Main article: 

Breathing gas

For some diving, gas mixtures other than normal atmospheric air (21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, 1%
trace gases) can be used,[1][2] so long as the diver is competent in their use. The most commonly
used mixture is nitrox, also referred to as Enriched Air Nitrox (EAN), which is air with extra oxygen,
often with 32% or 36% oxygen, and thus less nitrogen, reducing the risk of decompression
sickness or allowing longer exposure to the same pressure for equal risk. The reduced nitrogen may
also allow for no stops or shorter decompression stop times or a shorter surface interval between
dives. A common misconception is that nitrox can reduce narcosis, but research has shown that
oxygen is also narcotic.[46][2]: 304 
The increased partial pressure of oxygen due to the higher oxygen content of nitrox increases the
risk of oxygen toxicity, which becomes unacceptable below the maximum operating depth of the
mixture. To displace nitrogen without the increased oxygen concentration, other diluent gases can
be used, usually helium, when the resultant three gas mixture is called trimix, and when the nitrogen
is fully substituted by helium, heliox.[3]
For dives requiring long decompression stops, divers may carry cylinders containing different gas
mixtures for the various phases of the dive, typically designated as travel, bottom, and
decompression gases. These different gas mixtures may be used to extend bottom time, reduce
inert gas narcotic effects, and reduce decompression times.[47]

Diver mobility[edit]
To take advantage of the freedom of movement afforded by scuba equipment, the diver needs to be
mobile underwater. Personal mobility is enhanced by swimfins and optionally diver propulsion
vehicles. Fins have a large blade area and use the more powerful leg muscles, so are much more
efficient for propulsion and manoeuvering thrust than arm and hand movements, but require skill to
provide fine control. Several types of fin are available, some of which may be more suited for
manoeuvering, alternative kick styles, speed, endurance, reduced effort or ruggedness.
[3]
 Streamlining dive gear will reduce drag and improve mobility. Balanced trim which allows the diver
to align in any desired direction also improves streamlining by presenting the smallest section area
to the direction of movement and allowing propulsion thrust to be used more efficiently. [48]
Occasionally a diver may be towed using a "sled", an unpowered device towed behind a surface
vessel that conserves the diver's energy and allows more distance to be covered for a given air
consumption and bottom time. The depth is usually controlled by the diver by using diving planes or
by tilting the whole sled.[49] Some sleds are faired to reduce drag on the diver. [50]

Buoyancy control and trim[edit]

See also: Buoyancy compensator, Diving weighting system, and Diver trim
Diver under the Salt Pier in Bonaire

To dive safely, divers must control their rate of descent and ascent in the water [2] and be able to
maintain a constant depth in midwater.[51] Ignoring other forces such as water currents and
swimming, the diver's overall buoyancy determines whether they ascend or descend. Equipment
such as diving weighting systems, diving suits (wet, dry or semi-dry suits are used depending on the
water temperature) and buoyancy compensators can be used to adjust the overall buoyancy.[1] When
divers want to remain at constant depth, they try to achieve neutral buoyancy. This minimises the
effort of swimming to maintain depth and therefore reduces gas consumption. [51]
The buoyancy force on the diver is the weight of the volume of the liquid that they and their
equipment displace minus the weight of the diver and their equipment; if the result is positive, that
force is upwards. The buoyancy of any object immersed in water is also affected by the density of
the water. The density of fresh water is about 3% less than that of ocean water. [52] Therefore, divers
who are neutrally buoyant at one dive destination (e.g. a fresh water lake) will predictably be
positively or negatively buoyant when using the same equipment at destinations with different water
densities (e.g. a tropical coral reef).[51] The removal ("ditching" or "shedding") of diver weighting
systems can be used to reduce the diver's weight and cause a buoyant ascent in an emergency. [51]
Diving suits made of compressible materials decrease in volume as the diver descends, and expand
again as the diver ascends, causing buoyancy changes. Diving in different environments also
necessitates adjustments in the amount of weight carried to achieve neutral buoyancy. The diver can
inject air into dry suits to counteract the compression effect and squeeze. Buoyancy compensators
allow easy and fine adjustments in the diver's overall volume and therefore buoyancy. [51]
Neutral buoyancy in a diver is an unstable state. It is changed by small differences in ambient
pressure caused by a change in depth, and the change has a positive feedback effect. A small
descent will increase the pressure, which will compress the gas-filled spaces and reduce the total
volume of diver and equipment. This will further reduce the buoyancy, and unless counteracted, will
result in sinking more rapidly. The equivalent effect applies to a small ascent, which will trigger an
increased buoyancy and will result in an accelerated ascent unless counteracted. The diver must
continuously adjust buoyancy or depth in order to remain neutral. Fine control of buoyancy can be
achieved by controlling the average lung volume in open circuit scuba, but this feature is not
available to the closed circuit rebreather diver, as exhaled gas remains in the breathing loop. This is
a skill that improves with practice until it becomes second nature. [51]
Buoyancy changes with depth variation are proportional to the compressible part of the volume of
the diver and equipment, and to the proportional change in pressure, which is greater per unit of
depth near the surface. Minimising the volume of gas required in the buoyancy compensator will
minimise the buoyancy fluctuations with changes in depth. This can be achieved by accurate
selection of ballast weight, which should be the minimum to allow neutral buoyancy with depleted
gas supplies at the end of the dive unless there is an operational requirement for greater negative
buoyancy during the dive.[35] Buoyancy and trim can significantly affect drag of a diver. The effect of
swimming with a head up angle of about 15°, as is quite common in poorly trimmed divers, can be
an increase in drag in the order of 50%.[48]
The ability to ascend at a controlled rate and remain at a constant depth is important for correct
decompression. Recreational divers who do not incur decompression obligations can get away with
imperfect buoyancy control, but when long decompression stops at specific depths are required, the
risk of decompression sickness is increased by depth variations while at a stop. Decompression
stops are typically done when the breathing gas in the cylinders has been largely used up, and the
reduction in weight of the cylinders increases the buoyancy of the diver. Enough weight must be
carried to allow the diver to decompress at the end of the dive with nearly empty cylinders. [35]

Underwater vision[edit]
Main article: Underwater vision

A diver wearing an Ocean Reef full face mask

Water has a higher refractive index than air – similar to that of the cornea of the eye. Light entering
the cornea from water is hardly refracted at all, leaving only the eye's crystalline lens to focus light.
This leads to very severe hypermetropia. People with severe myopia, therefore, can see better
underwater without a mask than normal-sighted people. [53] Diving masks and helmets solve this
problem by providing an air space in front of the diver's eyes.[1] The refraction error created by the
water is mostly corrected as the light travels from water to air through a flat lens, except that objects
appear approximately 34% bigger and 25% closer in water than they actually are. The faceplate of
the mask is supported by a frame and skirt, which are opaque or translucent, therefore the total field-
of-view is significantly reduced and eye-hand coordination must be adjusted. [53]
Divers who need corrective lenses to see clearly outside the water would normally need the same
prescription while wearing a mask. Generic corrective lenses are available off the shelf for some
two-window masks, and custom lenses can be bonded onto masks that have a single front window
or two windows.[54]
As a diver descends, they must periodically exhale through their nose to equalise the internal
pressure of the mask with that of the surrounding water. Swimming goggles are not suitable for
diving because they only cover the eyes and thus do not allow for equalisation. Failure to equalise
the pressure inside the mask may lead to a form of barotrauma known as mask squeeze. [1][3]
Masks tend to fog when warm humid exhaled air condenses on the cold inside of the faceplate. To
prevent fogging many divers spit into the dry mask before use, spread the saliva around the inside of
the glass and rinse it out with a little water. The saliva residue allows condensation to wet the glass
and form a continuous film, rather than tiny droplets. There are several commercial products that can
be used as an alternative to saliva, some of which are more effective and last longer, but there is a
risk of getting the anti-fog agent in the eyes.[55]
Dive lights[edit]
Main article: Dive light

Water attenuates light by selective absorption. [53][56] Pure water preferentially absorbs red light, and to
a lesser extent, yellow and green, so the colour that is least absorbed is blue light. [57] Dissolved
materials may also selectively absorb colour in addition to the absorption by the water itself. In other
words, as a diver goes deeper on a dive, more colour is absorbed by the water, and in clean water
the colour becomes blue with depth. Colour vision is also affected by the turbidity of the water which
tends to reduce contrast. Artificial light is useful to provide light in the darkness, to restore contrast at
close range, and to restore natural colour lost to absorption. [53]

Exposure protection[edit]

"Shorty" style wetsuit

Scientific divers wearing dry suits

Protection from heat loss in cold water is usually provided by wetsuits or dry suits. These also
provide protection from sunburn, abrasion and stings from some marine organisms. Where thermal
insulation is not important, lycra suits/diving skins may be sufficient. [58]
A wetsuit is a garment, usually made of foamed neoprene, which provides thermal insulation,
abrasion resistance and buoyancy. The insulation properties depend on bubbles of gas enclosed
within the material, which reduce its ability to conduct heat. The bubbles also give the wetsuit a low
density, providing buoyancy in water. Suits range from a thin (2 mm or less) "shortie", covering just
the torso, to a full 8 mm semi-dry, usually complemented by neoprene boots, gloves and hood. A
good close fit and few zips help the suit to remain waterproof and reduce flushing – the replacement
of water trapped between suit and body by cold water from the outside. Improved seals at the neck,
wrists and ankles and baffles under the entry zip produce a suit known as "semi-dry". [59][58]
A dry suit also provides thermal insulation to the wearer while immersed in water,[60][61][62][63] and
normally protects the whole body except the head, hands, and sometimes the feet. In some
configurations, these are also covered. Dry suits are usually used where the water temperature is
below 15 °C (60 °F) or for extended immersion in water above 15 °C (60 °F), where a wetsuit user
would get cold, and with an integral helmet, boots, and gloves for personal protection when diving in
contaminated water.[64] Dry suits are designed to prevent water from entering. This generally allows
better insulation making them more suitable for use in cold water. They can be uncomfortably hot in
warm or hot air, and are typically more expensive and more complex to don. For divers, they add
some degree of complexity as the suit must be inflated and deflated with changes in depth in order
to avoid "squeeze" on descent or uncontrolled rapid ascent due to over-buoyancy. [64] Dry suit divers
may also use the gas argon to inflate their suits via low pressure inflator hose. This is because the
gas is inert and has a low thermal conductivity.[65]

Monitoring and navigation[edit]

See also: Diving equipment § Monitoring and navigation, Underwater navigation, and Cave diving

A scuba dive computer

Unless the maximum depth of the water is known, and is quite shallow, a diver must monitor the
depth and duration of a dive to avoid decompression sickness. Traditionally this was done by using
a depth gauge and a diving watch, but electronic dive computers are now in general use, as they are
programmed to do real-time modelling of decompression requirements for the dive, and
automatically allow for surface interval. Many can be set for the gas mixture to be used on the dive,
and some can accept changes in the gas mix during the dive. Most dive computers provide a fairly
conservative decompression model, and the level of conservatism may be selected by the user
within limits. Most decompression computers can also be set for altitude compensation to some
degree.[35]
If the dive site and dive plan require the diver to navigate, a compass may be carried, and where
retracing a route is critical, as in cave or wreck penetrations, a guide line is laid from a dive reel. In
less critical conditions, many divers simply navigate by landmarks and memory, a procedure also
known as pilotage or natural navigation. A scuba diver should always be aware of the remaining
breathing gas supply, and the duration of diving time that this will safely support, taking into account
the time required to surface safely and an allowance for foreseeable contingencies. This is usually
monitored by using a submersible pressure gauge on each cylinder.[66]