exits between the water and the shore or boat.
 Breathing from the demand valve
 Recovering and clearing the demand valve.
 Clearing water from the mask, and replacing a dislodged mask.
 Buoyancy control using weights and buoyancy compensator.
 Finning techniques, underwater mobility and manoeuvering.
 Making safe and controlled descents and ascents.
 Equalisation of the ears and other air spaces.
 Assisting another diver by providing air from one's own supply, or receiving air supplied by
another diver.
 How to return to the surface without injury in the event of a breathing supply interruption.
 Use of emergency gas supply systems (professional divers).
 Diving hand signals used to communicate underwater. Professional divers will also learn other
methods of communication.
 Dive management skills such as monitoring depth and time and the breathing gas supply.
 Buddy diving procedures, including response to buddy separation underwater.
 Basic dive planning regarding choice of entry and exit points, planned maximum depth and time
to remain within no decompression limits.
 Limited recognition of hazards, emergency procedures, and medical evacuation may be
included.
 How to adapt when facing strong current
 The ability to remove and re-attach gear while underwater
 Can achieve neutral buoyancy
Some knowledge of physiology and the physics of diving is considered necessary by most diver
certification agencies, as the diving environment is alien and relatively hostile to humans. The
physics and physiology knowledge required is fairly basic, and helps the diver to understand the
effects of the diving environment so that informed acceptance of the associated risks is possible. [114]
[6]
 The physics mostly relates to gases under pressure, buoyancy, heat loss, and light underwater.
The physiology relates the physics to the effects on the human body, to provide a basic
understanding of the causes and risks of barotrauma, decompression sickness, gas
toxicity, hypothermia, drowning and sensory variations.[114][6] More advanced training often involves
first aid and rescue skills, skills related to specialised diving equipment, and underwater work skills.
[114]

Recreational[edit]
Main articles: Recreational diver training and List of diver certification organisations
Scuba diving education levels as used by ISO, PADI, CMAS, SSI and NAUI

Basic diving skills training in a swimming pool

Recreational diver training is the process of developing knowledge and understanding of the basic
principles, and the skills and procedures for the use of scuba equipment so that the diver is able to
dive for recreational purposes with acceptable risk using the type of equipment and in similar
conditions to those experienced during training. Recreational (including technical) scuba diving does
not have a centralised certifying or regulatory agency and is mostly self-regulated. There are,
however, several international organisations of varying size and market share that train and certify
divers and dive instructors, and many diving related sales and rental outlets require proof of diver
certification from one of these organisations prior to selling or renting certain diving products or
services.[115][116]
Not only is the underwater environment hazardous but the diving equipment itself can be dangerous.
There are problems that divers must learn to avoid and manage when they do occur. Divers need
repeated practice and a gradual increase in the challenge to develop and internalise the skills
needed to control the equipment, to respond effectively if they encounter difficulties, and to build
confidence in their equipment and themselves. Diver practical training starts with simple but
essential procedures and builds on them until complex procedures can be managed effectively. This
may be broken up into several short training programmes, with certification issued for each stage,
[117]
 or combined into a few more substantial programmes with certification issued when all the skills
have been mastered.[118][119]
Many organizations exist, throughout the world, offering diver training leading to certification: the
issuing of a "Diving Certification Card," also known as a "C-card," or qualification card. This diving
certification model originated at Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 1952 after two divers died
while using university-owned equipment and the SIO instituted a system where a card was issued
after training as evidence of competence.[120][121] Diving instructors affiliated to a diving certification
agency may work independently or through a university, a dive club, a dive school or a dive shop.
They will offer courses that should meet, or exceed, the standards of the certification
organization that will certify the divers attending the course. Certification of the diver is done by the
certification organisation on application by the registered instructor. [117]
The International Organization for Standardization has approved six recreational diving standards
that may be implemented worldwide, and some of the standards developed by the World
Recreational Scuba Training Council are consistent with the applicable ISO Standards, [76][122][6] as are
equivalent standards published by the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques and
the European Underwater Federation[123][124]
The initial open water training for a person who is medically fit to dive and a reasonably competent
swimmer is relatively short. Many dive shops in popular holiday locations offer courses intended to
teach a novice to dive in a few days, which can be combined with diving on the vacation. [117] Other
instructors and dive schools will provide more thorough training, which generally takes longer.
[119]
 Dive operators, dive shops, and cylinder filling stations may refuse to allow uncertified people to
dive with them, hire diving equipment or have their diving cylinders filled. This may be an agency
standard, company policy, or specified by legislation. [125]

Professional[edit]

Class IV scientific divers assembling a structure during a training exercise

It is fairly common for a national standard for commercial diver training and registration to apply
within a country. These standards may be set by national government departments and empowered
by national legislation, for example, in the case of the United Kingdom, where the standards are set
by the Health and Safety Executive,[43] and South Africa where they are published by the Department
of Labour.[74] Many national training standards and the associated diver registrations are recognised
internationally among the countries which are members of the International Diving Regulators and
Certifiers Forum (IDRCF). A similar arrangement exists for state-legislated standards, as in the case
of Canada and Australia.[114] Registration of professional divers trained to these standards may be
directly administered by government, as in the case of South Africa, where diver registration is done
by the Department of Labour,[74] or by an approved external agent, as in the case of the Australian
Diver Accreditation Scheme (ADAS)[126] In the United States to become a dive master you must be
approved by completing courses through Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI).
The following countries and organisations are members of the European Diving Technology
committee, which publishes minimum standards for commercial diver training and competence
accepted by these and some other countries through membership of the IDRCF and IDSA: Austria,
Belgium, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Latvia,
Romania, The Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Slovak republic, Sweden, Switzerland,
Turkey, United Kingdom, International Marine Contractors Association (IMCA), International Oil and
Gas Producers (IOGP), International Transport Workers' Federation (ITF), International Diving
Schools Association (IDSA), European Underwater Federation, and International Diving Regulators
and Certifiers Forum (IDRCF).[127]: 2  These standards include Commercial SCUBA Diver.[127]: 8 
An example of a widely accepted training standard – EDTC 2017 Commercial SCUBA Diver –
requires the professional scuba diver to be certified as medically fit to dive, and competent in skills
covering the scope of:[127]: 8–9 
 Administrative procedures relating to statutory requirements, employment conditions, health and
safety at the workplace, and the basic theoretical grounding in physics, physiology and medicine
that are relevant to their work as a diver.
 The skills required for routine diving operations, including working as part of the diving team,
planning of diving operations, and diving in open water, exposed to the normal hazards of the
diving environment, decompression procedures, serving as attendant to another diver,
communications and the safe use of the tools appropriate to the work.
 The skills in emergency procedures for management of reasonably foreseeable emergencies,
including standby diver skills for diver assistance and rescue, management of emergencies
unaided where appropriate, and team procedures for handling emergencies.
 Preparation of diving and task-related equipment for use
 Provision of first aid and basic life support procedures in a diving emergency, and assistance,
under supervision, in the treatment of diving disorders
 Competence to assist under supervision with chamber operations, including acting as inside
attendant to an afflicted diver.
International Diving Schools Association (IDSA) provides a Table of Equivalence of various national
commercial diver training standards.[128]
Military scuba training is usually provided by the armed force's internal diver training facilities, to their
specific requirements and standards, and generally involves basic scuba training, specific training
related to the equipment used by the unit, and associated skills related to the particular unit. The
general scope of requirements is generally similar to that for commercial divers, though standards of
fitness and assessment may differ considerably.[1]

Records[edit]
See also: Deep diving § Ultra-deep diving

The current (2017) scuba depth record is held by Ahmed Gabr of Egypt who reached a depth of
332.35 metres (1,090.4 ft) in the Red Sea in 2014,[129][130] however this record is under investigation
due to evidence presented in 2020 suggesting it was faked. [131] In which case the record would revert
to 318m set by Nuno Gomes in 2005. [132]
The record for cave penetration (horizontal distance from a known free surface) is held by Jon
Bernot and Charlie Roberson of Gainesville, Florida, with a distance of 26,930 feet (8,210 m).[133]
Jarrod Jablonski and Casey McKinlay completed a traverse from Turner Sink to Wakulla Springs, on
15 December 2007, covering a distance of nearly 36,000 feet (11 km).[134] This traverse took
approximately 7 hours, followed by 14 hours of decompression, [135] and set the record as the longest
cave diving traverse.[134][136]
The current record for the longest continuous submergence using SCUBA gear was set by Mike
Stevens of Birmingham, England at the National Exhibition Centre, Birmingham, during the annual
National Boat, Caravan and Leisure Show between 14 February and 23 February 1986. He was
continuously submerged for 212.5 hours. The record was ratified by the Guinness Book of Records.
[137]