Course Overview and Objectives

Course Overview and Objectives

Personal Safety and Social Responsibilities

Overview
The PSSR course is designed to give a basic induction in safety procedures and accident
prevention and to familiarize one with the working environment on board merchant
ships. The course will meet the competency and training requirements of Section A-VI/1
and Table A VI/1-4 of the STCW Code, as amended in 2010.

The course contains a number of areas:

Personal well-being; Safe Working Practice; Stress in workplace; Emergency Procedures;

Prevention of pollution in the marine environment; Shipboard organization and
understanding shipboard duties; Effective human relationships on board vessels; Human
element; Drug, alcohol and sexual abuse.

Pollution is a common enemy of mankind; and while the land based pollution has been
causing global warming in a more significant way, as a seafarer you do have a serious
responsibility to preserve the purity of the sea and make sure it is not polluted because
of human action onboard. Any major pollution from ship not only creates environmental
disorder, it is also prohibited by law; violation of which could create prison terms for
crew apart from the ship being fined in millions of dollars.

Personnel joining ships must understand how the ship is manned and commanded. There
is no room for misunderstanding orders and instructions which could create accidents. In
doing the shipboard duty, one needs to be aware of the cultural and gender differences
amongst crew members and learn to live and work with different personalities within the
confines of the ship; abide by company procedures and follow legal, moral and ethical
codes of behavior. 

General Learning Objectives

After completing this topic, you should be able to,

 Recognize shipboard emergencies; 

 Know the ways to combat emergencies on board;
 Understand the importance of pollution prevention at sea;
 Know how to take precautions to prevent pollution;
 Know the safe working practices to be practised on shipboard work;
 Understand the importance of good communication on board;
 Know how to be effective in various types of communication;
 Understand the importance and how to maintain good human relationships;
 Know individual rights of crew and protection procedures against harassment;
 Understand the importance of your personal well-being;
 Know how to maintain a healthy life style on board;
 Know how to deal with stress and fatigue;
 Realize the dangers of drug, alcohol and aids at sea.
 Observe safe working practices

 Observe Safe Working Practices

 The changing work place
  Ships are meant to be operated safely, adhering to various regulations, by
competent & experienced personnel. Inspite of having in place, stringent
monitoring & survey systems, casualties by way of collisions, groundings, oil
spillages & many more serious incidents occurring, creating adverse propaganda
in the media. While most of such incidents are real, the fact remains that the
seafarers work 24x7 combating rough seas and storms, piracy threats etc to
name a few. They aim at protecting & preserving assets and environments worth
millions of dollars or more.

 In less than 50 years the shipping industry has completely changed. From an
apprenticeship based approach and a buddy system, long established tradition of
seafaring with a shipowner, for a long career at sea assured, was a different day.
There, a Junior was trained by a group of seniors on board on a daily basis. Each
job and on its each step, there was a senior telling you what to do and what you
must not be doing and why? The long established tradition of such camaraderie
made shipping companies well regarded by the seafarers. If you had worked for a
good shipping company, over 20 years, your training was just rock solid. There
were people who were around you, watching, instructing, helping, sometimes
yelling (when you made major mistakes). But the safety consciousness and work
ethics were synergistic and well-honed into the life of a trainee officer.

 From those days, till today, safe working practice has been a key factor in making
the onboard workers safe. With more technology application on ships, the
seafarer needs more education and training to keep himself and others safe while
at work on board. With less number of crew, a more sophisticated workplace with
higher technology, it is only more challenging.

 The media below explains about the Automation  Affecting on
Performance.
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 The media below is the continuation of the previous media
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

Observe safe working practicesAdhering to safe working practices

Adhering to Safe Working Practices

The Code of Safe Working Practices relating to seafarers indicates that one should: 

 Take reasonable care for their own health and safety and that of others on board
who may be affected by their acts or omissions; 
 Co-operate with anyone else carrying out health and safety duties - including
compliance with control measures identified during the employer’s or Company’s
evaluation of risk; 
 Report any identified serious hazards or deficiencies immediately to the
appropriate officer or other authorized person; 
 Make proper use of plant and machinery, and treat any hazard to health or safety
(such as a dangerous substance) with due caution.
This Code is addressed to everyone on a ship regardless of rank because the
recommendations can be effective only if they are understood by all and if all cooperate
in their implementation. Those not themselves actually engaged in a job in hand should
be aware of what is being done, so that they may avoid putting themselves at risk or
those concerned at risk by impeding or needlessly interfering with the conduct of the
work.

Everyday work on board involving cargo, engine room maintenance, entering and
maintaining tanks, pumping operations, berthing and unberthing and many other ship
operations require application of complex processes involving man, material and
machine exposed within an environment, that could be ever-changing (for a ship that is
always changing: at sea, in harbour, in the yard and so on). You are trying to implement
a process of work during ship operations or ship maintenance which could be risky (at
differing degrees), present procedural complexity needing high level of expertise and the
procedure could spring an unexpected failure causing accidents to cause injury, death
and destruction to the ship and the environment.

A simple slip of non-adherence to SOP could create a fire, flooding and foundering. So,
the importance of the COSWP should be like a working Bible for all on board. Each crew
is provided with a copy and it makes a good bedside reading for a well-deserved
peaceful rest, since you shall be aware of all the shipboard hazards and know how to
address those, when needed.

So the importance of this code is to inculcate a safety mind-set on board by,

 Risk Assessment before doing any work

 Awareness of Hazards to self and others in the work area
 Follow Safety procedures as SOP following the Safety Management System
(under ISM Code)
 Understand the personal precautions including attire and equipment for the jobs
undertaken
 Be aware of their rights under the COSWP and Report any violation of the safe
working practices including Health and Hygiene issues

Hazards on board vessels range in severity. You should never commence or allow work
without adhering to safe working practices, as detailed in the shipboard safety manuals
and equipment manuals. The safe working practices (SWP) are part of basic training
program of certification for the crew. But to understand the importance of SWP, you
need to recognize the variety of hazard situation that you are likely to encounter on a
ship and how to be working safely in those various environments.

One of the precondition for work safety is your attire:

This may include:

 High-visibility clothing;
 Life-jackets and/or ‘dry suits’;
 Gloves;
 Overalls;
 Non-slip and anti-static footwear (usually with toe protection);
 Safety helmets;
 Ear and Eye Protectors
 Safety Harnesses
 Intrinsically safe (IS) torch or working light (equipment that is safe to use in a
flammable atmosphere).
Observe safe working practicesShip familiarization

Ship Familiarization

Responsibilities of companies

The company shall provide written instructions to the master of each ship to which the STCW
Convention applies, setting forth the policies and the procedures to be followed to ensure that all
seafarers who are newly employed on board the ship are given a reasonable opportunity to become
familiar with the shipboard equipment, operating procedures and other arrangements needed for
the proper performance of their  duties,  before  being  assigned  to  those  duties.  Such policies and
procedures shall include:

1. Allocation of a reasonable period of time during which each newly employed seafarer will
have an opportunity to become acquainted with:
1.1 The specific equipment the seafarer will be using or operating;
1.2. Ship-specific watchkeeping, safety, environmental protection, security and emergency
procedures and arrangements the seafarer needs to know to perform the assigned duties
properly; and

2. Designation of a knowledgeable crew member who will be responsible for ensuring that an
opportunity is provided to each newly employed seafarer to receive essential information in
a language the seafarer understands.

The master should take all steps necessary to implement any company instructions. Such steps
should include:

1. Identifying all seafarers who are newly employed on board the ship before they  are
assigned to any duties;

2. Providing the opportunity for all newly arrived seafarers to:

2.1 Visit the spaces in which their primary duties will be performed;
2.2 Get acquainted with the location, controls and display features of equipment they
will be operating or using;
2.3 Activate the equipment when possible, and perform functions, using the controls on
the equipment; and
2.4 Observe and ask questions of someone who is already familiar with the equipment,
procedures and other arrangements, and who can communicate information in a language
which the seafarer understands; and

3. Providing for a suitable period of supervision when there is any doubt that a newly
employed seafarer is familiar with the shipboard equipment, operating procedures and
other arrangements needed for the proper performance of his or her duties.

Safety familiarization training

Before being assigned to shipboard duties, all persons employed or engaged on a seagoing ship,
other than passengers, shall receive approved familiarization training in personal survival techniques
or receive sufficient information and instruction, to be able to:

1. Communicate with other persons on board on elementary safety matters and understand
safety information symbols, signs and alarm signals;
 2. Know what to do if:
2.1 A person falls overboard,
2.2 Fire or smoke is detected, or
2.3 The fire or abandon ship alarm is sounded;

3. Identify muster and embarkation stations and emergency escape routes;

4. Locate and don lifejackets;

5. Raise the alarm and have basic knowledge of the use of portable fire extinguishers;

6. Take immediate action upon encountering an accident or other medical emergency before
seeking further medical assistance on board; and

7. Close and open the fire, weathertight and watertight doors fitted in the particular ship other
than those for hull openings.

Basic training

Seafarers employed or engaged in any capacity on board ship on the business of that ship as part of
the ship’s complement with designated safety or pollution-prevention duties in the operation of the
ship shall, before being assigned to any shipboard duties:

Receive appropriate approved basic training or instruction in -

1. Personal survival techniques 

2. Fire prevention and fire fighting 

3. Elementary first aid, and

4. Personal safety and social responsibilities 

Parties may accept onboard training and experience for maintaining the required standard of
competence in the following areas:

Personal survival techniques:

 Don a lifejacket;

 Board a survival craft from the ship, while wearing a lifejacket;

 Take initial actions on boarding a lifeboat to enhance chance of survival;

 Stream a lifeboat drogue or sea-anchor;

 Operate survival craft equipment; and

 Operate location devices, including radio equipment;

 Fire prevention and fire fighting :

 Use self-contained breathing apparatus; and

 Effect a rescue in a smoke-filled space, using an approved smoke-generating device aboard,

while wearing a breathing apparatus.

Crew members

Seafarers who are newly assigned to a ship should take full advantage of every opportunity provided
to become familiar with the shipboard equipment, operating procedures and other arrangements
needed for the proper performance of their duties. Immediately upon arriving on board for the first
time, each seafarer has the responsibility to become acquainted with the ship’s working
environment, particularly with respect to new or unfamiliar equipment, procedures or
arrangements.

Seafarers who do not promptly attain the level of familiarity required for performing their duties
have the obligation to bring this fact to the attention of their supervisor or to the attention of the
crew member designated, and to identify any equipment, procedure or arrangement which remains
unfamiliar.
Observe safe working practicesShip familiarizationTypes of Ships and Cargoes

Types of Ships and Cargoes

Types of Ships

Cargo Ships Passenger Ships

Dry Cargo Liquid Cargo Cruise Liner

  Type of Ship / Type of Cargo  

General Cargo General Cargo (eg.:) Oil Tankers Oil Ferries

Boxes, Machinery, etc.

Container Vessel Containers Chemical Chemicals  

Tankers

Bulk Carriers Bulk Cargoes, (Ore, Gas Tankers Liquefied Gases  

Grain, Coal, Cement,
etc.,)

Roll On – Roll Off Trucks, trailers, Cars      

Vessel and other vehicles

Other ships: Tug Boats, Offshore supply vessels, Barges

Observe safe working practicesShip familiarizationTypes of Ships and CargoesGeneral
Cargo ships

General Cargo Ships

General cargo ships are the oldest form of cargo ships which used to carry various forms
of cargoes at the same time, but in smaller parcels. Goods carried  individually, unitized
or palletized in boxes, barrels, bales, crates, packages or bundles, are called general
cargoes. Such cargo is generally carried in non-specialized compartments. These ships
have their own arrangements for loading and discharging of cargo. You will generally find
a lot of combinations of derricks, cranes, purchases etc on the decks of these ships to
facilitate the operations.

Pallets are wooden tray like structures supported by bearers. When loaded, the whole
load can be moved by mechanical means, such as a fork lift. Pallets are available in
certain standard sizes, where 40" × 48" (100 cm x 122 cm) is the most common among
them. The use of pallets eliminates package handling and reduces labor usage, but it
does not overcome crushing damage, the stowage factor is increased due to loss of
space and there can be a reduction in stability.

General arrangement of a General Cargo ship

A detailed view of the General Cargo ship and its equipment and parts that you must
familiarize yourself with:
Observe safe working practicesShip familiarizationTypes of Ships and CargoesGeneral Cargo
shipsMultipurpose Ships

Multipurpose Ships
 Multipurpose ships are appropriately named. They are designed and built to carry
a variety of cargoes and are therefore extremely adaptable and flexible. As they
are designed to carry all the types of cargoes associated with an infrastructure
project, multipurpose ships have the capability to handle cargo as diverse as roll-
on/roll-off cargo, containers, bulk liquid and dry bulk parcels. The ability to carry
a diversity of cargoes aboard a single ship gives the carrier access to multiple
opportunities for revenue.
 Due to the demand for flexibility, a multipurpose ship has its own heavy lift gear
and is designed with handy cargo spaces below deck enabling it to carry bulk
liquid, dry bulk parcels or ro-ro cargoes. Multipurpose ships are designed with
wide and long open hatchways often leading to a tween deck with access to a
lower hold, which have a strengthened and flat bottom (also called a tank top).
These ships also have the ability to handle some containers on deck.
 A principal feature of a multipurpose ship is its cargo-handling gear, which allows
the ship to load and unload cargoes regardless of whether a shore side crane is
available or not. This feature enables the ships to call at small ports where
infrastructure development is needed. 
 Cargo lashing points are also a feature of multipurpose ships. These are pad eyes
or D-rings to which cargo is secured to prevent it from shifting during transit.
These are located both on deck and inside the holds and tween decks. 
 Generally, a multipurpose ship is capable of achieving a high service speed (18 -
19 knots) and does not have excessive depth or air height that would preclude
calling at some minor ports where valuable cargo might have to be picked up or
delivered. 
  Multipurpose ships generally range in size from around 6000 dwt up to 30,000
dwt. The smaller sizes may operate profitably as purely project cargo carriers, but
operators of the larger size ships need other breakbulk cargo, such as forest
products in order to operate properly.

Types of Multipurpose Ships

Not all multipurpose ships are the same. In fact, there is a large variety of ships that fall
into the category of multipurpose ships. These include heavy lift carriers, tween deckers,
and combination ro-ro/container ships.

Characteristic Features of the Heavy Lift Carrier

The cargo lifting equipment on the heavy lift carrier is in the form of cranes mounted on
pedestals situated on the port side of the ship’s deck. This positioning of equipment
provides a greater reach to lift cargo, thus improving its flexibility in accessing cargo off
a wider dock area. Secondary cargo handling cranes are situated on the centerline
forward and abaft of the heavy lift cranes. They serve the secondary hatches where
comparatively lighter breakbulk cargo is handled and stowed.

Characteristic Features of the Tweendecker

A tween deck ship or tween decker is designed to provide greater flexibility for cargo
stowage. With a tween deck, the center of gravity of the cargo is raised. This enables the
ship to be more stable during transit. Some tweendecker ships have side door openings,
which enable weather protected handling of sensitive products, like paper rolls. The ship
can carry containers, but has been designed with the flexibility to accept a wide range of
non-containerized cargoes.

The vessel has cargo holds, with large hatch openings. Flexibility is derived from the
adjustable height and removable nature of the tweendecks. The tweendeck covers can
be locked into position at three levels or deployed as portable grain bulkheads.

Characteristic Features of Combination Ro-Ro Container Ships

Some ships are designed as ro-ro/container ships. They carry only containers on deck
and ro-ro cargo below deck. The below deck cargo is loaded not through a hold, as with
heavy lift ships, but via a ramp at the stern of the ship. These ships are capable of
carrying wide variety of project and breakbulk cargoes. Any non containerized cargo that
it carries must be rolled onto the ship via the stern ramp, a different type of loading
procedure.

All the multipurpose ship types have special features for the particular trade in which
each ship is primarily engaged. However, they differ in certain unique features such as
the heavy lift gear, mechanical side doors, and ro-ro ramps.

A ship operator has to make important decisions while ordering a new vessel, regarding
the features to be fitted onboard a new ship, as this determines if the ship would
continue to be a valuable earning asset over its commercial lifespan.

Observe safe working practicesShip familiarizationTypes of Ships and CargoesContainer Ships

Container Ships

Shipping lines implemented various unitization measures in order to reduce theft and discharge the
same amount of cargo, which was loaded at the load port. Pre-slinging of cargoes, palletization,
barge-carrying ships, ro-ro ships and containerization are all examples of unitization.
You will find most of the goods are transported in containers today and the container ship is the
heart of intermodal transportation. Containerization is a system of packing smaller parcels into one
larger package for the ease of handling during transportation. In the last few decades there has been
a major shift from transporting individual items of cargo in general cargo ships to transporting
prepacked standardized containers suitable for carriage by road, rail and sea, in specially designed
container ships.

Container Ships on Liner Trade

The ships used in the liner sector have changed radically from the traditional liner ships of the WWII
era to the highly sophisticated fully cellular container ships of today. The earlier container ships were
all of the converted type. Over the years, their size has increased tremendously. Generally, they are
classed based on the number of 20ft containers (TEUs) they can carry.

The larger container ships that call only a limited number of load and discharge ports are referred to
as mother ships. Feeder ships are smaller ships that transship the containers to or from the larger
ports to the smaller ports in the region.

The media given below explain about the Types of Container Ships.
The following media is the continuation of the previous media.

The following media is the continuation of the previous media.

Development of specialized containers with a wide range of types, sizes and configurations permits
containerization of many cargoes. The main advantages of containerization are:

 Low handling cost;

 Limited labor for handling;

 Loss due to damages in transit/handling is reduced or eliminated;

 Pilferage loss is eliminated;

 Increases rate of loading and discharging in ports;

 Dunnage requirement is eliminated;

 Reduces losses due to broken stowage.

Materials used for the construction of containers depend on the nature of the cargo to be carried
and the way they are handled. Some basic materials generally used are steel, aluminium, fiberglass,
reinforced plastic, wood and GRP (glass reinforced plastic). All these are susceptible to a degree of
corrosion or damage due to certain chemicals.

Various types of containers are constructed in line with the standards set by International Standard
Organization (ISO) as illustrated in the graphic below:

Containers are designed for multi-modal transportation ie, by ships, trucks, railcar, barges and by air.
The container ships are categorized by their capacities.

The use of intermodal containers for the transport of a great variety of cargo has become
increasingly popular in recent years. The popular intermodal container, adaptable to carriage by
truck chassis, railcar, barge and ocean-going vessels, is the most common form of containerization.
The considerations governing preparation and stowage of the cargo in these containers are
applicable to other methods of cargo transport as well.

Container Securing arrangements

Observe safe working practicesShip familiarizationTypes of Ships and CargoesBulk Carriers

Bulk Carriers

A bulk carrier is a merchant ship specially designed to transport unpackaged bulk cargo, such as
grain, coal, ore, and cement, in its cargo holds. Since the first specialized bulk carrier was built in
1852, economic forces have led to continued development of these ships, resulting in increased size
and sophistication. Today's bulk carriers are specially designed to maximize capacity, safety,
efficiency, and durability.

There are a large variety of bulk carriers at present. They range from small 100 metre long to
massive 350,000 tonnes capacity. Modern day bulk carriers are characterised by a single screw type
vessel with a high block coefficient. It should have low water flow resistance which will enhance its
power. Further, the flow of water towards the rudder and propeller should be sufficient, considering
the body shape.

A solid bulk cargo means the goods which are solids in particle or granular form, with or without
moisture. They are generally homogeneous in composition and loaded directly into a vessel's cargo
spaces without bagging or packaging. Coal, sulphur, ores, fertilisers and grains are some of the
cargoes carried in bulk.

Bulk Carrier

Observe safe working practicesShip familiarizationTypes of Ships and CargoesCombination Carriers

Combination Carriers

A general term applied to ships intended for carriage of both oil and dry cargoes in bulk. These
cargoes are not carried simultaneously, except for oil retained in slop tanks. The design of a
combination carrier is similar to a conventional bulk carrier but such a ship is equipped with
pipelines, pumps and inert gas plant.

 Oil/Bulk/Ore (OBO) carrier – A single-deck ship of double skin construction, with a double
bottom, hopper side tanks and topside tanks fitted below the upper deck and intended for
the carriage of oil or dry cargoes, including ore, in bulk.

 Ore/Oil carrier – A single-deck ship having two longitudinal bulkheads and a double bottom
throughout the cargo region and intended for carriage of ore cargoes in the centre holds or
oil cargoes in the centre holds and wing tanks.

Combination carrier
Observe safe working practicesShip familiarizationTypes of Ships and CargoesRo-Ro ships

Ro-Ro ships

Roll-on Roll-off (Ro-Ro) uses a non-container cargo handling system. Thee cargo units have wheels or
tracks and the means to be rolled either by own power or pushed or pulled by external motive
power into a ship. A Ro-Ro ship is a ship designed with extensive covered decks within the hull with
ramps or elevators to stow these cargo units.
Ro-Ro ships may be specialized with some ships designed as pure car-carriers and others designed to
carry heavy rolling units with deckhead height to accommodate large dimensioned cargo types and
decks reinforced to carry extra weight. Certain Ro-Ro ships are assigned to military use capable of
carrying an armored brigade together with its wheeled or tracked units and support vehicles.

Ro-Ro ships have a stern ramp or supplementary side ramp for handling cargo. Stern ramps are wide
mechanical road links between the dock and the ship. Decks within a Ro-Ro ship vary in height in
accordance with the cargo to be carried. Car decks have minimal deckhead height clearance just
adequate to accommodate regular automobiles. Areas used for project cargo and large cargo units
have substantial overhead clearance that may even permit stacking of non-wheeled cargo units on
top of one another.
Observe safe working practicesShip familiarizationTypes of Ships and CargoesOil Tankers

Oil Tankers
Various liquid cargoes are transported by sea on tankers. There are two basic types of oil
tankers. One is the crude oil tanker which carries mostly a single grade of crude oil.
Some of the ULCC's (ultra large crude carriers) can be up to 500,000 Dead weight.

The other type of tanker is the product carrier which can carry different grades of cargo
at the same time. These are generally smaller than the crude oil tankers.
 Oil Tanker

Plan view of Oil tanker

 Midship Section of Double Hull Tanker

In addition to classifying vessels as crude tankers and product tankers, they can be
further sub-categorized. While most tankers are built to bring oil from one port to
another, there are replenishment oilers which ferry fuel to vessels at sea in order to
refuel them. Then there are the mother ships which stay only in deeper waters and brink
bulk oil from oil wells at deep sea to outer deep water limits of ports. The lightering
vessels load oil from the mother ships and discharge to shore refineries. Sometimes sea-
bound tankers are used as floating storage units when they become too old or
uneconomical to operate.

A typical Oil Tanker picture shows its various equipment and parts listed:
There are certain terms exclusively used to describe oil tankers for their categorization:

 Single Hull-hull construction means that the ship has only one skin between the
sea water and the loaded oil inside the vessel. These types are no longer in
production and existing ones are being banned in most countries.
 Double Hull - Double-hull construction means that the ship has two hulls, one
inside the other like a double skin. It is a mandatory design feature on newly built
oil tankers. This offers an extra layer of protection if the tanker is damaged in
accident that might otherwise result in catastrophic oil spills.
 OBO – An OBO or ore-bulk-oil carriers have been made with the idea of bringing
something on the return leg of their trips, so that they can make money both
ways. Hence bulk iron ore is carried on return trips, in the same compartment
which had oil previously.
 LR1 - Large Range 1 - tankers have a DWT between 45,000 to 80,000 tonnes
 LR2 - Large Range 2 - tankers have a DWT between 80,000 and 159,999 tonnes 
 VLCC - Very Large Crude Carriers carry between 160,000 and 319,999 DWT. Oil
carriers of this size and above are known as supertankers.
 ULCC - Ultra Large Crude Carriers are the largest oceangoing vessels - their
deadweight tonnage is 320,000 tonnes and above. These are mammoth giants
and are comparable in length to the height of some of the world's tallest buildings

Observe safe working practicesShip familiarizationTypes of Ships and CargoesChemical

Tankers

Chemical Tankers
Chemical Tanker operations differ from any other liquid bulk transportation, in that a
large number of cargoes of different properties and characteristics and inherent hazards
may be carried simultaneously, on a single voyage, and that numerous products may be
handled at one berth, typically including both discharge and loading as well as tank
cleaning. Even the less sophisticated chemical tankers are more complex to operate than
oil tankers.

Chemical tanker

Observe safe working practicesShip familiarizationTypes of Ships and CargoesGas Carriers

Gas Carriers

Gas carriers range in capacity from the small pressurised tankers of between 500 and 6,000
m3 (17600 and 212000 sq.ft.) for shipment of propane, butane and the chemical gases at ambient
temperature up to the fully insulated or refrigerated seagoing tankers of over 100,000 m 3 (3500000
sq.ft.) capacity for the transport of LNG and LPG. Between those two distinct types is a third tanker
type – semi-pressurised gas carrier. These very flexible tankers are able to carry many cargoes in a
fully refrigerated condition at atmospheric pressure or at temperatures corresponding to carriage
pressure of between five and nine bar.

LNG Carrier
LPG Carrier

LPG Carrier

The basic cargo tank types (containment systems)utilized on board gas carriers are:

 Independent (Self supporting, Not part of hull structure) Type 'A' (fully refrigerated.)

 Independent (Self supporting, Not part of hull structure) Type 'B' (typical LNG tank)

 Independent (Self supporting, Not part of hull structure) Type 'C' (fully pressurized)

 Membrane (typical LNG tank)

Observe safe working practicesShip familiarizationTypes of Ships and CargoesPassenger Ships

Passenger Ships

A passenger ship is specially designed and equipped for the transport of persons. According to the
provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) any ship with
accommodation for more than 12 passengers is a passenger ship. Persons other than passengers are
regarded as crew.

Passenger ship
Passenger liner

Observe safe working practicesShip familiarizationNautical Terms – Parts of the Ship

Nautical Terms – Parts of the Ship

Ship construction today is a complicated mix of art and science. In the earlier days, vessels were
designed and built on the basis of practical experience and construction was predominantly a
traditional skill. With the rapid growth and development of the physical sciences, the process
involved today has become a scientific approach based on engineering technology and applied
research.

Terminology in ship construction is a collection of terms and will help you understand the ships'
vocabulary. 

So, Let us start with some simple terms:

 Bow is the front end of the ship.

 Forward means towards the bow.

 Stern is the back end of the ship.

 Aft is towards the stern.

 Port side is the left side of the ship when looking forward.

 Starboard side is the right side of the ship when looking forward.

 Deck is the part of the structure of ship is known as a floor or level. (This would be the first
level of a building on shore).

 Shell is the outer skin of the vessel comprising the uppermost continuous deck, the sides
and the bottom of the vessel.

 Bulkhead of a ship is like the internal wall of a building.

 Hull is the steel structure of the ship.

 Depth is the vertical distance between the uppermost continuous deck and the bottom of
the vessel at its mid-length.

 Draft is the vertical distance from the water level outside the ship to the bottom of the ship.
Draught is usually marked on the port and starboard sides of a ships hull at the bow, stern
and in the midships section.

 MEAN DRAUGHT is the average of the readings of draught taken at all the six positions.
Forward (P & S), Midships (P & S) and Aft (P & S).

Principal Dimensions

The principal dimensions of a vessel are those used for performing basic calculations. They are
length (L), breadth (B) and draft (d). In some instances depth (D) is also used. Use the menu in the
graphic given below, to explore the principal dimensions of a ship and other terms relevant to our
study.
The following media explains about the Principal Dimensions:

Ship Dimensions:

 Length Overall is the horizontal distance between extreme fore and aft of a ship measured
along its greatest length.

 Forward perpendicular is the point where the design summer load waterline crosses the
forward most section of the hull.

 After perpendicular is a perpendicular drawn at the point where the aft end of the ship's
rudder post meets the summer load waterline. If there is no rudder post then it is taken
from the centreline of the rudder stock.

 Length between perpendiculars is the horizontal distance between the forward and after
perpendiculars measured along the summer loadline.

 Midships is a point midway between the forward and aft perpendiculars.

 Depth is the height of a ship at the midship from the base line to the moulded line of the
deck at the ship’s side.

 Moulded depth is the height of a ship at midship from top of the keel to underside of the
deck at the ship’s side.

 Extreme depth is the height of a ship at midship from bottom of the keel to top of the deck
beam at the ship’s side.

 Draft is the vertical distance measured from keel to designed loadline.

 Moulded draft is the vertical distance measured from the top of the keel to the designed
loadline.

 Extreme draft is the vertical distance measured from bottom of the keel to designed
loadline.

 Freeboard is the vertical distance from waterline to upper edge of the deck line measured
amidships at the ship’s side.

 Statutory freeboard is the vertical distance from upper edge of the summer loadline to
upper edge of the deck line measured amidship at the ship’s side.

Observe safe working practicesShip familiarizationNautical Terms – Parts of the ShipForecastle

Forecastle

The foc’sle or forecastle is the forward deck of the ship. It derives its name from sailing ship days
when the raised forward deck was known as the forecastle. This was typically a raised, castle like
structure where archers first could engage enemy ships.
Forecastle
Equipment on the Forecastle of a ship

Legend:

1. Windlass

2. Chain cable compress

3. Hawse pipe

4. Anchor chain

5. Bollard

6. Fair leader

7. Mooring pipe

8. Deck end roller

9. Wire reel

10. Cowl head ventilator

11. Derrick boom

12. Boom support

13. Air and sounding pipe

14. Flag staff

15. Anchor davit

16. Stockless anchor

17. Anchor shackle

18. Anchor shank, Anchor shaft

19. Anchor crown

20. Anchor arm

21. Anchor palm

22. Anchor fluke

23. Anchor light davit

24. Open rail

25. Hand rail stanchion

26. Hand rail

27. Anchor recess

28. Bow chock

29. Bell mouth of hawse pipe

30. Deck Flange hawse pipe

31. Observe safe working practicesShip familiarizationNautical Terms – Parts of the

ShipPoop Deck
32. Poop Deck
33. A poop deck is essentially the stern deck of the ship. It is also a term used in
naval architecture to define the roof of the cabin on the aft part of the ship.
34.
35.

36.
37.

38.
Observe safe working practicesShip familiarizationNautical Terms – Parts of the
ShipAccommodation

Accommodation
Accommodation of a ship is the living space having cabins for ship’s crew
are located, along with galley, provision stores & refrigeration, mess
rooms, recreational rooms, gymnasium, meeting rooms, lockers, etc. The
accommodation area requires water supply, sewage system, air
conditional system.

Accommodation blocks on ships

 A Typical Accommodation Deck of a ship
Observe safe working practicesShip familiarizationNautical Terms – Parts of the ShipBridge

Bridge
The bridge of a ship is the room from which the ship can be commanded. When a ship is
under way, the bridge is manned by an officer of the watch aided usually by an able
seaman (rating) acting as lookout. During critical maneuvers the Captain will be on the
bridge, often supported by an officer of the watch, an able seaman on the wheel and
sometimes a pilot, if required. 

The ship’s bridge serves as a controlling and commanding station for the entire ship. We
can control all the machinery and ship’s navigation from the bridge. This provides a
common platform for the ship’s alarms and controlling station for on board machinery.

All systems and equipment must meet IMO standards and must be approved by the
administration to be installed in the bridge. Electrical and electronic equipment shall be
so installed that the electromagnetic interference does not affect proper functioning of
navigation systems and equipment. Safety of navigation depends on proper, efficient,
and timely use of these aids. All these aids must be checked from time to time for their
performance and accuracy. Errors and deviations must be logged. All navigating officers
must be familiar with their use.

The common activities carried out on bridge can be broadly grouped as

 Navigation and position fixing

 Control of ship's speed and direction
 Lookout and avoidance of collision
 Monitoring weather and sea condition
 Communication, both external and internal
 The Bridge of a Ship

Another view of the Bridge

Key

1. Chart Table
2. Bridge Console (Section C)
3. Bridge Console (Section B)
4. ECDIS (No.1)
5. X-Band Radar Display Unit
6. Centre Console
7. S-Band Radar Display Unit
8. ECDIS (No.2)
9. Bridge Console (Section J)
10. Bridge Console (Section K)
11. Manoeuvring Console
12. Sliding Chair
13. Periscope of Magnetic Compass
14. Navigation, Signal Lights Control Panels
15. Panorama Type Rudder Angle Indicator
16. Binocular Box
17. Folding Table Lamp with Power Socket
18. Folding Table
19. Power Socket for Day Time
20. SART Radar Transponder
21. 2W Loudspeaker
22. Air Horn Pull Handle
23. Thermometer Box
24. 10W Speaker
25. Flag Locker
26. Chart Console
27. Chart Table with Drawer
28. Chart Table with Bookcase
29. GMDSS Console
30. Radio Table
31. Bookcase
32. Power Socket
33. Table
34. Tea Table
35. Settee/Daybed
36. Power Socket for Refrigerator
37. Refrigerator
38. Side Board with I-Bowl Sink
39. Power Socket for Hot Water Boiler
40. Coffee Machine
41. Power Socket for Coffee Machine
42. Hot Water Boiler
43. Armchair
44. Locker
45. VHF GMDSS Radios
46. Junction Box for VHF GMDSS Radios
47. Microphone for VDR System
48. White Board
49. Pilot Chair
50. UHF Radios
51. Power Socket
52. Switch
53. 2W Speaker
54. Gyro Switch Over Unit
55. Gyrocompass No.2
56. Gyrocompass No.1
57. X-Band Radar Transceiver
58. Isolation Switch for X-Band Radar
59. Scanner Control Unit for S-Band Radar
60. Interswitch of Radar
61. Public Address Main Amplifier
62. Cabinet for SMS Hub
63. Bridge Alarm SIU Cabinet
64. S-Band Radar Transceiver
65. Isolation switch for S-Band Radar
66. Radio Battery
67. General Service Battery
68. No.1 VHF Weatherproof Handset
69. Morse Key for Manoeuvring Light
70. Whistle Pushbutton
71. PAS Microphone Power Socket and Hook
72. Reset Pushbutton for Bridge Watch Alarm with Buzzer
73. Speed Log Indicator
74. Rudder Angle Indicator
75. Main Engine RPM Indicator
76. Gyro Repeater
77. Searchlight
 Maneuvering Characteristics of a Ship

Observe safe working practicesShip familiarizationNautical Terms – Parts of the ShipMonkey Island

Monkey Island
The term “monkey island” refers to a place on the ship which is located at the top
most accessible height. Technically, it is a deck located directly above the navigating
bridge of the ship. It is also referred to as the flying bridge on top of a pilothouse or
chart house, and also as the ship's upper bridge.

The Monkey Island of a Ship

Observe safe working practicesShipboard hazards

Shipboard Hazards
What is dangerous about this job?
One of the most life-threatening situation for every seafarer is a shipwreck. That will
only evoke the requirement of regular drills on the ship for such an emergency.

But hazards that may be encountered during normal operation of a merchant ship at sea
or in port are our focus of concern here. crew work aboard ships and therefore share
hazards common to all seafarers: falling outboard and drowning, slipping, tripping,
getting burned or being injured, falling on deck, from gangways or ladders at sea or in
port, constant lack of stable ground under feet, long separation from families and
friends, lower sides of port life, etc. Most of Seamen's duties involve work on deck or the
engine-room, where they may be injured by mooring lines, hatches, hinged doors, stairs
etc. They must be prepared to withstand sun or rain, tropical heat or polar cold, and
incessant noise and vibration when exposed to the machinery spaces. While handling
cargo, crew may be caved in holds, injured or crushed by heavy items, containers,
loading mechanisms, etc. Being hit by a heavy object or having a steep fall within a
crankcase of a super-long monster engine are all part of his everyday sojourn.

The figure below indicates the areas where hazards exists on board.
Observe safe working practicesShipboard hazardsSlippery surfaces

Slippery Surfaces
Slips and falls cause injuries ranging from severe physical injury to fatality. The main
reasons for slips and falls are:-

 Slippery deck or Engine room floor plate and stairways

 Spilled Cargo wet with weather causing slippery condition
 Slippery railings and stairs
 Accidental spill of oil on deck and in the ER
 Loose stairs, broken railings
 Improper use of catwalks
 Missing grating, railings and stanchions on deck and in the Engine room
 Missing warning signs with openings on deck and ER
 Improper personal protective equipment (PPEs) especially safety shoes and safety
harness
 Lack of situational awareness
 Lack of awareness of the dangers in the job itself
 Absence of safe job analysis

These can be avoided by,

 Cleaning up after work and maintaining the deck and ER  free from oil and other
slippery substances
 Checking on the ship's railings and staircases for maintenance and necessary
repairs
 Follow designated catwalks and correct passages on main deck and avoid
shortcuts
 Using proper non-skid safety shoes on deck and use of safety harness while
working on heights
 Safety and situational awareness
 Being aware of the hazards of the job involved
 Analyzing the hazards and risks that are associated with the job, and
understanding the nature of possible accidents prior commencing the job
Case Study: A recent shipboard Incident

The Oiler was on his way down the ER stairs with a can full of lube oil on his regular job
schedule. As he neared the bottom of the stairway, he heard the Engine Alarm and saw
the Asst Engineer rushing toward the Purifier area. He also saw the Oiler and called him
to follow him. The Oiler, in his hurry, left the can of oil below the staircase and rushed to
help the A/E. Apparently, the purifier water seal broke again! and the A/E wanted the
Oiler to clean up the bowl as soon as possible. The A/E restored the water seal and
reduced the oil delivery from the purifier. The relieving 3rd Engineer joined up for taking
over the watch. The Oiler was told to progress with the Purifier job after stopping the
machine- which the A/E did before he proceeded to leave the ER. While going up the
stairs, he kicked the oil can, which was around the stairs and the oil spilled on the Er
floor. The A/E called out to the Oiler and told him to clean it up and he climbed back the
stairs with his oily shoe, cursing! The Oiler continued to do his task at the purifier. The
3rd Engineer was at the Control Room, unaware of this happenings. Eventually, the 3/E
started on his ER rounds. As he proceeded around the stairways, looking at the Boiler
WL gauge across the staircase, he slipped on the oil and hit his head on the staircase
railings and got knocked out with a yell. The Oiler heard of this, came to his rescue and
raised the ER alarm for more help.

Now let us examine the case:

 Did the Oiler do the right thing by rushing to help out the A/E since he asked?
In the process, he left the oil can just below the stairs, waiting to be spilled.
Certainly not.
 Did the A/E take the right steps after he tripped the oil can? No, he just left
the scene, asking the Oiler to do the clean up; he knew the Oiler is busy at the
Purifier. This was a clear case of breach of responsibility; you cannot leave the ER
or any space, knowing it is in a dangerous condition and he was a party to create
the spill in the first place.
 Could the 3rd Engineer avoid having the slip on the oil? Yes, if he had the
situational awareness! but he did not know, where he was walking and his
attention was diverted that made him unaware of the danger that was around; he
was walking but his focus was on the boiler water level. Fortunately, because he
was wearing a hardhat, he recovered and got away with minor bruises. 

On that, please note, on many occasions the engineers come into the ER, take out their
hardhats and only wear it back when leaving the machinery space. That is highly
dangerous. You can take out your hardhat in the Control room, but never leave the
control room, without wearing the hardhat.

Observe safe working practicesShipboard hazardsStairwells and ladders

Stairwells and Ladders

Jacob's Ladder or Pilot Ladder or Rope Ladder

A Jacob's ladder or Rope Ladder (sometimes referred to as Pilot ladder) is a marine

ladder made of rope or chain with wooden or metal rungs. When conditions are such that
neither a gangway nor a straight ladder can be used to board a vessel, a Jacob's ladder
may be used.

Potential Hazards:

 Workers falling from ladders when boarding barges and river towboats because of
the movement of the vessel or ladder.                                   
 The ladder is the only way that a ship can be climbed upon at choppy anchorage
or river mooring; many accidents are caused due to missing steps on slippery
pilot ladder; crew can also fall from a heaving boat while trying to manipulate
himself on to the ladder; on occasions, crew are crushed between the boat and
the hull and lost their lives.
 Swinging ladder due to ship movement due to bad weather bangs the climber on
the wet steel hull and if the visibility is poor (which can very well be true in spite
of the shipboard lighting), crew can lose their grip and fall off the ladder.
 Structural failure of the ladder causing workers to fall.

Requirements to make them safe: Yes, but you still need to be very careful!

Jacob's ladders must be of the double-rung or flat-tread type and be well-maintained

and properly secured

A Jacob's ladder must either hang without slack from its lashings or be pulled up
entirely.
Other type of Ladders

General requirements

A ship's ladder must:

 Be designed so the angle between the side rails and the horizontal is between 50°
and 70°. The preferred angle is in the range of 60° to 68°.
 Serve only a single platform or landing and have a maximum height of 4 meters
(12 feet).
 Have tread width of at least 130 millimeters (mm) (5 inches), with a non-skid
finish, uniformly spaced (rise) at no more than 305 mm (12 inches). Treads
should be at least 430 mm (17 inches) long, but not longer than 630 mm (24
inches).
 Have a minimum design working load of 1.1 kilo newton (kN) (250 pounds)
applied uniformly to a 90 mm (3.5 inch) strip across the centre of the tread.
 Have handrails provided on both sides of the ladder at approximately 900 mm
(36 inches) above the tread nosing.
 Have a safety guard installed parallel to the slope of the ladder and offset
approximately 150 mm (6 inches) from the rear of the treads. (This guard is to
 stop a worker's leg from passing through to the backside of the ladder if a foot
slips off the back side of the tread.)
 In addition, it should be noted that a ship's ladder is a permanent load-carrying
structure and needs to be properly engineered. Design drawings and
specifications should show all information necessary for the fabrication and
installation of the ship's ladder, including details on how it is to be secured in
place. The completed installation will need to be certified by a professional
engineer as being fabricated and installed in accordance with good engineering
practice.

The user of a ship's ladder must:

 Be instructed on the correct way to use the ladder.

 Face the ladder when ascending or descending.
 Have both hands free to grasp the handrails when using the ladder. Tools or other
items which prevent both hands from being free to grasp the handrails should not
be carried up or down the ladder.
Maintain "three points of contact" when using the ladder. Three points of contact means
two feet and one hand or two hands and one foot in contact with the ladder and
handrails at all times. For shipboard practice and considering hazards that the crew
faces, One would recommend a 4-point contact- with both two hands and two feet firmly
secured to the ladder.

Remember, often the ship's steel ladders are oily and thus slippery. Try and avoid
carrying things on your open hand. When moving tools, use a steel bucket and a rope to
lower/hoist the pail.
 Stairwells

Wells for Fixed Ladders 

The requirements for wells for fixed ladders are as follows: 

 Wells must completely encircle the ladder. 

 Wells must be free of projections. 
 Inside faces of wells on the climbing side of the ladder must extend between 27
inches (68 cm) and 30 inches (76 cm) from the centerline of the step or rung. 
 Inside widths of wells must be at least 30 inches (76 cm).
  Bottoms of wells above the point of access to the bottom of the ladder must be
between 7 feet (2.1 m) and 8 feet (2.4 m)

Gangways and Accommodation Ladders

Fig.1: Gangway
 Fig.2: Accommodation Ladder

Accidental falls from gangways can cause fatal or crippling injuries, but properly rigged
and maintained guarding can prevent those injuries. Both netting configurations
identified here are acceptable for gangways and accommodation ladders, but are not
required for fully guarded means of access.

The accommodation ladder and gangway must:

1. Be firmly secured to the bulwark;

2. Be properly aligned with the means of access to the vessel;
3. Have treads that are at least 600 mm in width and 200 mm in depth, with a
permanent non-slip surface;
4. Be equipped with two handhold stanchions that are not less than 40 mm in
diameter;
5. Extend not less than 1.2 m above the top of the bulwark;
6. Be fitted at the point of boarding or disembarking the vessel not less than 700
mm and not more than 800 mm apart.
Every accommodation ladder and gangway must:

1. Be maintained in a safe condition;

2. Be installed in a manner that reduces movement;
3. Be suitably rigged and maintained to compensate for the movement of the
vessel;
4. Be adequately lighted;
5. As far as practicable, be not be more than a 40° angle to the horizontal plane;
6. Be provided with a lifebuoy that has an attached line and is strategically placed
and ready for immediate use; and
7. Have the mechanical, electrical, gearing, hydraulic and pneumatic systems in
good working order.

The safety netting must be fitted under every part of a ladder, accommodation ladder or
gangway, except if the ladder or gangway and the approaches to it are constructed in a
manner that makes the fitting of a safety net unnecessary or the fitting of a safety net is
not possible.

If a safety net is used, it must:

1. Extend on both sides of the accommodation ladder or gangway for a distance of

1.8 m and be kept taut at all times;
2. As far as practicable, protect the entire length of the means of access; and
3. If a platform is provided at the bottom of a means of access, the platform must
be flat and horizontal

Observe safe working practicesShipboard hazardsDimly lit areas

Dimly Lit Areas

There are many areas on board a ship that are dimly lit and difficult to work or go
through during the ship operation. The ship's deck is mostly dimly lit and crew members
need to make a passage from the accommodation to the after or the forward deck areas
on many occasions. One common area at the stern is the Steering Compartment and the
other in the forward section will be the chain locker and the deck stores area. Yet
another such location will be the vicinity of the funnel uptake area.

When you are working within a tank or a confined space like a boiler, they are essentially
dark inside. While you must have them well lighted using portable lighting, they have
gone off at times, leaving the crew in the dark inside. Under such work exposure, never
forget to carry an intrinsically safe flashlight that will come to your rescue.

The ship's crew normally uses portable flashlights to navigate through the passages with
less light, but in many occasions, they tend to take things for granted and believe, they
know their ships so well, that they can see through the darkness. Cases of tripping
against unseen or unobserved obstructions have caused shipboard injuries.

On many occasions, the light bulbs blow due to vibration and other reasons. The
locations that are not always walked, remain with a damaged lighting; thereby creating
not only an unsafe condition for work, but a potentially dangerous condition that could
go unnoticed.
On a number of vessels it was seen that the exhaust boiler gas temperature at the
funnel area, remains the same through all watches, as reported in the ER logbook. This
is a sign that people either are not visiting that location, or the light bulb has blown
there, making the reading of the pyrometer difficult, especially without a flashlight. That
could escalate into a scenario of boiler uptake fire- just because of lack of illumination.

So, remain alert and careful and always always carry your life saver flashlight along.

Observe safe working practicesShipboard hazardsAreas of moving machinery

Areas of Moving Machinery

Moving machinery are all over the ship, especially there will be a huge collection within
the machinery space. Moving rotating or reciprocating machinery, if comes into contact
with human limbs will certainly crush or severe that body part. In its less severe form, a
rotating machine will cause abrasion, bruise or cuts. You have to remember that any
moving machinery is under power and being run by a prime-mover: mostly a motor, a
diesel or a steam engine- movement could also be done by hydraulic or pneumatic
means. But realise that when the machine is running, by your getting entangled  into it
will not automatically stop that machine. It will depend on the obstruction it experience
against the prime mover inertia to continue running, irrespective of who or what might
be the restriction. This is fundamentally the reason for severe accidents with moving
machinery.

All moving machineries are protected by guards to protect accidental objects getting into
the machine. However, sometimes these guards could be taken away for maintenance
and not secured back. That is one thing that you should observe to ensure that going
around the machine is safe.

Next will be your attire. How are you protecting yourself by using PPE; your overall
which must be with sleeve and buttoned. Your open pockets, properly secured. Your
hand tools all counted and kept neatly in a box or a bucket. Your protective gears for the
eyes and the ear; your gloves to protect your skin, in case there are hot fluid that needs
to be handled etc. Not to mention the hardhat and the safety shoes. Tie your hair, if too
long.

Going around the moving machinery and before you do any maintenance work, make
sure you have sufficient lighting and ventilation. When you are working with a machine
such as a grinder or a lather machine, always wear your goggles- metal particles will fly
around during the work process. Do not ever put your hands anywhere near a moving
belt drive or gears. Working on any cutting machine is dangerous and i can cause body
injury with a second of your wrongdoing. Even the simple hand drills have pierced many
fingers!

So, remember: Good lighting, space around the moving machine; correct attire and PPE;
full attention and skills application until the work is completed. Machines are not aware
of human vulnerability and you cannot blame a machine for your lapses.

Observe safe working practicesShipboard hazardsProper lifting techniques

Proper Lifting Techniques

Lifting Loads

Proper techniques should be employed while lifting loads manually or mechanically to

avoid personal injuries as well as damages to the equipment being lifted. A sound
knowledge of lifting points and the centre of gravity helps in effective lifting. Single
handed manual lifting of excessive loads should be avoided. Manual lifting of excessive
loads often leads to serious body injuries especially to spine. Mechanical means of lifting
heavy equipment should be used wherever possible.

The following media explains about the Safe Working Practices:

Engine room crane:

Engine room cranes are used for lifting machinery parts and equipment in the engine
room. The most commonly used engine room crane is an electrically operated type.
Engine room cranes should never be overloaded and should be operated by competent
personnel within Safe Working Load (SWL) limit. Lifting eye-bolts, shackles, wire/rope
slings, lifting straps should be used at appropriate lifting points.
Hoisting and lowering should be carried out only when all personnel involved in the
operation are informed about the intended action. Personnel should stand clear of the
load being lifted. The crane should be secured firmly when not in use.

Securing Engine Room crane

1. In port it may be enough to secure the crane hook to a strong point and switching
off power to the crane.
2. While preparing for a sea passage, fore- aft and port-starboard movement must
be arrested by engaging the manual clamps on the trackway and at the trolley
respectively.
Engine Room Crane
Lifting appliances should be maintained strictly as per the manufacturer's instructions.
All markings regarding Safe Working Load (SWL) and the maximum and minimum
working angles should be marked in a conspicuous location on the crane. The crane
should always be operated within safe limits. Failure to operate within the limits can
cause excessive loads on the crane, leading to deformation.

Routine maintenance and inspection should be carried out according to the planned
maintenance schedule as per the manufacturer's instructions.

Observe safe working practicesShipboard hazardsElectrical hazards

Electrical Hazards
Every electrical equipment used onboard should be of an approved design and should be
manufactured in accordance with the latest performance standards and satisfy SOLAS
requirements for marine applications. Electrical equipment should be maintained
properly and handled by professionally trained personnel onboard.

Minimum safety standards should be complied with as required by the SOLAS convention
and other national and international regulations.

The ship's staff should be aware of the hazards involved with electrical equipment that
carry large amounts of current. Before carrying out any work on electrical equipment,
"Safety precautions" (PDF, 115kb) should be followed.

Batteries
Batteries are an important source for providing power when there is a failure in the main
supply. The power in the battery is generated through a chemical reaction. A battery
consists of two electrodes, an anode and a cathode, which are made of different
materials. These electrodes are immersed in a chemical solution called the electrolyte.
The electrodes react with the electrolyte to provide the necessary power.
The batteries are stored in a battery room onboard ships which must comply with SOLAS
requirements for a battery room. The chemical reaction in the batteries can generate
toxic and flammable fumes within the battery room. Proper ventilation should be carried
out before entering the battery room and due care should be exercised while working
near the battery room.

Before entering the battery room, the exhaust fan should be started using the power
switch provided outside the room. This is a special circuit wherein turning on the switch
does not start the electric lights, but the exhaust fan. The exhaust fan is started so as to
expel any hydrogen vapours inside the battery compartment. After 5 to 7 minutes, lights
start to glow and the operator can then make an entry. Proper safety gear such as
specified rubber gloves, face shields and intrinsically safe instruments should be used
while handling batteries.

Electrical Equipment Precautions

MEO Class IV - SSEP

Shipboard Practices

Safe Working Pract ices

Safet y precaut ions w hile using elect r ical equipment

􀁺 All personnel should be familiarised with the ship’s electrical systems and equipment.

􀁺 Indications on the switchboard should be understood so that faults can be easily identifi ed.

􀁺 Manuals pertaining to electrical equipment should be fi rst read before it is put into operation.

􀁺 The manufacturer’s guidelines should be incorporated in the ship’s planned maintenance

structure. This will help in proper maintenance.

􀁺 Working near live equipment should be avoided as it can jeopardise the safety of the personnel

working on the equipment. In situations where this is not possible, more stringent precautions

should be adhered to.

􀁺 A suitable notice should be posted at the work site. This will forewarn other personnel who are

not directly involved with such work. Equipment should be opened for maintenance work only

after ensuring that the supply of current is shut down and the fuses are removed.

􀁺 Before opening control panels of electrical equipment, it has to be ensured that the circuits are

dead. This has to be checked using an approved voltage tester. Until this has been checked, no

personnel should touch conductors and terminals.

􀁺 It has to be ensured that all guards, covers and doors are securely fi tted and properly bolted in

place after the maintenance work on electrical equipment has been completed. The absence of

proper guards are a serious hazard to personnel.

􀁺 Bus bars must be earthed before starting work in order to remove residual electrical charge
and “must remember to disconnect ear thing before charging the busbar .” Electrical

equipments should not be run in overload condition. All personnel should be familiar with normal

indications on switchboard instruments and lamps so that abnormal operation can be quickly

detected. In case of work on 440V bus bar, appropriate work permit and check list are to be

obtained / fulfi lled.

􀁺 The offi cer of the watch has to be informed well in advance when an equipment is being shut

down for maintenance.

􀁺 A notice of instructions on the treatment for electric shock, should be posted in every space

containing electrical equipment and switchgear. Immediate on-the-spot treatment of an

unconscious person is essential to ensure his survival.

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Observe safe working practicesShipboard hazardsHot surfaces

Hot Surfaces
Hot surfaces can occur out of hot work undertaken on board by welding or when at the
yard by the yard workers. The areas on which welding work has been carried out will
remain hot after work is completed. So, you must be aware of that.

Hot surfaces are also present in many parts of the engine room where hot oil and steam
is carried through lagged piping. The line valves are also potential source of hot
fluid/steam leakage that can cause burn injuries. Controlling the hot work area with
notice will be a regulatory must so as to prevent accidental movement of unqualified
people getting into the hotspot areas.

You are required to use proper welding or hot work PPEs while undertaking such tasks.
For any other hot surface related work, another potential risk area will be the ship's
galley where you use hotplates and ovens for cooking. The same precautions are
warranted there.

For all electric hotplates, removing electrical connection will be essential. A lockout
procedure is followed with proper signs.

There are dangers from leaky steam pipes on deck, where long lengths of hot steam
pipes carry steam. pipes carrying condensate and temperature fluctuations, often fails
due to corrosion and also mechanical stress with phenomena like water hammer by
steam. For any damage conditions, make sure the line valves are correctly secured, lines
drained before any dismantling and repair job is carried out.

To identify super heated steam pipe leakage, use a stick with some cloth attached to the
end. If the cloth starts to flutter, there is a leakage. Any skin contact will have serious
burning of the tissues. For any repairs with hot surface, remember to reduce pressure by
draining, closing appropriate line valves and then progressing with the repair job.
Observe safe working practicesShipboard hazardsChemicals

Chemicals
Prevention of spillage & other precautions

Chemical tankers are required to transport a wide range of different cargoes, and many
tankers are designed to carry many segregated products simultaneously. To cover all
aspect of safety handling such noxious liquid chemicals following general precautions
should be observed irrespective of cargoes carried.

Additional precautions for specific cargoes are necessary and should also be incorporated
in the ship’s cargo handling procedures. 
These general precautions should be observed always, both in port and at sea as
applicable. Ports and terminals may have additional and different precautions and it is
the Master’s responsibility to ensure that local regulations are understood and observed.

Cargo Information

The IMO chemical codes as well as MARPOL Annex II require that certain information
must be available on board prior to loading, reference is made to the IBC code and the
BCH code. It is the Master’s responsibility to ensure that the necessary information,
including shipping document and Material Safety Data Sheets are on board for each
cargo, and available to all personnel onboard involved in cargo handling. Loading should
not commence before the Master is satisfied that the necessary information for safe
handling of cargo is available.

Preventing accidental spillage

Ships personnel must maintain a close watch throughout cargo operations to ensure that
any escape of cargo does not go unnoticed. In this respect, it is essential that all valves
are closed if not in use.

Cargo or bunker tanks which have been “topped-off” must be checked frequently during
the remaining loading operations to avoid an overflow.

If an accidental spillage or leakage of cargo occurs during any operation, the relevant
operation must be stopped immediately. The operation must not be restarted until the
cause has been established and the defect corrected.

Modern vessels are supplied with an approved outfit of clean-up materials in compliance
with MARPOL and OPA90 requirements. Clean up materials must be available at the
bunker or cargo manifold, for the prompt removal of any spillage on deck. Portable
salvage pumps (air operated and constructed of suitable chemical resistant materials)
suitably grounded and preferably hard-piped or connected to suitable containment
tank(s), shall be deployed at the after-end of each side of the main deck.

Chemicals used for clean up on deck must not be allowed to enter the water unless
permission has been obtained from the harbor authorities.

Should an cargo spill accident take place then the appropriate authorities, as detailed in
the vessel’s Oil Spill Response Plan (US waters), or SOPEP (other waters) must
immediately be informed. The contact sheet required by the Plan must be completed
prior to arrival in port. 

Personal protective equipment

All tankers designated for carriage of dangerous chemicals in bulk must have on board
suitable protective equipment and clothing for the protection of crew involved in cargo
handling and tank cleaning operations. Some details of these will be found within the
Safety & Environmental Manual. The types and quantities of protective equipment as
well as additional safety equipment should be in a strict compliance with requirements of
IBC/BCH Code.

All ships carrying dangerous cargoes should have on board medical first-aid equipment,
including oxygen resuscitation equipment and antidotes for cargo carried in compliance
with recommendations listed in IMO–MFAG (Medical First Aid Guide) and WHO – IMGS
(International Medical Guide for Ships).

Openings in deckhouses and superstructures

Regulations require that portholes in the superstructure within a certain distance of the
cargo deck must be fixed shut. These design features must not be modified in any way.
All doors, portholes and other openings should be kept closed during cargo operations.
Doors that need to be closed (except when in use) in port must be marked accordingly.
Mechanical ventilation should be stopped and air conditioning units operated on closed
cycle or stopped in situations where toxic or flammable vapors may enter the
accommodation. Low pressure in accommodation must be avoided which will occur if air
conditioning is on full re-circulation and some extraction fans e.g. for toilets are still in
use.

Engine Room Equipment

Boiler tubes, uptakes, exhaust manifolds and combustion equipment must be maintained
in good condition as a precaution against funnel fires and sparks. In case of a funnel fire,
or if sparks are emitted from the funnel, cargo operations involving flammable products
should be stopped, and at sea, the course may be altered to prevent sparks falling onto
the tank deck.

Excluding vapor from machinery spaces

Care should be taken to ensure that flammable or toxic cargo vapor does not enter the
engine room spaces. Special attention should be paid to engine room equipment
connected to the cargo deck area. In case of an accident or an emergency that could
give rise to a situation where toxic or flammable vapors are likely to enter the engine
room spaces, consideration should be given to its possible effect on personnel and/or
equipment and necessary preventive actions should be taken.

There are a number of categories of Chemicals that are handled on ships:

 Crude Oil, Refined Oil, lube oil, Liquid Chemicals in bulk, Liquefied Natural Gas,
Liquefied Petroleum Gas etc.
 Cargo carried in containers under IMDG code
 The International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code is the worldwide
standard for shipping dangerous goods by sea. Amendment 37-14 is effective
 January 1, 2017 and becomes mandatory on January 1, 2018. The IMDG Code is
written in conjunction with government regulations under the International
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) and was developed as a uniform
international code for the transport of dangerous goods by sea covering such
matters as packing, container traffic and stowage, with particular reference to the
segregation of incompatible substances.
 The IMDG Code is a two-volume set. Both publications are available in English or
French. 

 Fuel oil and lube oil carried as bunker

 Chemicals used for maintenance and operational purpose- cleaning agents, water
treatment chemicals, additive products for fuel oil and sewage systems.

Purpose of Material Safety Datasheet (MSDS) or Safety Datasheet (SDS)

  Carried onboard to help ensure safety of seafarers and the marine environment.
 Provides useful information on the product carried on board, either as cargo or for
operational purposes.
 Carried for all hazardous material carried on board and a mandatory document to
be carried on board.
 Provides information on proper personal protective equipment (PPE) to safeguard
the seafarer combating a chemical emergency.

Legislative Requirements

As per SOLAS regulation 5-1 complying with ISM code, Merchant ships must carry MSDS
, if ships are carrying a MARPOL Annex I Cargo or bunker onboard.

MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet) is the passport for a product in international journey.
Whether your goods are classified as dangerous or not, anyone in the supply chain may
ask for MSDS. Unavailability of MSDS or inaccuracy in same may end up delays in
shipments, detention in transit or at destination.

Content of MSDS

Safety Data Sheets – SDSs – are an important and well-known element of hazard
communication. Every day thousands of SDSs are asked for those agents involved in
dangerous goods activities in order to check storage conditions, proper classification or
personal protective equipment (PPE).
The Safety Data Sheet follows a 16 sections format which is internationally
agreed:

Section 1: Identification of the substance/mixture and of the company/undertaking

Section 2:  Hazards identification

Section 3: Composition/information on ingredients

Section 4: First aid measures

Section 5: Firefighting measures

Section 6: Accidental release measures

Section 7: Handling and storage

Section 8: Exposure controls/personal protection

Section 9: Physical and chemical properties

Section 10:  Stability and Reactivity

Section 11:  Toxicological information

Section 12: Ecological information

Section 13: Disposal considerations

Section 14: Transport Information

Section 15: Regulatory information

Section 16: Other information

Section 14 shall provide the following information:

The UN number

Proper Shipping Name (PSN)

Hazard classes (primary and or subsidiary)/divisions assigned to the substance or

mixtures

Packing Group assigned to the substance or mixture in accordance with their degree of
hazard

Special precautions for users

Transport in bulk containers: only when applicable

However, additional information (e.g.: tunnel code according to ADR, segregation groups
according to IMDG Code, Special Provisions or Packing Instructions) can be required to
draft the Dangerous Goods Declaration and not provided in the Safety Data Sheet.

Regulations such as ADR, ICAO-IATA-DGR, RID, IMDG Code shall be always checked. An
SDS does not always contain updated information and all requirements needed by
transport regulations.

Section 2: Hazards identification: This section describes the hazards of the substance or
mixture and the appropriate warning information associated of those hazards such as
label elements.

Section 3: Composition/information on ingredients: the information provided in this

section can help in completing the N.O.S “not otherwise specified” entries by
supplementing the Proper Shipping Name with the technical name or chemical group.
Example: UN 1993, Flammable liquid, n.o.s (contains xylene and benzene), 3, II.

Section 9: Physical and chemical properties: information such as Boiling Point and Flash
Point shall be provided in this section. Physical and chemical properties can be decisive
to assign the packing group.

Section 11: Toxicological information: the relevant toxicological properties of the

hazardous substances or mixtures such as Lethal Dose LD50 or Lethal Concentration
LC50 shall also be provided. Toxic parameters will help in the assignment of packing
group of Class 6.1 substances and mixtures.

Section 16: Other information: this section shall incorporate other information that it is
not included in sections 1 to 15, including information on revision of the Safety Data
Sheet such as: full text of R phrases, the hazard statements, safety phrases and/or
precautionary statement.

To sum up, the Section 14 of a Safety Data Sheet offers relevant information for the
transport of dangerous goods and hazardous materials. However, it is recommended to
check some information provided in other sections for the accuracy of the content.
However, the Safety Data Sheet is just a hazard communication element that does not
replace transport regulations.

Observe safe working practicesSafety and protective devices to counter hazards

Safety and protective devices to counter hazards

Some examples of common hazards are listed below:
 Hazards
Working alone: There is a danger that, when
working alone, you might get trapped or injured
and be unable to call for assistance.
Lighting: It is the responsibility of the vessel to
provide adequate lighting.
Slips and falls: The deck of the vessel might be
wet or coated with oil or slippery cargo residues
which add to the risk of slipping. Engine room
floors are often oily.
Machinery: A variety of machinery may be in
use  machinery and wear high-visibility clothing and all
 Ventilation equipment;
 Generators;
 Pumps
 Compressors
 Winches;
 Cargo-moving machinery, including fork-
lift trucks, cranes, conveyors or elevators.
Ship’s safety and working equipment: you
must know how to use those safely and are
satisfied that they are in working order.
Cold rooms and stores: Cold store doors may
have self-locking mechanisms and may contain a
special atmosphere to preserve the goods. They
are often maintained at low temperatures.
Contact with oils and other spills: You might
come across oil spills or leaking cargo. The oil or
cargo could be hazardous, either by contact or by
inhalation.
Counter measures
Working alone: Avoid working alone, but if you have
to, maintain good communications with someone
responsible for checking on your safety and always
notify someone else of your intentions and location
before you start. 
Lighting: If adequate light is not available, e.g. by
opening hatches or doorways, a suitable IS torch or
working light may be used.
Slips and falls: Wear appropriate anti-static non-slip
shoes/boots. Pay particular attention in the vicinity of
deck machinery, where lubricants may be spilt, or if
leaking cargo is identified. 
Machinery: Keep safe distance from moving
personal gear. Remember: the operator may have a
limited view, particularly in the hold. 
Remember: in tidal basins the ship’s mooring lines
may require frequent adjustment using winches. Keep
well away from these operations.
Importance of work outfit and overall cannot be over-
emphasized. Entangling with running machinery has
been a bad cause of many accidents.
Ship’s safety and working equipment: if you are
unsure of using any, don't hide that fact and ask
superior officers to give you a demonstration before
you use that with proper safety precautions. If you do
not have adequate and appropriate training, you must
admit that before undertaking any work.
Cold stores:
 Always station someone outside the door to call
for assistance if you get into difficulty.
 Check that there is adequate oxygen and that
there are no other hazardous gases in the store
before you enter.
 Wear insulation clothing to protect you from
the cold.
 Limit the amount of time you spend in the cold
store to make sure your core body temperature
does not drop too low.
 Ensure that the cold room safety alarm is
functional. 
Contact with oils and other spills: If you see a
spillage or leak ; check to see if it has been identified.
Unless it has been absolutely ruled safe by a
competent person, withdraw immediately and notify
your supervisor. Avoid all contact with spills even if
they are deemed safe, as you may suffer a skin
reaction. Seek proper medical attention if any
 symptoms occur.
Remember: even chemicals that are safe on their
own may react together (or with atmospheric water
vapor) releasing toxic fumes or giving off sufficient
heat to cause injury or start a fire.

Excessive noise: Many items of noisy machinery Excessive noise: You should assess the risk and limit
may be at work on a vessel even when it is exposure or use ear-defenders. Prolonged exposure to
berthed, including: even moderate noise levels can damage hearing.
Remember: excessive noise can hinder
 Ventilation equipment; communication and reduce your awareness of other
 Generators; hazards.

 Winches;
 Cargo-moving machinery, including fork-
lift trucks, cranes, conveyors or elevators.
Confined spaces: As mentioned earlier, confined Confined spaces: Never enter any confined
spaces on board ships, including: spaces without the appropriate training and
equipment. A risk assessment should always be
 Ballast tanks, carried out and permission obtained, notices placed
before you enter any confined space. If you have to
 Storage lockers,
enter confined spaces, additional specialist equipment
 Cargo holds and tanks, and (and training to use it) will be needed, including:
 Engine and machinery rooms
 Personal alert safety system alarm (contains
can pose a wide range of hazards, including toxic motion sensors and indicates when a person is
fumes and substances. unconscious);
 Multi-gas alarm personal monitor (detects
noxious gases);
 Intrinsically safe (IS) radio/communications
line;
 Confined space rescue equipment (compressed-
air breathing apparatus);
 Safety harness and lifeline and location line;
 Manual and automatic resuscitation system
(MARS).
Observe safe working practicesSafety and protective devices to counter hazardsFall
Preventer Devices

Fall Preventer Devices

A “Fall Preventer Device” (FPD) for lifeboats, can be used to minimize the risk of injury
or death by providing a secondary alternate load path in the event of failure of the on-
load hook or its release mechanism or of accidental release of the on-load hook.
However, FPDs should not be regarded as a substitute for a safe on-load release
mechanism.
Observe safe working practicesUse of Personal Protective Equipment

Use of Personal Protective Equipment

PPE can be classified as follows:

Type Examples

Head protection Safety helmets, bump caps, hair protection

Hearing protection Earmuffs, earplugs

Face and eye protection Goggles and spectacles, facial shields

Respiratory protective equipment Dust masks, respirators, breathing apparatus

Hand and foot protection Gloves, safety boots and shoes

Body protection Safety suits, safety belts, harnesses, aprons,

high- visibility clothing

Protection against drowning Lifejackets, buoyancy aids and lifebuoys

Protection against hypothermia Immersion suits and anti-exposure suits

Head protection

 Safety helmets - Safety helmets are most commonly provided as protection

against falling objects. They can also protect against crushing or a sideways blow,
and chemical splashes.
 Bump caps - A bump cap is an ordinary cap with a hard penetration-resistant
shell. They are useful as protection against bruising and abrasion when working in
confined spaces such as a main engine crankcase or a double bottom tank. They
do not, however, afford the same protection as safety helmets and are intended
only to protect against minor knocks.
 Hairnets and safety caps - Seafarers working on or near to moving machinery
should always be aware of the possibility of their hair becoming entangled in the
machinery. Long hair should always be covered by a hairnet or safety cap when
working with or near moving machinery.

Hearing protection

All seafarers exposed to high levels of noise (e.g. in machinery spaces) should wear ear
protection of a type recommended as suitable for the particular circumstances.
Protectors are of three types: earplugs, disposable or permanent, and earmuffs. 

 Earplugs - The simplest form of ear protection is the earplug. This type,
however, has the disadvantage of limited capability of noise level
reduction. Earplugs made from rubber or plastic also have only a limited effect, in
that extremes of high or low frequency make the plug vibrate in the ear canal
causing a consequential loss in protection. It may be difficult to keep re-usable
earplugs clean on a ship and disposable earplugs are recommended. Earplugs
should never be used by anyone with ear trouble, without medical advice.
 Earmuffs - In general, earmuffs provide a more effective form of hearing
protection. They consist of a pair of rigid cups designed to completely envelope
the ears, fitted with soft sealing rings to fit closely against the head around the
ears. The ear cups are connected by a spring-loaded headband (or neck band),
which ensures that the sound seals around the ears are maintained. Different
types are available, and provision should be made according to the circumstances
of use and expert advice.

Face and eye protection

The main causes of eye injury are:

 Infra-red rays (gas welding);

 Ultra-violet rays (electric welding);
 Exposure to chemicals; or
 Exposure to flying particles and foreign bodies.

Face and eye protectors are available in a wide variety, designed to international
standard specifications, to protect against these different types of hazard.

Ordinary prescription (corrective) spectacles, unless manufactured to a safety standard,

do not afford protection. Certain box-type goggles are designed so that they can be worn
over ordinary spectacles.
Respiratory protective equipment

Respiratory protective equipment is essential for protection when work has to be done in
conditions of irritating, dangerous or poisonous dust, fumes or gases. There are two
main types of equipment, which perform different functions:

 A respirator filters the air before it is inhaled.

 Breathing apparatus supplies air or oxygen from an uncontaminated source.

It is most important that the face piece of respirators and breathing apparatus is fitted
correctly to avoid leakage. The wearing of spectacles, unless adequately designed for
that purpose, or having a beard is likely to adversely affect the face seal. This is a
particularly important consideration in emergency situations.

Respirators

The respirator selected must be of a type designed to protect against the hazards being
met.

The dust respirator gives protection against dusts and aerosol sprays but not against
gases. There are many types of dust respirator available but they are generally of the
ori-nasal type, i.e. half-masks covering the nose and mouth.

Many types of light, simple face masks are also available and are extremely useful for
protecting against dust nuisance and non-toxic sprays, but should never be used in place
of proper protection against harmful dusts or sprays. Types of respirator include the
following:

 The positive pressure-powered dust respirator incorporates a battery-powered

blower unit, connected by a tube to the face mask to create a positive pressure in
the face piece. This makes breathing easier and reduces face-seal leakage.
 The cartridge-type of respirator consists of a full face-piece or half-mask
connected to a replaceable cartridge containing absorbent or adsorbent material
and a particulate filter. It is designed to provide protection against low
concentrations of certain relatively non-toxic gases and vapours.
 The canister-type of respirator incorporates a full face-piece connected to an
absorbent or adsorbent material contained in a replaceable canister carried in a
sling on the back or side of the wearer. This type gives considerably more
protection than the cartridge type.

The filters, canisters and cartridges incorporated in respirators are designed to provide
protection against certain specified dusts or gases. Different types are available to
provide protection against different hazards and it is therefore important that the
appropriate type is selected for the particular circumstances or conditions being
encountered. It must be remembered, however, that they have a limited effective life
and must be replaced or renewed at intervals in accordance with manufacturers'
instructions.
Respirators provide no protection against an oxygen-deficient atmosphere. They are
designed to purify the air of specific contaminants and they do not supply any further
air. They should never be used to provide protection in dangerous (enclosed) spaces
such as tanks, cofferdams, double bottoms or other similar spaces against dangerous
fumes, gases or vapours. Only breathing apparatus (self-contained or airline) is capable
of giving protection in such circumstances.

Personal gas monitors

Personal gas monitors should be carried when working in dangerous spaces. The type of
monitor should be determined by a competent person within a safe system of work, and
will depend on the circumstances and knowledge of possible contaminants.

Where there is a potential risk of flammable or explosive atmospheres, monitors

specifically designed to measure for these will be required. All such monitors should be
specifically suited for use in potentially flammable or explosive atmospheres.

Monitors should be in good working order, and calibrated and tested either in accordance
with the manufacturer's recommendations, or in line with another schedule identified
from the findings of the risk assessment.

Breathing apparatus

 Breathing apparatus should be used when entering a space that is known to be,
or suspected of being deficient in oxygen, or containing toxic gas or vapours.
 Breathing apparatus should not be used underwater unless the equipment is
suitable for the purpose, and then only in an emergency.

Resuscitators - It is recommended that resuscitators of an appropriate kind should be

provided when any person may be required to enter a dangerous space.

Hand and foot protection

Gloves

The exact type of glove selected will depend on the kind of work being undertaken or the
particular substance being handled and, in these cases, expert advice should be
followed. The following are general rules:

 Leather gloves should generally be used when handling rough or sharp objects.
 Heat-resistant gloves should be used when handling hot objects.
 Rubber, synthetic or PVC gloves are generally best for handling acids, alkalis,
various types of oils, solvents and chemicals in general.

Footwear

Foot injuries most often result from the wearing of unsuitable footwear (e.g. sandals,
plimsolls and flip-flops) rather than from failure to wear safety shoes and boots. It is
nevertheless strongly advisable that all personnel whilst at work on board ship wear
appropriate safety footwear.

Injuries are commonly caused by impact, penetration through the sole, slipping, heat
and crushing. Safety footwear is available that is designed to protect against these or
other specific hazards identified in the risk assessment, manufactured to various
standards appropriate to the particular danger involved.

Protection from falls

All personnel who are working at height (i.e. in any position from which there is a risk of
falling) should wear a safety harness (or belt with shock absorber) attached to a lifeline.
If a vessel is shipping frequent seas, nobody should be required to work on deck unless
absolutely necessary. However, where this is unavoidable, persons on deck should wear
a harness and, where practicable, should be secured by lifeline as a protection from falls,
and from being washed overboard, or against the ship's structure. 

Body protection

Special outer clothing may be needed for protection when personnel are exposed to
particular contaminating or corrosive substances. 

High-visibility clothing should be worn when it is important to be seen to be safe, e.g.

during loading and unloading operations.
Observe safe working practicesHazardous operations on board

Hazardous Operations on Board

Hazardous Areas Onboard
Every ship has certain areas onboard that are hazardous depending on the nature of
space and the contents within. These areas include:

 Cargo tanks(on oil, chemical and gas carriers)

 Pump rooms on tankers
 Fuel tanks
 Sludge tanks
 Sewage tanks
 Coffer dams
 Ballast tanks
 Pipe tunnels
An entry into any of the above spaces requires the issue of an "enclosed space
permit" (PDF, 365kb). Personnel who enter an enclosed space should be equipped with a
breathing apparatus, a safety line, a safety torch and personal gas detectors, besides
other personal protective equipment.

Cargo, fuel and sludge tanks have dangerous toxic and flammable vapours. These
vapours have to be replaced with inert gas and then subsequently replaced by fresh air
before an entry into the tanks is intended.
Sewage tanks generate dangerous gases like methane and hydrogen sulphide. Prior
entry into the sewage tanks, care should be exercised to ensure that these gases are
completely flushed out from those spaces.

Cofferdams and ballast tanks have depleted levels of oxygen content. This is more
pronounced when corrosion is prevalent in the ballast tanks. Oxygen in the atmosphere
of the tank is used up when iron is converted into oxides during the corrosion process. A
copious quantity of fresh air has to be inducted into the tanks prior entry.

Battery rooms can have a build up of hydrogen gases, as batteries when charged, give
out hydrogen gas. Battery rooms should be thoroughly ventilated before entry. Oxy-
acetylene rooms should be located in areas away from sources of heat.
Observe safe working practicesLoading and unloading of cargoes

Loading and Unloading of Cargoes

Cargo Handling equipment

Derricks
A derrick is a spar made of steel, rigged as a swinging boom, and is used for 'hoisting
cargo' in and out of the ship. It can be fitted to a Mast, or a King Post or a Samson Post.

The lower end of the heel is pivoted in such a manner that the derrick can move
vertically and horizontally
Safe working load (SWL) of the derrick is marked on the derrick.

The upper end is supported by a topping lift and stayed by guys. The load is hoisted or
lowered by a single 'runner wire' or a 'purchase', which is rove through a block at the
derrick head and a leading block at the heel, and then taken to a winch. 'Guys' are short
pendants tailed with tackles and are led to positions on deck near ship's side and well
before and above the heel.

Some derricks are provided with 'Preventer guys' which are fitted to prevent the derrick
from swinging too far in a certain direction. It is shifted to the derrick on the outboard
side and sometimes called 'lazy guy'.
In the union purchase the runner wires of both derricks shackled to a triangular plate the
lowerend of which supports the hook. One derrick is plumbed over the hatch and the
other end is plumbed over the jetty. This rig is very commonly used on general cargo
vessel for cargo operations.The SWL of the rig is one third of the lighter derrick in use.
The maximum and minimum angle of the derrick should be as per the rigging plan to
ensure safe operations.

Hoisting a Cargo Derrick

1. Using the cargo winch control, slacken the cargo runner wire and coil it on deck.
2. Slacken the inboard and outboard guys, as well as the preventer guy.
3. Using the topping winch control, hoist the derrick to the required position.
4. Tighten and make fast the inboard and outboard guys, as well as the preventer
guy.
5. Using the cargo winch control, pick up all the slack on the cargo runner.

Note: If hoisting a derrick from the crutch stand itself, make sure that the crutch-locking
clamp is unshipped, also in this case, points nos. 1,2,5 above do not apply.
Lowering a Cargo Derrick

1. Using the topping winch control, lower the derrick to the required position.
2. Tighten and make fast the inboard and outboard guys, as well as the preventer
guy.
3. Using the cargo winch control, pick up the slack on the cargo runner.

Rigging Plan

1. Prior to use the derrick check the rigging plan to ensure that the SWL of the block
wires and shackles are as stated in the plan.
2. Verify the SWL of the system in use.

Inspection of Cargo Gear

1. All cargo gear to have test certificates and certified by a competent authority at
periodic intervals.
2. All cargo gear to be checked before, during and after cargo operation.
3. The marking on the cargo gear should be visible at all times.
4. The operation of the derrick should be at a controlled and steady speed to avoid
jerks which will increase the stress on the wire and on the derrick setting.

Cargo Cranes
A cargo crane consists of a crane post in which the electric switchboard, hydraulic
system, valves and a ladder are situated. The ladder leads to the crane body. The cargo
winch and the topping span winch are situated in the crane body. It also has a driver's
cabin where the crane controls are placed. The cabin has a glass front for clear view.
There are many sheaves fitted on the crane head to contain the cargo runner wire, and
the topping span wire. There is a 'Jib' that can move up& down. The Cargo runner
passes through a block called a 'floating block or 'traveller block', and the Cargo hook is
attached to this block. Ladders are fitted on the crane body and head, to reach the top of
the crane head. The crane body can rotate through 360 degrees.

Crane Controls

Control No.1: is used for hosting / lowering the Cargo runner.

Control No.2: Does two operations. When moved fore / aft, it lowers /hoists the crane
‘jib’ when from side to side, it turns, moved (slews) the crane around through 360°
The Important Points to note are

1. Never exceed the safe working load rating of the crane, or its associated gear
2. Find out how to 'switch off ' the crane in an emergency
3. Find out where the nearest 'spill gear' for the crane, i.e.: equipment for
containing the leaked oil from the crane hydraulic system), is kept.
4. Do not leave the crane running unattended.
5. Secure the crane when operation is complete.
6. Un-secure the crane before attempting to operate.
7. Rigging attached to a crane is equally important. Straps or strops need to be
clearly identified for specific used and the S.W.L. (safe working load) identified.
8. Two cranes can be rigged together for twin operations, using a rams horn hook.
9. The boom of both cranes should be at the same angle before changing over to
twin operation.

Crane and Rigging Safety

There is tremendous amount of energy stored in a crane and if used incorrectly, both the
crane operation and the associated rigging could cause / sustain serious damage.
Boom Angle Indicator

This indicates the angle of the boom. This angle determines the lifting capacity. The
lower the angle, the lesser will be the lifting capacity.

Safety Clip

Safety clips are a necessary feature when using a crane. The safety clip is a spring-
loaded restraint attached to the throat of a hook, in order to prevent 'rigging' from
slipping off the hook.

Grabs

Grabs are used for loading/unloading of bulk materials like coal, iron ore, bauxite, iron
scraps, food grains etc.

Grabs are shackled onto the ships cranes or to shore based cranes.

Gantries

Special cranes, called gantries, usually load containers but just like general cargoes, the
ships cranes, shore cranes or ship’s derricks may also load them.
Cargo Handling Accessories

Cargo Slings

Stevedores employed by the ship-owner handle cargoes. The ship's officers supervise
the work. The gear used for loading and discharging the cargo depends on the nature of
goods to be handled

In addition to the lifting gear like cranes, derricks and winches; slings, snotters, nets,
trays and can hooks etc. are used for slinging cargo.

Rope sling

This is formed by joining the ends of a piece of 25mm-30mm diameter rope (3"-31/2")
circ about 10 to 12 meters (5-7 fathoms) in length with a short splice. The sling is in
very common use for bags, baled goods, barrels and cases, all of which may be slung
with this.

Canvas sling
This is formed by sewing a piece of canvas between the parts of a rope sling. It is used
for bagged grain, rice, coffee and similar cargoes where the contents of the bag are
small. Any spillage is retained in the canvas and is not wasted.

Cargo Nets

Fiber cargo nets are in general use throughout the marine industry and are extensively
used for such cargoes as mail bags, personal effects etc., where the extra strength and
wear resistance of a wire rope is not required.

Wire ropes are designed for longer life, and are stouter than fiber nets. They carry a
bigger load with greater safety, and tend not to distort under the most difficult
conditions.

Fiber ropes are generally of a knotted mesh, but may be woven. The mesh of a wire rope
net will contain a specially designed clip at every cross, to provide reinforcement for the
net as well as protecting the wires from wear.

Board sling

Similar to the canvas sling, wood is used in place of the canvas. This is used for slinging
fragile Cargo such as bags of cement.

Snotter

May be made of either rope or wire by forming an eye at each end of a 16 mm-20mm
dia (2"-2 ½") circ. or 50mm-60mm dia (3"-4") circ. 4-6 mtrs. (2-3) fathoms in length. It
is used for slinging cases, bales, wet hides and timber.

Cargo Gear
Ships are designed for carrying cargo. 'Tankers' carry liquid cargoes such as crude oil,
diesel, LPG, LNG, Lubricating oil and Naphtha. General Cargo vessels carry cargoes such
bulk, steel, bales, machinery cases and other general items. Bulk Carriers carry cargoes
such as grains, coal iron ore in bulk and Container Ships carry container on deck and
inside deck. Ro-Ro vessel carry roll on roll off cargoes whereas car carriers carry only
cars inside the cargo spaces. Passenger vessels on the other hand are solely designed
for the carriage of passengers.

Liquid cargo is pumped into the ships through pipelines and pumps from the shore.

The general cargo which in the form of cases, bales, bags, boxes, etc. is loaded into the
ships holds through hatch opening. The cargo handling of solid cargoes is either done by
ship or shore cargo gear.

From the Warehouses on the berth, the cargo is loaded on the ship by means of slings,
snotters, nets, trays, etc.

Observe safe working practicesMooring and unmooring

Mooring and Unmooring

Mooring Procedure

Before berthing and unberthing

Before a ship is about to depart from the pier or approach the pier, the crew members
assigned for ship operation should have a complete understanding on the Captain’s plan.
If a crew member is assigned with deckhand jobs such as mooring, cargo handling etc.,
he should approach the Captain to understand what work is to be done. If he is one
among the deckhands, then the senior deckhand will go to see the Captain for enquiring
about the required tasks to be completed. 

There is a possibility of making various mistakes during the process of berthing and
unberthing. If the crew member comes to observe any such unnoticed threats or
obstructions, he should inform the ship’s Captain. Also if he is under the supervision of
the Captain or the senior deckhand, he should understand all the commands carefully
and should convey the instructions to other crew men for proper execution.

Safety precautions during berthing and unberthing

The berthing and unberthing are the routine operations that are usually executed with
caution. The crewmen under the shipping operation should be aware of some possible
hazards related to these two operations.

Bights of line

The curved portion or bend formed between the two ends of the rope is called the bight
of line. A fairlead is a ring type fitting mounted on the ship and is used for redirecting
the rope by removing obstacles. It is designed in such a way that the occurrence of
friction damages will get reduced.

For instance, let us consider a real time scenario as shown in the figure.

A berthing line was placed on the deck with a bend. One end of the rope was tied on a
bollard on the quayside and the other end of the rope was wound onto a winch or
capstan. A deckhand in the ship appeared to be standing close to the bight of line. Once
the load was applied on one end of the rope, the strain on the line would tighten the
rope around his foot. Thus the rope would run out of the fairlead and might throw the
deckhand out of the line. So even though it appeared to be harmless, it was advised not
to stand on the bight of line.

Lines under strain

If the strain applied on the berthing line goes above a particular limit, it will break. Also
when the ship is steered in an unexpected way, in order to lock the ship onto the bollard
near the shore, there is a possibility for line breakage. Pulling or bending the rope under
tension leads to unpredictable hazards over a period of time. So it is important to
identify the signs of strain in the ropes made of natural and synthetic fiber.

Signs of strain: The deckhand should be capable of recognizing the signs of overstrain in
natural fiber lines and synthetic fiber lines. When the natural fiber lines reach the stage
of breaking due to strain they will move with a creaking noise. In the case of synthetic
fiber lines, no sounds will be produced due to elasticity of the rope. Instead, the
synthetic fiber line will become so thin and will start stretching more. When such a
synthetic fiber line happens to break apart, the rope will whip back, wrap and injure the
deckhand crew close to it. So it is advisable to follow some set of instructions while
handling berthing lines. They are:

 You should closely watch the condition and position of the berthing lines.
 Whenever the berthing lines appear to be under strain, always pay attention to
the Master’s commands and be ready to loosen them.
 If the lines cannot be slacked because of some reasons, the deckhand should
alert the nearby people for keeping a distance away from the lines. 
 So it is important to leave the rope loosened for managing the rise and fall of the
ocean tides.

Passengers near lines: The entry of passengers should be restricted from the places
where berthing and unberthing operations are carried out.

Be ready: The deckhands should always keep the lines ready in advance. This will avoid
the setback problems while fastening the ship to the bollard. Usually the factors such as
tide, current or wind will affect the steering of the ship. These factors will also affect
while berthing the ship into the correct position. So the deckhands should assist the
Captain during the process of berthing and unberthing. They should always be ready to
take proper actions and initiatives by identifying the difficulties. 

Communication: The Captain and the deckhand should have two-way communication

throughout the process execution. Even though both of them are away from each other’s
sight, they must ensure to have an effective form of communication. 

Handling lines

In order to learn how to handle the lines, the best possible way is to shadow an expert
by systematically analyzing his procedures. After that, you can try it yourself under the
guidance of an experienced person. You can also watch around to learn the way of
handling lines on your own ship and also in the nearby ships. You should not drop any
opportunity to practice the method of handling lines. This is because of the fact that,
successful moorings are only the result of experience, skill and continuous practice. 

Sharing wharf bollards

At times more than one ship may be tied to a bollard on the Quayside. In such cases,
problem arises when the first ship wants to depart before the second ship. This is
because the lines of the second ship will be on the top of the bollard as it is berthed after
the first one. In order to tackle this problem while sharing the bollards, a technique
called ‘dipping the eye’ is to be applied. 

Dipping the eye: When a ship reaches the dock, if the berthing lines of another vessel
has already been occupied you have to perform the following operations:

 Pass the eye of your ship’s docking line from beneath and dip it through the eye
of the neighboring ship at the bollard.
 Then you have to pass your docking line over the bollard. 

Hence the docking lines of the two vessels can cast off independently without any
trouble.

Capstans and warping drums

Capstans are revolving cylinder shaped mechanical parts used in ships in order to
transfer heavy weights, anchoring, etc., by using ropes or cables. Warping drums are
also mechanical structures used as hauling equipment in ocean-going ships. Both
capstan and warping drum are parts of the ship’s winching gear and they are used to
manage or tighten the ropes. The only difference between them is that, capstan is
mounted on a vertical shaft while warping drum is a horizontally mounted structure.

Controlling or tightening line:

Following are the steps for managing the lines during berthing:

Step 1: Initially the crew men have to send the docking line to the shore.

Step 2: Now, pass the rope’s end on the ship to the drum.

Step 3: Then by winding the rope around the drum, take several turns up to a maximum
of four. The number of turns depends on the material in which the berthing line is made
of and also the stress on the rope. While winding the rope, the crew man should prevent
the formation of riding turn as it may block the possibility of slacking off the rope. Riding
turn denotes a turn on the drum that passes over the other.
Step 4: Apply tension on the line or rope by leaning back and pull the rope by holding
hand over hand.

Step 5: Now shift the rope into the bollard or bitt. It is advisable to stand out of the line
of recoil as the line under tension will break and may cause injury to the person near it.

The generic mooring lay out taking into account of standard environmental criteria. The
generic mooring lay out is mainly applicable to a multi –directional environment and to
the design of ship’s mooring equipment. Multi-directional is where no single direction
dominates or where any of the environmental force is dominant factor.

The following media explains mooring procedure.

For ship’s berthing in terminal having high current, wind or swell waves should have
head, stern lines and/or extra breast and spring lines may be more efficient. If it is
regularly that terminal it is considered to have additional higher capacity mooring
equipment.

Theoretically the mooring lines should all be oriented in the direction of environmental
forces and be attached at such a longitudinal location on the ship that the reluctant load
and restrain act through one the same location.

Practically for environmental forces from any direction by splitting the forces into a
longitudinal and transverse component and then calculating how to most effectively
resist them. Some lines should be in longitudinal direction (spring lines) and some lines
in transverse direction (breast lines).

Spring lines - Restrict the ship movement in fwd and aft direction

Breast line - Restrict the ship movement away from the berth.

Head and stern line - Decrease the overall restraining efficiency of mooring pattern

Low stretch ropes made from steel or synthetic materials such as High Modulus
Polyethylene (HMPE) or Aramid fibers are recommended on large ships. Synthetic lines
having greater elasticity may be more appropriate for use on small ships where ease of
handling, flexibility of mooring and lower line tension are important criteria. 

All mooring ropes wires and tails should be received with their individual certificates or, if
part of a batch, a certificate of conformity.

The certificate should be retained on board and will typically contain the following
information.

 Manufacturer
 Date
 Minimum Breaking Load(MBL)
 Description of rope including
 Type
 Reference number in mm per diameter, weight per meter
 Length
 Material
 Rope construction(e.g laid, braided, number of strands)
 Jacketing information(material and construction)
 End termination.

Optimum Mooring Pattern and Rope Leads

The large coil will be rotated on the swivel and turntable in the opposite direction to that
in which the rope was manufactured, e.g. a righthanded laid rope should be rotated anti-
clockwise. The rope itself will be hauled off from the outside of the coil, flaked in long
flakes down the length of the deck, then coiled down on stowage grates. A tight coil can
be achieved by first starting the coil off with a cheese, then building up the coil from the
outside and working inwards to the centre.

Snap back zones

Mooring lines

Mentioned below are ten points that must be considered while handing mooring
operation on ships:

1. Don’t Allow Any Extra Crew Member on the Deck: Ensure that no extra
personnel are present at the mooring station except those who are involved in the
operation. Anyone who is not assisting in the mooring operation must be asked to leave
the mooring station for his/her and other’s safety.
2. Consider Weather Condition: Before planning the mooring operation, consider the
weather condition by taking factors such as wind and current. The ship’s master and
responsible officer must have the details of current and future weather data before
commencing the mooring operation.

3. Have knowledge of Snap Back Zone and Rope Bight: All personnel involved with
the mooring operation should be aware of the snap back zones and rope bight. Click
here to know more about this.

4. Check All the Mooring Equipment: Check all the equipment (mooring winch,
drums, windlass etc.) involved in the mooring operation for any kind of problem. Proper
routine maintenance is the key to ensure smooth running of mooring equipment and
systems. Don’t forget to check the load sensors of mooring winches. 

5. Check the Tail of Mooring Line: If the mooring wire line is provided with tail (short
lengths of synthetic fiber rope which are placed in series with the vessel’s winch-
mounted wires to decrease mooring line stiffness and thus to reduce peak line loads and
fatigue due to vessel motions) ensure same size and material of tails are used for all
lines in the same service (breast, spring and head lines). Different tail size and material
would lead to uneven load in the mooring line.

6. Tend One Line at a Time: Only one line should be tended at a time during mooring
operation. If this is not done, it may increase the load in the other tended lines. If two
lines are tended together it may lead to overloading and breakage. Follow the orders of
the master or responsible ship officer properly to avoid any kind of mishap.

7. Keep a Check on the Mooring Line Load: Ensure that the allowable breaking load
in any of the mooring lines does not increase 55% of its Maximum Breaking Load (MBL).
This is to prevent the line from breaking.

8. Avoid Mixed Mooring: Mixed mooring is extremely dangerous. Generally, mooring

lines of the same size and material should be used for all leads, if this is not possible due
to the available equipment, all lines in the same service, i.e. breast lines, spring lines,
head lines and stern lines should be of the same size and material. The use of mixed
moorings comprising full length synthetic ropes used in conjunction with wire should be
avoided.  If a synthetic rope and a wire are used in the same service the wire will carry
almost the entire load while the synthetic rope carries practically none.

9. Keep a Continuous Check: Load on the mooring lines must be checked continuously

even after the mooring operation is over. If there is any change in the ship’s ballast
condition, the lines must be slacked or tightened accordingly. The condition of the rope
material should also be checked to foresee unfortunate accidents.

10. Arrange Mooring Lines Symmetrically: All mooring line must be arranged as

symmetrically as possible with the breast line. The breast line should be perpendicular to
the longitudinal centre line of the ship and the spring line should be  parallel to the
longitudinal centre line.

Observe safe working practicesPrecautions prior to entering enclosed spaces

Precautions Prior to Entering Enclosed Spaces

An enclosed space is one that, by design, has limited openings for entry and exit,
unfavourable natural ventilation that could contain or produce dangerous air
contaminants, and is not intended for continuous employee occupancy.

Enclosed spaces include but are not limited to storage tanks, compartments of ships,
process vessels, wells, void spaces, boilers, ventilation and exhaust ducts, tunnels.

The hazards associated with enclosed spaces can cause serious injury and death to
workers. Two major factors lead to fatal injuries in enclosed spaces:

1. Failure to recognise and control the hazards associated with enclosed spaces and
2. Inadequate or incorrect emergency response.

The emergency response is usually a spontaneous reaction to an emergency and can

lead to multiple fatalities.

Enclosed spaces may be classified into two categories:

1. Open-topped enclosures with depths that restrict the natural movement of air
(e.g., types of tanks, cargo holds) and
2. Enclosures with limited openings for entry and exit (e.g., tanks, ducts, boilers)

The hazards found in any enclosed space are determined by the material being stored or
used, by the process taking place inside the space, and by the effects of the external
environment. Worker entry into enclosed spaces may occur during construction activities
or during frequent necessary functions such as inspection, repair or maintenance.

An Enclosed space:
  Has limited or restricted means of entry or exit
 Is large enough for an employee to enter and perform assigned work
 Is not designed for continuous occupancy

While there are many enclosed spaces on a ship, the ship itself can be considered to be
an enclosed space, when locked within, without motive power and at the middle of an
ocean, away from the comfort of land. You can get abandoned together with the ship
and it could become difficult to get away from a sinking ship, for example. But even
without that larger scope, the discussion on Enclosed space operations remain
demanding and you need regular practice drills and what if scenarios to make yourself
ready and act in a safe manner.

The following media explains about the Working Inside Enclosed Spaces:

Dangers associated with enclosed spaces

What Are the Hazards Involved in Entering and Working in Enclosed Spaces?
Many workplaces contain spaces configured is such a way to be considered “enclosed”.
Enclosure itself may pose entrapment hazards. Working in an enclosed  space may keep
employees closer to hazards. For example, enclosed, limited access or restricted airflow
can result in hazardous conditions that would not arise in an open workplace.

Hazardous Atmospheres
Many substances have short-term exposure limits, in addition to 8-hour time weighted
average exposure limits. The permit-required enclosed space rule is intended to protect
against short-term acute hazards. Exposures at or below the permissible exposure limits
do not fall under the permit-required enclosed space rule. Other standards address a
broader range of health and safety concerns. Any substance that is not capable of
causing death, incapacitation, impairment of ability to self-rescue, injury or acute illness
due to health effects is not covered by the rule.

The atmosphere in an enclosed space may be extremely hazardous because of the lack
of natural air movement. This characteristic of confined spaces can result in:

1. Oxygen-deficient
2. Flammable or
3. Toxic atmospheres.
Oxygen-Deficient Atmospheres
An oxygen-deficient atmosphere has less than 19.5 percent available oxygen (O2). When
oxygen levels drop below 17 percent, there is increased breathing volume, accelerated
heartbeat and a deterioration of night vision, which is usually not noticeable. Oxygen
atmospheres with 14 to 16 percent oxygen contribute to poor muscular coordination,
rapid fatigue and intermittent respiration. At 6 percent oxygen, there is a rapid loss of
consciousness and death in minutes.

Any atmosphere with less than 19.5 percent oxygen should NOT be entered without an
approved self-contained breathing apparatus or an approved supplied air breathing
apparatus.
The oxygen level in a confined space can decrease because of the type of work being
done, such as welding, cutting or brazing, or it can be decreased by certain chemical
reactions (rusting) or through bacterial action (fermentation).

The oxygen level is also decreased if oxygen is displaced by another gas, such as carbon
dioxide, argon, helium or nitrogen. Total displacement of oxygen by another gas, such as
carbon dioxide, will result in unconsciousness, followed by death.

Toxic Atmospheres
Because air cannot freely move in and out of enclosed spaces due to the design and
configuration, the atmosphere inside an enclosed space can be very different from the
atmosphere outside. Deadly gases may be trapped inside, particularly if the space is
used to store or process chemicals or organic substances that may decompose. There
may not be enough oxygen inside the enclosed space to support life, or the air could be
so oxygen-rich that it is likely to increase the chance of fire or explosion if a source of
ignition is present.

Toxic atmospheres can be caused by the following:

The product stored in the space. The product may contain a toxic component, which
could be absorbed into the walls and have the potential for release depending on the use
of the space.

Examples of the type of work being performed in an enclosed space include welding,
cutting, brazing, painting, scraping, sanding and degreasing. Toxic atmospheres are
generated in various processes. For example, cleaning solvents are used in many
industries for cleaning/degreasing. The vapours from these solvents can build up to toxic
levels in an enclosed space.

General/Physical Hazards
In addition to the areas discussed above, evaluation of a confined space should consider
the following potential hazards:

Temperature Extremes
Extremely hot or cold temperatures can present problems for workers. For example,
when possible, a steam tunnel should be allowed to cool before entering.

Engulfment Hazards
Loose granular material stored in bins and hoppers, such as grain, sand, coal or similar
material, can engulf and suffocate a worker. The loose material can crust over, or bridge
over, in a bin and break loose under the weight of a worker.  

Noise
Noise within an enclosed space can be amplified because of the design and acoustic
properties of the space. Excessive noise can not only damage hearing and reduce
reaction time to hazards but can also affect communication. This can cause a shouted
warning to go unheard.

Slick/Wet Surfaces
Slips and falls can occur on a wet surface, causing injury or death to workers. Spaces
that have an internal configuration, inwardly converging walls, or a floor that slopes
downward and tapers to a smaller cross-section, increase the hazards of slipping and
falling. Different material contained in the space may react differently in a wet
environment. A wet surface will also increase the likelihood for and effect of electric
shock in areas where electrical circuits, equipment and tools are used.

Falling Objects
Workers in enclosed spaces should be mindful of the possibility of falling objects,
particularly in spaces that have topside openings for entry and where work is being done
above the worker.

Lack of Lighting or Poor Lighting

Working within an enclosed space, which is normally dark under operating conditions or,
at the most dimly lit will require additional illumination before work can start. This come
in the form of intrinsically safe lighting which are flash proof. These lights help the crew
to do their duty within the tank etc, and in the absence of those or when they may go off
without notice, could create accidental slips and panic inside the space and to be avoided
at all costs.

Procedures prior to entry into an enclosed/confined space:

Testing the Atmosphere

The atmosphere in an enclosed space may be hazardous due to:

1. Low oxygen levels;

2. Flammable or explosive concentrations of gases, vapours or dusts; or
3. Toxic levels of gases and vapours.
Therefore, the air in an enclosed space must be tested first for oxygen, then for
flammable or combustible gases and vapors, and then for toxic gases and vapors. 

It is important to understand that some gases and vapors are heavier than air and will
settle to the bottom of a confined space. Also, some gases are lighter than air and will be
found around the top of the confined space. Therefore, it is necessary to test all areas
(top, middle, bottom) of a confined space with testing instruments that are calibrated in
accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations to determine what atmospheric
conditions are present.

If testing reveals oxygen-deficiency or the presence of toxic gases or vapors, the space
must be ventilated and retested before workers enter. If ventilation is not possible and
entry is necessary (for emergency rescue, for example), workers must have appropriate
respiratory protection.

Never trust your senses to determine if the air in a confined space is safe! You cannot
see or smell many toxic gases and vapors, nor can you determine the level of oxygen
present.

Ventilation
Ventilation by a blower or fan may be necessary to remove harmful gases and vapors
from a confined space. There are several methods for ventilating a confined space. The
method and equipment chosen are dependent upon the size and configuration of the
confined space openings, the gases to be exhausted (for example, are they flammable?),
and the source of makeup air.

For example, under certain conditions where flammable gases or vapors have displaced
the oxygen but are too rich to burn, forced air ventilation may create a dangerous
condition by diluting them until they are within the explosive range. It may be necessary
to use inert gases (such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, argon, etc.) to reduce flammable
gases or vapors to safe levels within the confined space. However, the space should be
well-ventilated and retested before a worker may enter.

A common method of ventilation requires a large hose, one end attached to a fan and
the other lowered into a manhole or opening. For example, a manhole would have the
ventilating hose run to the bottom to blow out all harmful gases and vapors. The air
intake should be placed in an area that will draw in fresh air only. An air supply taken
next to a vehicle or compressor exhaust system could draw in one hazardous gas while
exhausting another. Ventilation should be continuous where possible, because in many
confined spaces the hazardous atmosphere will accumulate again when the flow of air is
stopped. Periodic testing must be conducted to ensure that the atmosphere inside the
confined space is safe. Remember that any testing information concerning the space has
to be made available to the entrant or the entrant’s authorized representative.

Permit System
A permit, signed by the entry supervisor (maybe Chief Officer on a ship) and verifying
that pre-entry preparations have been completed and that the space is safe to enter,
must be posted at entrances or otherwise made available to entrants before they enter a
permit space. 

The duration of entry permits must not exceed the time required to complete an
assignment. Also, the entry supervisor must terminate entry and cancel permits when an
assignment has been completed or when conditions that are not allowed may arise. New
conditions must be noted on the cancelled permit and used in revising the permit space
program. The standard also requires the employer to keep all cancelled entry permits for
at least one year or as stipulated in company Safety Manual.

The following media explains Shipboard Operations:

Entry Permits 
Entry permits must include the following information:

 Test results
 Tester’s initials or signature
 Name and signature of supervisor who authorizes entry
 Name of permit space to be entered, authorized entrant(s), eligible attendants
and individual(s) authorized to be entry supervisor(s)
 Purpose of entry and known space hazards
 Measures to be taken to isolate permit spaces and to eliminate or control space
hazards, i.e., locking out or tagging of equipment and procedures for purging,
making inert, ventilating and flushing permit spaces
 Name and telephone numbers of rescue and emergency services
 Date and authorized duration of entry
 Acceptable entry conditions
 Communication procedures and equipment to maintain contact during entry
 Additional permit(s), such as for hot work, that have been issued to authorize
work in the permit space
 Special equipment and procedures, including personal protective equipment,
alarm systems and rescue equipment
 Any other information needed to ensure employee safety

Authorized Entrant’s Duties

 Know space hazards, including information on the mode of exposure (e.g.,

inhalation or dermal absorption), signs or symptoms, and consequences of the
exposure
 Use appropriate personal protective equipment properly (e.g., face and eye
protection, and other forms of barrier protection such as gloves, aprons and
coveralls)
 As necessary, maintain communication (i.e., telephone, radio, visual observation)
with attendants to enable the attendant to monitor the entrant’s status as well as
to alert the entrant to evacuate
  Exit from permit space as soon as possible when ordered by an authorized
person, when the entrant recognizes the warning signs or symptoms of exposure
exist, when a prohibited condition exists, or when an automatic alarm is activated
 Alert the attendant when a prohibited condition exists or when warning signs or
symptoms of exposure exist

Attendant’s Duties

 Remain outside permit space during entry operations unless relieved by another
authorized attendant
 Perform non-entry rescues when specified by employer’s rescue procedure
 Know existing and potential hazards, including information on the mode of
exposure, signs or symptoms, consequences of the exposure, and their
physiological effects
 Maintain communication with and keep an accurate account of those workers
entering the permit-required space
 Order evacuation of the permit space when a prohibited condition exists, when a
worker shows signs of physiological effects of hazard exposure, when an
emergency outside the confined space exists, or when the attendant cannot
effectively and safely perform required duties
 Summon rescue and other services during an emergency
 Ensure that unauthorized persons stay away from permit spaces or exit
immediately if they have entered the permit space
 Inform authorized entrants and entry supervisor of entry by unauthorized persons
 Perform no other duties that interfere with the attendant’s primary duties

Entry Supervisor’s Duties

 Know space hazards including information on the mode of exposure, signs or

symptoms, and consequences of exposure
 Verify emergency plans and specified entry conditions such as permits, tests,
procedures and equipment before allowing entry
 Ensure that determinations and supporting data from required tests are
documented and are made available to each employee who enters the permit
space or that employee’s authorized representative
 Ensure that the entrant or the entrant’s authorized representative are afforded
the opportunity to observe any testing of the confined space prior to and during
the operation
 Terminate entry and cancel permits when entry operations are completed or if a
new condition exists
 Take appropriate measures to remove unauthorized entrants or persons who
attempt to enter
 Ensure that entry operations remain consistent with the entry permit and that
acceptable entry conditions are maintained

Rescue

 Over 50 percent of the workers who die in confined spaces are attempting to
rescue other workers.
 Rescuers must be trained in and follow established emergency procedures and
use appropriate equipment and techniques (including lifelines, respiratory
protection and standby persons). Steps for safe rescue should be included in all
 confined space entry procedures. Rescue procedures should be well planned, and
drills should be frequently conducted on emergency procedures.
 An unplanned rescue, such as when someone instinctively rushes in to help a
downed co-worker, can easily result in a double fatality or even multiple fatalities
if there is more than one would-be rescuer.

Remember: An unplanned rescue could be your last.

A standby person should be assigned to remain on the outside of the confined space and
be in constant contact (visual or speech) with the workers inside. The standby person
should not have any other duties but to serve as standby and know who should be
notified in case of emergency. Standby personnel should not enter a confined space until
help arrives, and then only with proper protective equipment, lifelines, and respirators.

The employer has overall responsibility for employee safety.

Observe safe working practicesHot work

Hot work

Hazardous area in Ships and safe working practice-Hot work 

Hazards in welding, gas-cutting, miscellaneous hot work and  associated precautions

General precautions

Welding, gas-cutting and other hot work should be conducted by following the "permit-to-work"
system, whenever carried out in a non-designated (i.e. say workshop) location.

Arc welding with all protective gear

1. Operators should be conversant with the equipment to be used, which should be inspected
by a competent person before use.

2. Hazardous fumes may be produced and the level of oxygen reduced, during working. Special
care should be taken while working in enclosed places and, enclosed space entry and
working procedures should be adhered to, as necessary.

3. An assistant should be continuously on stand-by attendance and be thoroughly briefed /

practiced to deal with emergency procedures.

Personal protective equipment

1. Clean and approved Personal protective equipment should be used by the operator and
other persons involved in the work.

2. The operator should normally wear:

(a) A welding helmet and the appropriate eye shield;
(b) Leather working gloves;
Arc -welding wearing all protective gear. The fumes are visible 

(c) a leather apron when appropriate; and

(d) other appropriate personal protective equipment, as necessary.

Precautions against fire, explosions and non-life-supporting environments

1. Before any operation begins, inspections and tests should be carried out to verify that there
are no combustible solids, liquids or gases in any compartment, adjacent to the work
location which might be ignited by heat or sparks originating from the work.

2. Surfaces which are to be welded, or upon which hot work is to be done, should be free of oil,
grease or any flammable or combustible material.

3. All openings through which sparks might fall should be blanked-off / shut, as far as is
possible.
 4. Cargo tanks, fuel tanks, cargo holds or other tanks or spaces (including cargo pumps and
pipelines) that have contained flammable substances should be certified by a competent
person as being free of flammable gases, before any work commences.

5. All operations should be properly supervised and a fire-vigilance maintained, all around,
including in the spaces on the other side of the affected spaces. Because of the possibility of
fires taking place, even after the hot-work is completed, the fire-vigilance should be
maintained, say, for an hour or two, evenafter the work has been completed.

6. Compatible portable / non-portable fire extinguishers should be kept handy for ready use.

Use of Electric welding equipment

1. Even though AC power sources are used, Direct Current (DC) power source is preferable
since they can be operated at lower voltages and thereby, minimizes the risk from electric
shock.

2. The "go and return" system in which the welding set has two cables should be used, with the
"return" cable being separately earthed to the ship's structure. The lead and return cables
should be of the shortest length possible (and of an appropriate cross-section) to avoid
voltage drop.

3. Cables should be inspected before use and connectors should be fully insulated.

4. Suitable means should be provided for rapidly cutting-off current from the electrode, in case
the operator encounters difficulties.

Precautions to be taken while doing electric-arc welding

1. Non-conducting safety footwear should be worn in addition to the personal protective

equipment. Clothing should be kept as dry as possible.

2. If the operator is in contact with the ship's structure, protection should be provided by way
of the welder, sitting / standing, on dry insulated mats or boards.

3. Welding should not be carried out in hot/humid conditions which might be the cause of
sweat or damp clothing. Welding under wet conditions is prohibited.

4. The electrode-holder should be isolated from the current supply before a used electrode is
removed and before a new electrode is inserted. This precaution is necessary because some
electrode coatings may have extremely low resistance.

Flame-cutting and brazing

1. Equipment should have back pressure valves fitted adjacent to the torch in the oxygen and
acetylene lines and, flame arrestors fitted at the low pressure side of the regulators.
Brazing in progress

2. Oxygen pressure should always be sufficient to prevent acetylene from entering the oxygen
line.

3. Acetylene may explode under excessive pressure. Therefore, it should not be used at a
pressure exceeding 1 atmosphere gauge.

4. If a backfire occurs, the valves on the oxygen and acetylene cylinders should be closed
immediately. Personnel should be trained in the appropriate methods for cooling and/or
jettisoning cylinders which become hot. An acetylene cylinder which becomes overheated is
very dangerous as an impact could cause internal ignition and explosion.
Flame cutting in progress

5. Only hoses which have been specially designed for flame-cutting and brazing operations may
be used. Hoses in which a flashback has occurred ought not to be used.

Hazards caused from painting and precautions.

General precautions

1. Paints containing toxic substances should not be used. Besides, a paint without the
manufacturer's information is not to be applied anywhere on board.

2. Certain paints dry-up by evaporation of the paint's solvent and the process could cause
flammable or toxic vapours to be generated. All interior and enclosed spaces should be well-
ventilated while painting activity is in progress and right until the paint has fully dried-up.

3. Smoking should not be allowed during painting. Naked lights, such as matches, should not
be used in spaces until the paint has fully dried-up.

4. Precautions should be taken when mixing paints from two diverse sources. As a chemical
reaction takes place during mixing, the reaction may be exothermic and heat /fumes are
liable to be generated.

5. Chemical rust-removers are corrosive and precautions should be taken to protect the eyes
and skin.

6. Spaces where paints and allied equipment are stored, should be well free of unnecessary
items and positively ventilated. 
Spray Painting

1. Manufacturer's instructions on the operation of spray equipment should be closely followed

by the personnel involved.

2. To protect from unwanted ill-effects, a "paint mist" may form during spraying operations
and the personnel should wear suitable personal protective equipment. This may include a
combination suit, hood, gloves and eye protectors. It may be prudent to keep a respirator
handy.

Spray painting of a shipboard panelling

3. Paints containing mercury, lead or any toxic compounds are not to be sprayed in the
interiors.

4. Spray equipment which are “airless”, eject paint at a very high pressure. The operation is
fraught with the hazard of the paint penetrating the skin or cause eye injury. Great care
should be taken in the use of such equipment.

5. Seafarers should be trained in the correct methods of un-blocking nozzles according to the
manufacturer's instructions.

Observe safe working practicesWorking aloft

Working aloft

Rigging the Bosun's Chair Close inspection should be made of the chair itself and the gantline before
the chair is used. The gantline should be seen to be in good condition, and if any doubt exists, a new
rope should be broken out. The bridle to the chair should be inspected, and particular attention paid
to the internal lay and its condition. A safety line with safety harness must always be worn when
operating from a bosun's chair. This line should also be inspected before use, then secured to a
separate anchor point. When working from a bosun's chair, the following precautions should be
observed:

1. Always      
secure
the
gantline
to the
chair
with a
double
sheet
bend.

2. Always
have the
chair
hoisted
manually
, and
never
heave
away on
the
down
haul
using a
winch
drum
end.

3. Any  
tools,
paint Rigging a bosun’s chair for riding a stay. Bolt of bow shackle must be moused
pots etc. and   crown bow must pass over the stay.
should
be
secured
by
 lanyards.
Any
loose
articles
should
be
removed
to
prevent
falling
when
aloft.

4. When
riding a
stay,
make
sure the
bolt of
the bow
shackle
passes
through
the
becket of
the
bridle.
This bolt
should
be
moused.

5. Should
work be
required
about
the
funnels,
aerials /
radar
scanners
and the
like, the
appropri
ate
authority
should
be
 informed
– Engine
room, or
Bridge
respectiv
ely.

6. The
lowering
hitch is
normal
when the
chair is
to be
used for
a vertical
lift. The
man
using the
chair
should
make his
own
lowering
hitch,
and care
should
be taken
that both
parts of
the
gantline
are
frapped
together
to secure
the chair
before
making
the
lowering
hitch.

7. Whether
making a
vertical
lift or
when
 riding a
stay,
ensure
the tail
block or
lizard,
whicheve
r is being
used, is
weight
tested,
to check
that it is
properly
secured
and will
take the
required
weight.

Precautions

Before rigging
stages, take
certain
precautions:

1. Check
that the
stage is
clean
and free
from
grease,
that the
wood is
not
rotten,
and that
the
structure
is sound
in every
way

2. Stages
should
not be
rigged
 over a
dock or
hard
surface,
only over
water.
Many
vessels
are
designed
with
working
surfaces
for
painting
such
areas as
Bridge
fronts.

3. Stages
should
not be
rigged
over side
for
working
when the
vessel is
under
way.

4. The
gantlines
should
be of
adequate
length,
and
rigged
clear of
sharp
edges,
which
could
cause a
bad nip
in the
 rope.

5. A correct
stage
hitch,
together
with
lowering
turns,
must be
applied.

The lowering
turns must be
seen to be
running on
opposite sides of
the stage to
prevent the
stage from
tilting. Safety line
and harness for
each man should
be secured to a
separate point,
and a standby
man on deck
must tend these.
A side ladder,
together with a
lifebuoy, should
be on site. All
tools, etc. should
be on lanyards,
and the gantlines
extended down
to the water.
Painting Ship's Funnel

Precautions against Dangers while working aloft and over the side

General precautions

1. It is always safer to adhere to a permit-to-work system for working aloft (up the masthead /
upper rigging of a ship) or over-the-side depending on the particular nature of the work. A
pro-forma for working aloft should take into account the specific nature of the operation.

2. Particular consideration should be given to sea and weather conditions and the possibility of
squalls / swells before working aloft or over-the- side is undertaken. In general, working aloft
or over the side should not be permitted if the movement of a ship while underway, makes
such work, a threat to life.

3. Even in coastal waters, strong tidal or current surges could lead to unexpected ship
movements which might be a threat to the lives of seafarers, working aloft.
 4. Special precautions should be taken whilst working near the ship's whistle, funnel, radio
aerials and radar scanners. All relevant officers should be sensitized before such work
commences. Concerned equipment should be isolated and shutdown. Warning notices
should be conspicuously posted. Designated officers should be kept updated and informed
when the work is finally completed.

5. Young or inexperienced persons should not be deployed to work aloft or over-the-side

unless accompanied by a seasoned seafarer.

6. All seafarers must wear a safety harness. Safety nets should be rigged where appropriate.
Persons working over the side should wear life jackets before starting to work. Someone
should be in attendance on deck and a lifebuoy with a line attached should be readily
available, in case the need arises.

7. Warning notices that seafarers are working aloft should be posted on deck and wherever
frequented by ship’s staff and crew. Tools should not be carried in pockets but secured in
belt-tool-carriers and they should be kept secured to the belt with a lanyard or string during
the work. Tools and stores should be sent up and lowered by a line in suitable containers.

8. Equipment, such as blocks and gantlines, should be carefully examined before use and if
there is any doubt as to their standard, quality and condition of any item, it should be kept
isolated.

9. Where possible, only permanent fixtures to the ship's structure, such as welded eye-pads,
should be used as securing points blocks and gantlines.

10. Gantlines should be away from, or protected from, sharp edges.

11. Cargo handling operations should not take place in the vicinity where seafarers are working
aloft.

12. Seafarers working aloft or over-the-side should be continuously supervised by a seasoned

person.

Observe safe working practicesWatch keeping

Watch Keeping
The ship personnel are divided into various groups in order to operate a vessel in a
continuous manner. A separate group is allotted for bridge watch and for running
machinery watch, be it a merchant or naval vessel. The OOW (officer of watch) and a
lookout are the generic bridge watch standers. The main responsibility of the OOW is
safe navigation of the vessel, which means maintaining the ship on course and
preventing risk. Continuous operation of running machinery within tolerances is ensured
by an engineering specialist. This can also be done from the bridge based on the type of
vessel. Acting promptly to emergency situations is a primary function of watchkeeping. 

Watches
The bridge watchkeeper is responsible for the safety of navigation and all operations
associated with ensuring its effectiveness. When under way he is also responsible for the
lookout, the steering of the ship and communications. In port the watchkeeper is
responsible for the security of the ship, the moorings, the gangway and the handling of
the cargo. At anchor he or she is also responsible for checking that the vessel maintains
it position.
The engine watchkeeper is responsible for the running of the machinery and its
maintenance.

Duration
The duration of the watch differs from one vessel to another. In the traditional watch
system, the watchkeeping team is divided into three groups. Each day is divided into six
watches. Each watch has the duration of four hours. Each watchkeeping person has to
work for eight hours so they keep 2 four hours watches. In between each watch, 8 hours
are given for sleep or recreation. 

Traditional watch system

The crew members who work all through the day are assigned to either starboard
division or port division. These two divisions of personnel work in the watches
alternatively. Day to day, the port watch and starboard watch are alternated. So, at one
night, the port watch personnel do the night watch and in the next night, the starboard
watch takes care of it.
Another system is dividing the personnel into three groups namely foremast, mainmast
and mizzen or red, white and blue. 

Observe safe working practicesWatch keepingDeck personnel

Deck personnel
Sea and Port Watch Systems

The bridge watch keeping is maintained 24 hours a day, no matter at sea or at anchor.

The navigation watch is usually divided into 4-hour periods.

In order to ensure navigation safety, the Master should decide the watch keeping
standard level according to the actual navigational situation.

Navigational watch keeping standards can be divided into three watch keeping Levels.

Level 1: Good visibility, ocean/coastline navigation, low density of traffic: one OOW
and one Deck Rating forming part of the watch, auto piloting;

Level 2: Navigating in a restricted area, moderate density of traffic: one OOW (if
necessary Master on bridge), two Deck Ratings (one of them assisting in lookout), hand
steering;

Level 3: Navigating in restricted visibility, high density of traffic or in a restricted area:

Master commanding on bridge, one OOW (if necessary two OOWs), two Deck
Ratings (one of them assisting in lookout), hand steering.

Usual watch keeping schedule

Chief Rating’s watch:           0400 ~ 0800; 1600 ~ 2000

Second Rating’s watch:        0000 ~ 0400; 1200 ~ 1600

Third Rating’s watch:           0800 ~ 1200; 2000 ~ 2400

In port the system of 6 hours watch periods can be adopted.

Second Rating’s watch:        0000 ~ 0600; 1200 ~ 1800

Third Rating’s watch:           0600 ~ 1200; 1800 ~ 2400

Watch keeping personnel on the bridge should be dressed neatly and concentrate on
watch keeping and lookout duties. Watch keeping personnel on bridge must be clear that
the safety of life and the safety of ship take precedence over all other considerations.

Basic procedures of relief and handover of a watch:

  The relieving rating should be on the bridge in advance at least 5 minutes,
familiarizing himself with the prevailing circumstances and conditions as well as
ship’s position, speed, course, steering system and so on;
 Before taking over the watch, the night eyes should be obtained by the relieving
rating;
 The rating should not hand over the watch to the relieving rating if he has reason
to believe that the latter is obviously not capable of carrying out his duties
effectively, in which case he should notify the OOW;
 The watch should never be handed over if the ship was altering course or taking
action to avoid collision;
 The relieved rating must never leave the bridge until he confirms that the
relieving rating has fully understood the vessel`s current situation;
 During sailing or anchoring, taking over and handing over the watch should be
carried out on the bridge. It is not allowed to change the watch through third
party or by telephone;
 The watch is not to be relieved in case of emergency or abnormal circumstances
without master`s permission.

Basic information required for changing watch

 Other vessels movements in the vicinity;

 Condition of the steering gear and steering system;
 Courses of gyro and magnetic compasses;
 Conditions in cargo holds and regular safety inspections;
 Exhibition of signal flags, lights and shapes;
 Preparations of arrival and departure, e.g. pilot ladder, signal flags, lights,
shapes, lightings;
 Tasks instructed by OOW have not been finished.

Observe safe working practicesWatch keepingEngine room personnel

Engine room personnel

Engine Room watch keeping procedures

Watchkeeping Schedule

 The term "watch" is used to mean either a group of personnel composing the
watch or a period of responsibility for an engineer rating during which his/her
physical presence in the machinery space may or may not be required.
 The system of watches adopted on board ships is usually a four hour on and eight
hours off watch. On Offshore Support Vessels, a 6-hour cycle is normally adopted
at all times. In port the system of 6 hour per watch cycle may be adopted.

Watch keeping Responsibility

 The Engineer Rating along with the EOW who is in charge of the Watch (EOW)
shall be responsible for the inspection, operation and testing as required, of all
machinery and equipment under his responsibility.
 EOW forming part of the engine room watch
 Under the EOW’s general direction; engine room ratings shall be required to
assist in the safe and efficient operation of the propulsion machinery and the
auxiliary equipment.
  Watchkeeping tasks for Ratings – A Summary

1) At the commencement of the engineering watch, check the current operational
parameters and condition of all machinery. Report to the EOW any machinery not
functioning properly, expected to malfunction or requiring special service.

2) When the machinery spaces are in the manned condition, the engineer rating
in charge of the watch shall at all times be readily capable of operating the
propulsion equipment in response to needs for changes in direction or speed.
When the machinery spaces are in the periodic unmanned condition, the
designated duty engineer rating in charge of the watch shall be immediately
available and on call to attend the machinery spaces.

3) All bridge orders shall be promptly executed. The EOW shall ensure that the
main propulsion unit controls, when in the manual mode of operation, are
continuously attended under standby or manoeuvring conditions. Changes in
direction or speed of the main propulsion unit shall be recorded. The engine
rating is to assist the EOW in this duty.

4) The Chief Engineer shall ensure that the EOW is informed of all
preventive maintenance, damage control, or repair operations to be performed
during the watch. The EOW shall be responsible for the isolation, by passing and
adjustment of all machinery under his/her responsibility that is to be worked on,
and shall record all work carried out. The Engine rating is to assist the EOW in
this duty.

5) Before going off duty, the engineer rating in charge of the watch shall ensure
that all events related to the main and auxiliary machinery are suitably recorded.
The Engine rating is to assist the EOW in this duty.

Watch keeping Routines

 At all times, Ratings should be familiar with watch keeping routines and be of
assistance to the EOW in these routines.
 Obtaining their work schedule and orders from the EOW
 Undertaking tasks and working alongside the other engine crew as per
instructions received from EOW
 Assisting the EOW with the watch keeping duties
 Checking and reporting engine room machinery parameters
 Maintaining the cleanliness of main engine and auxiliaries and engine-room as a
whole
 Checking, stowage and security of the engine-room stores
 Respond to engine room alarms
 Duties associated with taking over and accepting a watch.
 Routine duties undertaken during a watch.
 Maintenance of the machinery space log book and the significance of readings
taken.
 Duties associated with handing over a watch.

Taking over the Watch

 The relieving EOW should be satisfied that the members of the watch are fully
capable performing their duties effectively.
  The relieving rating should not take over the watch until the engine room log has
been examined and checked that it is in accordance with EOW’s own
observations.
 At the beginning of the watch the current operational parameters and the
condition of all machinery should be verified and also the log readings should
correspond with those observed.
 The levels of tanks containing fuel, water, slops, ballast, etc., should be noted
and also the level of the various bilges. The operating mode of equipment and
available standby equipment should also be noted.
 The EOW should note if there are any special orders or instructions relating to
the operation of the main machinery or auxiliaries and determine what work is in
progress and any hazards or limitations this presents.
 EOW should instruct the watch keeping rating accordingly on duties to be
performed while on watch.
 Every Rating who is nominated as the assistant to the EOW on seagoing ships
and having specific duties and responsibilities relating to these duties in
connection with the safe operation and servicing of machinery should meet the
minimum requirements to the satisfaction of the Administration and STCW
Convention.

Every such Rating should possess:

Knowledge of the main parts and function of propulsion and auxiliary machinery

 Knowledge of engine-room watchkeeping procedures and the ability to carry out a

watch routine.
 Knowledge of use of hand tools and portable power tools
 Ability to read indicating instruments such as pressure gauges and level gauges
related to watchkeeping duties and understand the significance of the readings
 Knowledge of the function, basic operation of the piping and pumping systems
including their colour coding.
 Demonstration of the cleaning of filters and strainers
 Knowledge of safe working practices related to engine-room operations
 Knowledge of technical terms used in the machinery spaces and names of all
relevant machinery details and equipment.
 Every such rating forming part of an engine-room watch should be familiar with
watch keeping duties in the machinery spaces. In particular, with respect to
duties on any ship, the rating should have:
 Knowledge of the use of appropriate internal communication systems
 Knowledge of escape routes from machinery spaces
 Knowledge of engine-room alarm systems and ability to distinguish between the
various alarms, with special reference to fire extinguishing gas alarms
 Familiarity with the location and use of firefighting equipment in the machinery
spaces
 Familiarity with environmental protection equipment
 Ability to understand and make himself understood by the engineer officer in
charge of the watch
 Watch keeping Routines
 At all times, Ratings should be familiar with watch keeping routines and be of
assistance to the EOW in these routines.
 Duties associated with handing over and taking over a watch
 Routine duties undertaken during a watch
 Taking soundings, reading of parameters of various gauges and reporting to the
officer of the watch (EOW)
 Checking for any leakages, noises and smells when taking round in the engine
room and reporting
  Handing and Taking over the Watch
 The instructor should explain to the trainee the duties of engine room ratings
during handing and taking over the watch. The instructor may refer to company’s
ISM manuals as examples of such procedures.

The followings are some of the key items:

 The rating should not take over the watch until he/ she has observed the engine-
room space.
 At the beginning of the watch the current operational parameters and the
condition of all machinery should be noted.
 The rating should note if there are any special orders or instructions relating to
the Operation of the main machinery or auxiliaries.
 The rating should be aware of the work in progress in the engine room and any
hazards or limitations.
 The records of levels of tanks containing fuel, water, slops, ballast, etc., and the
levels of various bilges should be noted during handover. The operating mode of
equipment and available standby equipment should also be noted.
 The rating should inform the EOW if he has reason to believe that the relieving
rating is not capable of carrying out his/her duties effectively.

While on Watch
The followings are some of the key items:

 At appropriate intervals rounds should be made of the engine room and steering
gear spaces. During these tours of inspection bilge levels should be noted, piping
and systems observed for leaks, and local indicating instruments readings can be
observed and recorded.
 Certain watch keeping duties will be necessary for the continuous operation of
equipment or plant, e.g. the transferring of fuel. In addition to these regular tasks
other repair or maintenance tasks may also be need to be carried out as per
instructions of EOW.
 Reading of soundings and other parameters of main/auxiliary machinery
 During the watch, record should be taken of the various parameters of main and
auxiliary equipment.
 Auxiliary boiler parameters are also recorded.

Communication with EOW

 The rating should notify the EOW immediately in the event of any serious
occurrence or a situation where he is unsure of the action to take. Examples
might be, if any machinery suffers severe damage, or a malfunction occurs which
may lead to serious damage.
 UMS Operation
 The machinery space is usually unattended during off-duty hours and on
weekends.
 In case the rating has to enter the engine room during UMS operation, the rating
should inform the bridge prior going to the engine room and activates the dead
man’s prior entering the engine room. Likewise, he must inform the bridge after
coming out and deactivate the alarm accordingly.
 Further Guide to Watchkeeping

1) The condition checking of the installation is exercised during rounds in the

engine-room. During these rounds, the watchkeeper must use four of the five
human senses.
 2) The sense of hearing is used to ascertain whether abnormal noise occurs
during engine operation. The sense of touch is used to feel accessible bearings
and pipes, etc., to determine whether the temperature of the relevant engine part
is normal. By using the sense of smell.

3) Is often possible to detect leakages, overheating of bearings, excessive loads

on electrical equipment and cables etc. The sense of sight enables leakages to be
noticed, enables observations to be made concerning the satisfactory working of
cylinder lubricators, the reading of thermometers and manometers, and to
ascertain that the vapour from the crankshaft casing breather pipe is normal
(abnormal vapour will arise in the event of hot running of bearings or pistons, or
if the lubricating oil contains water).

Log Books

 During the watch a log or record will be taken of the various parameters of main
and auxiliary equipment. This may be a manual operation or provided
automatically on modern vessels by a data logger.
 Fuel consumption figures are used to determine the efficiency of operation, in
addition to providing a check on the available bunker quantities.
 Lubricating oil tank levels and consumptions to some extent indicate engine oil
consumption. The sump level is recorded and checked that it does not rise or fall,
but a gradual fall is acceptable as the engine uses some oil during operation. If
the sump level were to rise this would indicate water leakage into the oil and an
investigation into the cause must be made.
 The engine exhaust temperatures should all read about the same to indicate an
equal power production from each cylinder. The various temperature and
pressure values for the cooling water and lubricating oil should be at, or near to,
the manufacturer's designed values for the particular speed or fuel lever settings.
Any high outlet temperature for cooling water would indicate a lack of supply to
that point.
 Various parameters for the main engine turbochargers are also logged. Various
miscellaneous level and temperature readings are taken of heavy oil tanks, both
settling and service, stern tube bearing temperature, sea water temperature, etc.
 The operating diesel generators will have their exhaust temperatures, cooling
water and lubricating oil temperatures and pressures logged in much the same
way as for the main engine. Of particular importance will be the log of running
hours since this will be the basis for overhauling the machinery.
 Other auxiliary machinery and equipment, such as heat exchangers, fresh water
generator (evaporator), boiler, air conditioning plant and refrigeration plant will
also have appropriate readings taken.
 There will usually be summaries or daily account tables for heavy oil, diesel oil,
lubricating oil and fresh water, which will be compiled at noon. Provision is also
made for remarks or important events to be noted in the log for each watch.
 The completed log is used to compile a summary sheet or abstract of information
which is returned to the company head office for record purposes.
 Auxiliary boiler parameters are also logged.

Duties of a Trainee Rating in the Engine Room

Let us look at the general duties of the rating in both deck and engine department

Duties of the Deck- Crew:

  General upkeep and cleaning of deck area, holds and tanks
 Carry out orders from Bosun, Ship Officers and Master
 Chipping and painting of the parts of ship
 Keep lookout on Bridge, Gangway and Security watch
 Steer ship under the direction of the officer on watch
 Operate and maintain deck equipment such as winches, cranes, derricks and
hatch covers, valves, gangways, anti pollution equipment, LSA, FFA
 Handle mooring lines, splice and repair ropes, wire cables and cordage
 Mooring and Anchoring

Duties of the Engine-Crew:

 Assist ship engineer officers in performing routine maintenance work and repair
to ship's Monitor engine, machinery and equipment indicators and report
abnormalities to ship engineer officer on watch
 Lubricate moving parts of engines, machinery and equipments
 Operate and maintain off-loading liquid pumps and valves
 Clean engine parts and engine room
 engine, machinery and equipment

The above mentioned duties are very general and it is better to know the complete work
in the engine department, and carry out the jobs as told by the duty engineer.

We can define these jobs in the following way for simplicity, this can be divided into the
following for simplicity

 Watch keeping while ship is sailing

 Watch keeping while the ship is in Port for cargo work
 Other routine jobs 
 Watch keeping in bad weather
 Taking over and handing over the watch
 Additional watch keeping routines

Note: Assisting the Duty engineer during the watch is a general term, the assistance
may vary depending on the circumstances, hence it is better to understand the complete
jobs in the engine room, so that the assistance can be more effective.

Observe safe working practicesAccident prevention and occupational health

Accident prevention and occupational health

The MLC 2006 is generally considered to be the “fourth pillar” of the international regulatory regime
for shipping, complementing the key instruments of the IMO, namely: the International Convention
for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, as amended (the “SOLAS Convention”); the International
Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978, as
amended (the “STCW Convention”); and the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
from Ships, 1973, as amended (the “MARPOL Convention”). 

When implementing the MLC, 2006, in addition to the existing ILO instruments, all relevant IMO
instruments (such as the International Safety Management (ISM) Code should be taken into account.
Many countries and industry organizations have also developed comprehensive OSH regulatory
systems and technical guidance which incorporate provisions of the IMO instruments. These provide
useful examples for national approaches to the management of occupational safety and health on
ships. 

The MLC, 2006, reflects ILO’s long-standing commitment to the right of all workers, including
seafarers, to decent, safe and healthy working and living conditions. The ILO has also developed
guidelines for flag State inspections and port State control inspections under the MLC 2006. Ships
visiting foreign ports may be subject to inspection by port State control authorities for compliance
with the Convention.

Guideline for – International cooperation

1. Members, with the assistance as appropriate of intergovernmental and other international

organizations, should endeavor, in cooperation with each other, to achieve the greatest
possible uniformity of action for the promotion of occupational safety and health protection
and prevention of accidents.

2. In developing programs for promoting occupational safety and health protection and
prevention of accidents under Standard A4.3, each Member should have due regard to
relevant codes of practice published by the International Labor Organization and the
appropriate standards of international organizations.

3. Members should have regard to the need for international cooperation in the continuous
promotion of activity related to occupational safety and health protection and prevention of
occupational accidents. Such cooperation might take the form of:
(a) bilateral or multilateral arrangements for uniformity in occupational safety and health
protection and accident prevention standards and safeguards;
(b) exchange of information on particular hazards affecting seafarers and on means of
promoting occupational safety and health protection and preventing accidents;
(c) assistance in testing of equipment and inspection according to the national regulations of
the flag State;
(d) collaboration in the preparation and dissemination of occupational safety and health
protection and accident prevention provisions, rules or manuals;
(e) collaboration in the production and use of training aids; and
(f) joint facilities for, or mutual assistance in, the training of seafarers in occupational safety
and health protection, accident prevention and safe working practices.
Observe safe working practicesAccident prevention and occupational healthOccupational safety and health

Occupational Safety and Health

What is OSH?

Occupational safety and health (OSH) is generally defined as the science of the

anticipation, recognition, evaluation and control of hazards arising in, or from, the
workplace that could impair the safety, health and well-being of workers. It also
considers the possible impact on the surrounding communities and the general
environment. The central focus of OSH is to assess and manage occupational risks
through the application of preventive and protective measures.

How does it apply to the ships and the seafarers?

The maritime working environment comprises the physical, ergonomic, chemical,

biological, psychological and social elements which could lead to occupational accidents,
injuries and diseases. Seafarers face demanding working conditions, isolation, long hours
of work, rigid organizational structures and high levels of stress and fatigue. They must
also learn to communicate with others in multinational crews. Consideration should be
given to challenges connected to the structural development of the composition of the
crew, especially regarding crews with different nationalities and cultural backgrounds.
This should be recognized when developing a safety culture on board. Alcohol and drug
abuse, violence and harassment, and infectious diseases are further potential problems. 

Understanding the key Concepts of OSH

A hazard is the inherent potential to cause injury, harm or damage to a seafarer’s

health. It can come from many sources, for example intrinsic properties, situations,
potential energy, the environment or human factors. 

A risk is the likelihood that a seafarer will be harmed or experience adverse health
effects or that property will be damaged if exposed to a hazard. 

The relationship between hazards and risks is dependent on the nature of the exposure,
including the length of time and intensity, and the effectiveness of control measures. The
basic process of hazard and risk reduction is the core principle governing OSH.
For all areas of human activity, a balance has to be struck between the benefits
and the costs of risk-taking. In the case of OSH, this complex balance is influenced by
many factors, such as scientific and technological progress, changes in the working
environment and economic trends.

Workplace Risk Assessment

The essential purpose of OSH is to prevent occupational accidents, injuries and diseases
by managing occupational hazards and risks.  Procedures for hazard identification and
risk assessment have to be conducted to identify what could cause harm to seafarers
and property and the environment, especially the working environment, so that
appropriate preventive and protective measures can be developed and implemented. The
five-step generic risk assessment method shown illustrates the risk management
process. Gathering and analyzing reliable data and statistics play a key role in
conducting risk assessment effectively.

Five-step risk management process 

Step 1. Identify the hazards 

Step 2. Identify who might be harmed and how 

Step 3. Evaluate the risk – identify and decide on the safety and health risk control
measures 

Step 4. Record who is responsible for implementing which control measure, and the time
frame 
 Step 5. Record the findings, monitor and review the risk assessment, and update when
necessary

Risk Matrix

Generally identified risks may be assessed using a risk methodology, for example a risk
matrix, to determine the level of risk on the basis of the probability of
occurrence and the seriousness of the consequences. The risk assessment process
should be flexible enough to be adapted to the operations of an entire ship, to specific
work units and to available resources and skills. Assessment of occupational risks is a
crucial element in selecting effective preventive and protective measures to plan and
organize work and to reduce exposure to hazards. Risk assessments should be reviewed
when working methods, processes or personnel are changed, or when there is a change
in shipowner, to ensure that safety procedures are appropriate and are implemented. It
is also important to review risk assessments after investigations of accidents and
incidents and analyses of hazardous situations, to ensure that systems and
procedures are improved to prevent future problems.

Potential severity or consequences of an event

Probability   Slightly harmful Moderately harmful Very harmful

(likelihood)
Low probability Low risk Low risk Medium risk
of event
happening Probable Low risk Medium risk High risk

Highly probable Medium risk High risk High risk

“Safety culture” 

This could be perceived as the product of the individual and group values, attitudes,
competencies and patterns of behavior that determine the commitment to, and the style
and proficiency of, an organization’s health and safety programs. 

Involving all members of the work team in the five-step risk assessment
process is an integral part of good safety culture, and makes implementation
easier and more effective as everyone takes ownership of their own and each other’s
safety and health. 

All seafarers in the relevant department should have, among them, adequate knowledge,
experience or skills to participate in the assessment and follow its recommendations to
work safely.

Principles of prevention

The MLC, 2006, endorses the implementation of preventive measures, programs,

inspection and reporting systems for the management of OSH on board ships. Preventive
principles involve combating risk at the source, adapting work to the individual –
especially in the design of workplaces – and replacing the dangerous by the non-
dangerous or the less dangerous. Prevention should take precedence over protective
equipment for seafarers.
The instruments adopted since 1981 strongly emphasize the principle of preventive
measures, while personal protective equipment (PPE) is considered a last resort when
exposure to risks cannot be prevented, minimized or eliminated.

Prevention principles are based on collective, rather than individual, preventive methods.
The preferred sequence or hierarchy of collective risk control measures is:

1. Elimination;
2. Substitution;
3. Isolation or combating of risk at the source;
4. Technical or engineering controls; and
5. Organizational measures.

Technical control measures could include automation, closed systems, ventilation, local
extraction and encapsulation of the workplace. The choice of working methods and tools
also has a major impact on the level of exposure.

Organizational measures could include separating a workplace from other workplaces,

appropriate maintenance of equipment, provision of special instructions and limiting
working time on a job.

Use of PPE depends upon human response and should only be used as a sole measure
when all other options have been exhausted. It should be:

 Properly assessed before use to make sure it is fit for purpose;

 Maintained and stored properly;
 Provided with instructions on how to use it safely; and
 Used correctly by seafarers.

The competent authority should consider establishing clear criteria for considerations to
be made for the use of PPE.

OSH management systems

OSH management systems may provide a means for assessing and improving seafarers’
safety and health through the management of occupational hazards and risks. They can
be based on the principle of the “plan-do-check-act” (PDCA) approach, designed to
continuously monitor performance.

1. Plan involves the setting of an OSH policy, including the allocation of resources,

acquisition of skills and organization of the system, and hazard identification and
risk assessment.
2. Do refers to the actual implementation and operation of the OSH program.
3. Check means measuring both the active and reactive performance of the
program.
4. Act closes the cycle with a review of the system for the purposes of continual
improvement and priming of the system for the next cycle.

The ISM Code provides for safety management on board the ships for which it applies.
The safety management system may not in itself cover all aspects of seafarer safety and
health as required by the MLC, 2006, for example with respect to disease prevention.
However, a ship-owner may develop that system to do so.

Continuous improvement
To facilitate continuous improvement of OSH programs for risk assessment and
preventive measures the competent authority and ship-owner should consider changes
in technology and maritime research. This is necessary to continue to provide a safe
occupational environment for seafarers. A risk assessment should be updated whenever
changes are made to the job, working methods and processes, etc. Continuous
improvement also requires regular reviews to be carried out for risk assessment of jobs
on board and when a near incident or accident has occurred. 

International cooperation

Members should cooperate internationally for the purposes of harmonizing action to

promote OSH protection and accident prevention. In developing programs to promote
MOSH, relevant ILO codes of practice and the standards of other international
organizations should also be consulted.

The ILO, the IMO and the WHO have developed standards to assist member States in
promoting safety and health in the maritime sector. Examples of these joint standards
are the Guidelines on the medical examinations of seafarers and the International
medical guide for ships, third edition. Furthermore, the ILO has convened several
meetings of experts from member States and international organizations to develop
guidance applicable to the maritime sector including the ILO code of practice on Accident
prevention on board ship at sea and in port. 

Shipowners Responsibility

MLC, 2006, provides that national laws and regulations and other measures
implementing the health and safety provisions of the MLC, 2006, must “clearly specify
the obligation of shipowners, seafarers and others concerned to comply with the
applicable standards and with the ship’s occupational safety and health policy and
program. The ISM Code also provides that shipowners should establish occupational
safety and health policies and programs and develop good safety management practices.

The master’s responsibilities

The ship’s master should ensure that:

1. The shipowner’s OSH policy and program is implemented on board ship and
clearly communicated to all crew;
2. A positive safety culture exists on the ship, including reasonable precautions and
continuous safety improvement to prevent occupational accidents, injuries and
diseases on board ship;
3. Seafarers are encouraged to participate actively and express their views on safe
and healthy working conditions and risk assessments, without fear of dismissal or
other prejudicial measures;
4. Work is planned, carried out and supervised so as to minimize the possibility of
accidents, injuries or diseases;
5. Seafarers are assigned only to work to which they are suited by age, state of
health and skills, and no seafarer under the age of 18 is assigned inappropriate
duties; 
6. Appropriate notices and instructions are issued in a clear and easily understood
manner, in a language or languages verified to be understood by the entire
crew; 
7. Safety equipment, including all emergency and protective equipment, is
maintained in good order and stowed properly;
 8. All statutory drills and musters are conducted realistically, effectively and
conscientiously at the required intervals and comply with any applicable rules and
regulations;
9. Practice and training is given in emergency procedures and special emergency
equipment usage is demonstrated to the crew at regular intervals;
10. Operating manuals, vessel plans, national laws and regulations, safety procedures
and so on are available to seafarers requiring such information to conduct their
work safely;
11. One or more safety representatives are appointed or elected, and regular
meetings of the safety committee are held on board a ship on which there are
five or more seafarers. If such a committee is not required, information on safety
and health should be communicated in other ways;
12. All seafarers on board as well as the shipowner are informed of the membership
of the safety committee, and its members are competent to perform their
duties; the safety committee is informed of notices issued by both the competent
authority and the shipowner related to the safety and health of seafarers; and
13. All accidents or near accidents, injuries and diseases are investigated, recorded
and reported in compliance with national laws and regulations and the
shipowner’s procedures. 

The master may designate a person to take specific responsibility for the implementation
of, and compliance with, the ship’s occupational safety and health policy and program.

Seafarers’ responsibilities

Seafarers should:

1. Actively participate in promoting a safety culture and express their views on safe
and healthy working conditions and risk assessments;
2. Cooperate with the master and the ship-owner to implement prescribed OSH
policies and other measures;
3. Participate in OSH meetings and do everything possible to maintain both their
own safety and health and those of other persons on board;
4. Properly use the preventive principles and utilize available PPE and clothing as
instructed and otherwise when appropriate;  
5. Use only machinery that is properly guarded and not render the guards
inoperative;  
6. Report immediately to their immediate supervisor any situation which could pose
a hazard and which they cannot properly handle themselves;
7. Have the right to remove themselves from dangerous situations or operations
when they have good reason to believe that there is an imminent  danger to their
safety and health. In such circumstances, initially the seafarer’s supervisor should
immediately be informed of the danger; and
8. Communicate effectively regarding safety risks, verify that the instructions have
been understood and provide an opportunity for clarification.
The safety committee
The appointment or election of safety representatives on board ships on which there are
five or more seafarers. 

Purpose and objective

The purpose and objective of a safety committee is to ensure that the shipowner and
seafarers at all levels and all departments on ships work together to develop and
promote safety and health and to address problems related to the ship’s working
environment. This collaborative effort between the shipowner and the seafarers should
facilitate the implementation of the shipowner’s OSH policy and program.

The functions of the safety committee may include, but are not limited to:

1. Cooperating with the master and the shipowner in the implementation of the OSH
policy and program. The committee should provide seafarers with a forum to
influence OSH matters; 
2. Taking part in the planning, managing and coordinating safe and healthy working
conditions on board. The committee should take all preventive measures
important to OSH, including the mental well-being, of seafarers, and provide
advice to resolve safety and health problems;
3. Taking part in the investigation, identification and analysis of occupational
accidents, injuries and diseases;
4. Proposing and taking part in the implementation of measures to prevent any
recurrence, in consultation with the master;
5. Keeping up to date on OSH provisions for the protection of seafarers;
6. Contributing to defining principles for appropriate and necessary training and
instructions specific to on-board working conditions;
7. Continuously inspecting the observance of safety procedures;
8. Cooperating with any relevant occupational health service;
9. Making representations and recommendations on behalf of the crew through the
master to the shipowner; and
10. Taking appropriate action on OSH affecting crew, and evaluating appropriate
protective and safety equipment, including lifesaving equipment.

Safety officers

Where appointed, the safety officers should:

1. Implement the ship’s OSH policies and programs;

2. Conduct or supervise regular risk assessments and the appropriate follow-up
measures to ensure continuous improvement of the safety and health of the
working environment;
3. Work closely with the safety representatives to promote a safety culture;
4. Improve the crew’s awareness of OSH;
5. Encourage individual seafarers to behave responsibly to promote proactive safe
and healthy work conditions on board, including mental well-being;
6. Ensure that those working on board handling chemicals are given adequate
information on the intrinsic properties of the chemicals and the precautionary
measures and to check that chemicals are used only in work spaces and by
methods appropriate to the chemical in order to provide effective protection
against accidents, injuries and diseases;
7. Check that machinery, protective equipment and other technical aids are
designed and used appropriately to prevent or significantly reduce risk;
8. Identify and investigate any OSH problems;
9. Report investigations to the safety committee and to the individual involved,
where necessary;
 10. Investigate, together with the safety committee, accidents and incidents and
make appropriate recommendations to prevent recurrence;
11. Conduct OSH inspections;
12. Monitor and provide on-board OSH training of seafarers; and
13. Should be a member of the safety committee.

Where national laws and regulations do not require a safety officer, the master should
ensure that these functions are carried out by appropriate competent person(s).

Contribute to effective human relationships on board ship

Contribute to effective human relationships on board ship

Humans are complex creatures: what goes on in ones mind and how he/she will react to
a situation, vary from one person to other. However, good human relationship on board
is conducive to shipboard harmony and work productivity. There are several human
factors that are responsible for a certain human behavior and interpersonal relationships
are built on a supportive shipboard culture, where crew are friendly to each other. 

Contribute to effective human relationships on board shipInterpersonal Relationships

Interpersonal Relationships

The global shipping industry is a dangerous place. Every day, it loses two ships, pays out
US$4 million in claims and radically changes the lives of hundreds of people forever.
Human behavior is the source of virtually all such loss. It is also the reason why the loss
is not greater.

The shipping industry is run by people, for people. Humans are at the very center of the
shipping enterprise. They are the secret of its successes and the victims of its failures. It
is human nature, or should we define that to be the “Human Element”? that drives what
happens every day at work – from the routine tasks of a ship’s rating, right through to
the policy decisions at the Office.

In the maritime context, the term “human element” embraces the interaction between
human and any other human or system or machine aboard ship. The humans, systems
and machines have changed through advances in technology; and the business
competition and globalization pushed for reduction of running costs, with reduced
manning scales and employment of multi-national, multi- cultural and multi-lingual
crews.

Safe and efficient operation of the ship and her associated systems demands:
 1. That the ship is designed to support the crew without being detrimental to their
health, safety and overall performance;
2. That the crew is sufficiently educated and trained to operate the ship.

While, the ship is unique where, 

  There are a number of workstations with different operational criteria; 

  The design ergonomics can be very different in each ships; 
  It operates under too many inspections, rules and differing interpretations of
international regulations and guidelines;
  The ship is affected by external and internal environmental conditions [weather,
temperature, humidity, noise, vibration and ship motion]. 
  It is a ‘temporary home’ for people to work, sleep, relax and communicate; thus,
a place of conflict and interpersonal tension, all being “humane” and exposed to
the complexity of individual personality traits.
  The crew, more than often is a composition of multinational, multilingual and
multicultural assembly; with differing standards of education & training and
varying “quality of life” expectations. 

All these create challenges to the safety and performance of crew toward efficient ship
operation.

Add to this the highly competitive nature of the globalized shipping business, where the
expectations of the management will be smooth ship operation with zero downtime;
while the available resources could be inadequate, both human and physical, in labor
and material. This leads to crew stress, fatigue and failure.

Amongst all these competing factors, there will have to be a compromise in accepting
the given conditions on board and remain alert and competent; follow the company’s
SOP by abiding by all the laid down rules; and most importantly, be healthy, happy, and
motivated – that is the challenge that every seafarer undertakes: accepting that he fails
at times, but in vast majority of times, it is the exhibition of teamwork and leadership
and a “happy ship” that emerges a winner.

Individual output and needs

The crew performance depends not only on the standard of education and training, but
also on the psychological health and workplace wellness. The personal outputs of
individuals are influenced by, the Mind, the Body and the Spirit and is dependent on 7
needs.
 Competence. The seafarer’s level of competence depends on good and effective
education & training and also on aptitude – the ability to absorb knowledge and
to understand the context.
 Attitude. The seafarer’s attitude towards education and training will be driven by
his mental ability, intelligence, personality, character and sensitivity. Self-
awareness and self-evaluation are the key drivers.
 Motivation. Motivation is driven by good communication, direction, teamwork,
empowerment and character building in order to provide the seafarer with a
sense of leadership, interoperability and adaptability.
 Happy & healthy lifestyle. A happy and healthy lifestyle through the
encouragement of a balanced diet, good hygiene, exercise, rest and recreation,
together with acceptable standards of habitability and regular medical screening,
including drug and alcohol testing, will ensure that the seafarer has the energy,
physical fitness, physical strength, stamina and a sense of wellbeing for the job.
 Safe & secure working environment. Good ergonomics, safe working
practices, the provision of protective equipment, together with proper physical
security will lead to an improved safety culture and greater security awareness.
  Self-actualization. Personal ethics, conscience, cultural integration and
leadership, together with proper supervision and adequate remuneration can
generate a sense of pride, identity, trust, loyalty, esteem, and fellowship.
 Moral values. Moral values are equally important; an awareness of the various
religious beliefs, together with one’s personal faith and self-discipline are drivers
towards cultural awareness.

Some of these attributes can be taught, and some are developed through self-education,
while others fall to the shipowner or shipmanager who has a duty to provide a safe and
trusted working environment, decent working and living conditions and fair terms of
employment. 

Understanding human nature and encouraging and guiding people to ensure that they
play to their strengths – while avoiding the pitfalls, will be the key. 

The compass points to eight basic aspects of human nature that triggers a behavior,
good or bad.
1. People actively make sense of things: The key problem is ensuring that the sense
you make of things is enough for you to deal effectively with the reality of an
continuously unfolding situation – a situation that you must also share with your
colleagues. 
2. People take risks: Human perception of risk is quite different from the probability
with which events actually occur. The key problem is in ensuring that your own
perception of risk maps well onto the world with which you are interacting. 
3. People make decisions: There is difference between how people think they make
decisions and how they actually do it. Experience does not always lead to
expertise, but the expertise always requires experience. The key is to understand
what the components of good decisions are, and to recognize when you are about
to make a bad one.
4. People make mistakes: A fundamental human strength is the ability to make, and
then recover from, mistakes. Without error there can be no learning or
development. The problem here is in ensuring that potentially harmful or
expensive mistakes are prevented, caught or minimized before they have a
 chance to get far. This depends as much on organizational culture as on individual
competence. 
5. People get tired and stressed: There are causes and consequences of fatigue and
stress, and  you can do things to avoid them or lessen their impact. 
6. People learn and develop: People learn all the time. You have to ensure that you
learn the right things at the right time. However, in the absence of good
management, people’s aspirations will either be ignored or permitted to dominate
– with potentially disastrous consequences. There is enormous power that
effective, well-timed training can give to an organization. 
7. People work with each other: Working with each other sometimes requires us to
work as individuals in pursuit of our own goals, and at other times as members of
a team with a common purpose. Either way, the key problem is in ensuring that
we have effective ‘people’ skills – as well as technical task skills. 
8. People communicate with each other: Successful communication involves the
clear transmission of a message; the responsibilities of both listener and
messenger – and how apparently successful communication can continue for long
periods until disaster suddenly strikes, all because both parties were inhabiting
completely different worlds of their own construction.

Ship Operators/Master/Senior Officers

Be fully conversant with and fully understand the need to implement:

 Pertinent IMO, ILO, WHO  and other regional instruents relevant to maritime
safety and protection of the marine environment
 International codes, guidelines and standards in the context of SOLAS 1974 (as
amended), STCW 1978 (as amended), the International Regulations for
preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972 (as amended), IHR 2005, and MARPOL 74/78
(as amended)
 The provisions of the ILO Maritime Labour convention 2006 (MLC, 2006)
 Other regional Instruments relevant to maritime safety and protection of the
marine environment
 Company regulations relevant to the safe condct of the ship, the safe and timely
delivery of its cargo and the health, safety and wellbeing of the crew
 Measures to prevent/suppress terrorism against ships and to improve security
aboard and ashore, in accordance with the ISPS Code
 IMO Guidelines for Engine-Room Layout, Design and Arrangement
(MSC/Circ.834), as appropriate

Human factors at play on board ships result in human relationships. At work and during
off-duty hours.

When you’re in a healthy relationship environment individuals support each other by

sharing the good times and helping each other through the tough ones. When your
colleagues matter to you, and your feelings of trust and respect are returned, it enables
you to face the world with confidence.
Building and maintaining a healthy relationship takes a commitment from all. But it’s
worth it, because in a good relationship, you feel good about yourself and others and the
work on board becomes easy, when teams of people operate the ship with great
efficiency and effectiveness. And the voyage of happy memories gets etched in your
mind and make you a confident mariner.

Contribute to effective human relationships on board shipInterpersonal RelationshipsHuman

relationships

Human relationships
A group of people performing their functions and applying competencies in unison or
in tandem work towards common objectives. The outcome of a team effort is
generally not the sum total of the efforts of each member of the team. A good
team effort produces results that are much above the sum total and much below
the sum total, if team effort is found wanting. Human relations are integral to
dealing with the stressful working environment in the marine conditions.

Research reveals,

 That the bulk carriers spend 98.5% of their time at sea and also added a word of
caution and, And, ships on average spend eighty percent of the time at sea. But
in reality, tankers, bulkers and container ships spend even lesser time in port.
 There is a point at which technology is so sophisticated that our ability to
intervene becomes compromised.
Research in Sweden and Japan tells us that due to the ever-reducing manning scales,
more cohesion and integration of people on board ships is required. A more harmonious
working atmosphere is necessary because crew sizes are curtailed. The cohesion and
integration provides a cushion against the after effects of stressful near misses; stress
generated by new technology; reduced manning; and reduced port stays.  

The cohesiveness and harmony in relationships amongst the crew depends on many
factors; certain factors help people to jell together and some situations work against
that. The “company culture” has seen to be an overarching factor in ushering a
supportive shipboard environment, thereby encouraging people on board to have a
congenial relationship with each other. In that, acceptance of human error with
openness, and creating provision for onboard and on shore training would allow people
to own up to their mistakes; and, identify areas of self-improvement without feeling
threatened or persecuted. 

“Happy Ship” means happier people, who are friendly with each other, develop respect
for competence of fellow colleagues and care for each in a supportive way. Such bond is
sometimes carried much further than the mere span of the gangways.

What makes people happy?

What makes people happy What makes people uncomfortable

Good wages, paid on time Stressful work situation

Timely release for vacations Fast turnaround and many ports of calls

Homogeneous Crowd Multinational Crew

Common language No common language

Competent Crew Lack of crew competence

Supportive Office Lack of resources and company support

Regular rest periods Irregular rest periods

Able supervisor support and guidance Lack of able supervision and guidance

Good Food with menu changes Bad food with boring menu

Good recreation and cabin facilities No time for recreation and lack of facilities

Ample Internet Connectivity No facilities to call home

The older and the so-called trouble ships, that used to have engine troubles every other
day, could have been a “happy ship”, in spite of the fact that people were overworked!
Inherently, people do like challenges. With less technology and long voyages and good
number of people on board with tells of the last ports, there was enough to keep the
crew feel “at home” on board; they will happily work shoulder-to-shoulder in the event
of any emergency and get off the ship with some friendships, lasting their whole lifetime.

In contrast, in today’s modern vessels with sophisticated automation, electronics with

equipment duplication and fail safes’, life could also turn monotonous and boring. While
onboard relationships are restricted with a small crew, they are spending less time with
colleagues on deck than in the comfort of their wi-fi equipped cabins. On occasions, a
long span of boredom with an idling brain could encourage meaningless mischiefs,
sometimes creating onboard disharmony.

A modern vessel with sophisticated automation and very few crew to socialize, it may
turn out to be a ship where people are “cold” to each other and unable to build good
relationships as there are lesser interactions, either on work or during leisure.

In conclusion, it is for the individual to work it out since you want to be happy. To be
happy, you need to communicate and build relationship with others in the working place
and on board ship. With less number of crew, you should never distinguish the work
division by departments to be a barrier to build happy relationships. You may find that
your best friend is the senior deck cadet or the 3rd officer who may have the identical
watch schedule as yours; that allows you to meet him more often and without the rank
and file distinction confined within your department, you feel free to interact and build a
relationship based on just being humane! That is the trick.

Watch this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=soPEmw4YXIE before attempting

to do your quizzes.

Contribute to effective human relationships on board shipInterpersonal RelationshipsPersonal

Relationship on board

Personal Relationship on board

Human factors at play on board ships result in human relationships. A group of persons
performing their functions and applying competencies in unison or in tandem work
towards common objectives. This entails teamwork and teaming up.

The outcome of a team effort is generally not the sum total of the efforts of each
member of the team. A good team effort produces results that are much above the sum
total and much below the sum total, if team effort is found wanting. Human relations are
integral to dealing with the stressful working environment in the marine conditions.
Research stated, bulk carriers now spend 98.5% of their time at sea and also added a
word of caution… that here is a point at which technology is so sophisticated that our
ability to intervene becomes compromised.

The ever-reducing manning scales confirmed by Martin, (1995) research in Sweden and
Japanese experiments, it follows that more cohesion and integration of people on board
ships is required to create a harmonious working atmosphere because crew sizes are
curtailed. This cohesion and integration provides a cushion against the after effects of
stressful near miss situations, stress generated by new technology, reduced manning
scales and reduced port stays, so that it prepares the seafarers to deal with variable
tough unpredictable marine conditions effectively. According to a study, ships on an
average spend eighty percent of the time at sea. However, in actual operating
conditions, tankers, bulkers and container ships spend much lesser time in port on case
to case basis.

Unique Features of Seafaring

No other industry requires workers to remain in the confines of the working

environment, as is the case with the seafaring profession, excepting the oil industry
ashore and the army in war like situations. This unique nature of the profession can be
dealt with by realistic solutions, which are not easy to find, unless, thorough examination
and investigation is undertaken, or the measures adopted by the oil industry are
modified and applied to the seafaring profession.

The charm of foreign lands has vanished from the seafaring profession with the onset of
the information and space age, which lends global connectivity and mobility never,
imagined in the past.

Fatigue and Stress Issue

As of now, symptomatic diagnosis, followed by quick fix solutions like recording hours of
work and rest hours, and regulating work to deal with fatigue and stress issues in marine
conditions (Chapter VIII of STCW 95 Convention and ILO conventions), belie the
forthright approach needed to deal with these issues. It follows that fatigue, stress and
human factors are to be investigated and researched, to equip the serving seafarers and
new entrants to meet the challenges confirmed by the proceedings of the Maritime
Safety Committee of IMO in its various meetings on the subject matter.

Fatigue and stress factors due to reduced manning and new technologies are well
described in the case of Hoo Robin and Arklow Marsh in River Trent, the MAIB (press
release no. 248) decided that Master's judgement had been “Probably been adversely
affected by accumulating effects of fatigue”.

Seaworthiness and the Seafarer

The seafarer responds to the forces of the sea and adapts to dynamically changing
circumstances and situations and takes steps to keep the ship seaworthy. The seafarer
must remain properly equipped and motivated to perform this role at all times. The
prescribed behavior by specifying a procedure can only be used as a guideline, but not a
substitute for taking initiative for efficient performance.

The application of knowledge, understanding, skills and proficiency to complete a task

efficiently is a direct function of competence. The competence of a team helps to meet
the challenge of efficient ship operation. The competence requirements of all levels for
watch keeping functions are specified in detail in the STCW Convention.

Ship Operation

The last ten years trends of U.K. P&I CLUB claims point in the direction of claims arising
out of commercial pressure as follows:

Three out of every five major claims are directly related to human concludes the report.
Why people go on making mistakes a question which club data cannot adequately
answer. However, the evidence is that even properly trained personnel can become
careless even reckless when responding to commercial pressures or suffering from
fatigue; discomfort, boredom or stress. Specific risk areas appear to be:

1. Language problems in mixed nationality ships, and between ship and

shore side personnel, particularly when engaged in critical activities such
as berthing and bunkering
2. Confusion due to poor communication between pilot and master
3. Fatigue from smaller crews and shorter turnaround times in port
4. Pride inducing crew to carry out tasks which should be executed with
assistance
5. Calculated risks by masters and officers responding to commercial
pressures

A compromise on safety and efficiency has direct relationship with performance of the
ship to remain a viable commercial unit. The variability in competence and
its application through teamwork is a cause of serious concern.

The hostile commercial environment in response to unlimited forces of competence takes

its toll. It produces less committed, competent seafarers and reduces safety and
efficiency of ships for the immediate gain of economic efficiency. The ascendancy of this
approach almost rules over all other relational premises. The inter-relatedness of safe
and efficient with human relationships is a core element in the successful operation of a
ship.
Ways to Improve Interpersonal Relationship among Seafarers on board Ships

Working on ships is a “team effort”. A “one-man-show” cannot run the whole ship. In
order to perform operations smoothly and safety on board ships, good interpersonal
relationship among seafarers is a must. The ships are traditionally run as a semi-military
ideology; the US merchant marine is considered as a “second line of defence” and the
stratified and ranked roles of officers, crew and cadets are clearly follows a “command
and control” management approach. On a ship operating with fewer crew; recruited from
various country of origins; with different language, religion, cultural and social values;
and varying skill levels: it is not an easy task to form them into homogeneous and
harmonious teams.

The responsibility of senior management on ships are immense; where they must act as
role models and be impartial; open without being over-critical; mentor exercising
immense patience; yet, act with firm leadership in action, at time of crisis. This is only
possible when there is mutual trust and respect that is inculcated and practised amongst
the crew and a company-wide supporting culture would also help to positively influences
shipboard attitude and behaviuor.

As the number of people on board ships is limited, there are high chances of ego clashes
and dissatisfaction among crew members. As important it is to avoid politics on ships,
equally important it is to enhance interpersonal relationship between people on board to
ensure that all jobs are done smoothly and safety.
Working on ships is not an easy task and dissatisfaction and demotivation can easily be
developed among seafarers as a result of various kinds of stresses.

During such situation, it is the job of chief-engineer/chief officer/captain to get rid of

discontentment among people on ship and instill the importance of interpersonal
relationship.

As the number of people working on board is limited, everyone should try to know each
other in order to understand the cultural values, knowledge and skills each one has. This
is the first step towards developing interpersonal relationship on board ships.

However, chief engineer/captain/chief officer should take additional steps as mentioned

below to ensure that all team members are comfortable with each other both on and off
work.

1. Morning meetings (Tool box meeting): The morning meeting, which is

conducted to assign work to team members, is the best time to get all the
crew members together. It is necessary that crew members talk to each
other during such meetings and discuss their views and opinions. Each
member should be given a chance to provide suggestions regarding
improvement of work process and safety precautions to be taken. This
activity gives members a sense of responsibility and importance and also
works a great deal in enhancing their performance and interpersonal
relationship.
2. Tea-Breaks: Tea breaks if used efficiently can work wonders towards
enhancing “team effort”. It should be made compulsory to get all crew
members together during tea breaks to discuss the work in progress and
other important things that they feel are necessary.
3. On board training sessions: On board training session is yet another
important opportunity to get crew members together to impart important
working knowledge or conduct safety committee meetings. Captain and
chief engineer should arrange the meeting in such a way that maximum
crew members are able to participate. Learn more about team meeting on
board ships here.
4. Spending free time together: It is often seen that post working hours,
officers and crew members spend time in their own rooms instead of
getting together in officer or crew lounge. Watching movies and playing
games in free time is a solid way to know each other and build great
relationships both on and off work.
5. Arranging events: It is necessary to arrange recreational events or
sports which require crew members to participate in teams. This is a great
way to inculcate the importance of team spirit and building interpersonal
relationship among crew members. Find out more about sports played on
board ships here.
6. Parties and Get-together: Everyone likes to party and unwind once in a
while. Party is a great method to bond people together and improve
scarred relationships on board ships. However, it is necessary that they
 are arranged in such a way that maximum crew is able to participate.
Festival celebrations are also a great way to enhance interpersonal
relationships between people onboard.

The above mentioned methods are some of the main ones that are used onboard to
enhance relationships on board ships. Doing this would not only ensure smooth and safe
operations of the ship but would also improve productivity and employment satisfaction.

Contribute to effective human relationships on board shipTeam building

Team building
Five stages of team building include suggested actions to best support the team:

1. Forming: A group of people comes together to accomplish a shared purpose.

Their initial success will depend on their familiarity with each other's work style,
their experience on prior teams, and the clarity of their assigned mission. Your
role is to help the team members get to know each other whether you offer team
building activities or just a listening ear.
2. Storming: Disagreement about mission, vision, and ways to approach the
problem or assignment are constant at this stage of development. This struggle is
combined with the fact that team members are still getting to know each other,
learning to work with each other, and growing familiar with the interaction and
communication of group members. Help your team leader clarify each of these
assignments so that the team succeeds.
3. Norming: The team has consciously or unconsciously formed working
relationships that are enabling progress on the team’s objectives. The members
have consciously or unconsciously agreed to abide by certain group norms, and
they are becoming functional at working together. Ask for periodic updates from
the team. Regularly check the team's progress at agreed-upon intervals and
critical steps on the path to a successful conclusion.
4. Performing: Relationships, team processes, and the team’s effectiveness in
working on its objectives are syncing to bring about a successfully functioning
team. This is the stage at which the real work of the team is progressing. Ask for
periodic updates from the team. Help solve problems and provide input as
needed. Make sure that team members are communicating with all of the other
appropriate parties in your workplace.
5. Adjourning: The team has completed its mission or purpose and it is time for
team members to pursue other goals or projects. Make sure the team schedules
an ending ceremony. Whether they debrief the project and discuss how the team
could have been more successful or just order pizza, you will want to mark a
clear ending to the team or project.

These stages can be applied to all teams.

The length of time necessary for progressing through these stages depends on the
experience, knowledge, and skills of team members, and the support they receive. In
addition, teams may work at varying rates based on issues and obstacles they may
encounter, such as changing team members, tasks, and goals.
The purpose of creating teams is to provide a framework that will increase the ability of
employees to participate in planning, problem-solving, and decision making to better
serve the Company. Increased participation promotes:

 A better understanding of decisions

 More support for and participation in implementation plans
 Increased contribution to problem-solving and decision making
 More ownership of decisions, processes, and changes

In order for teams to fulfill their intended role of improving organizational effectiveness,
it is critical they develop into working units focused on their goal, mission, or reason for
existing. They do this by effectively progressing through the stages of development.

Notes

Contribute to effective human relationships on board shipTeam working skills and conflict resolution

Team working skills and conflict resolution

The concept of teamworking is captured here by giving you a role as a manager and take
you through the various concepts of managing people using personal initiative and using
practiced management skills toward conflict issues and becoming a successful ship's
officer by accomplishing a goal.

Contribute to effective human relationships on board shipTeam working skills and conflict
resolutionGroups and Teams

Groups and Teams

Contribute to effective communication on board ship

Contribute to effective communication on board ship

It is said that 70-80% of ship accidents occur due to improper communication among
seafarers on board. While there are many barriers to communication, there are also
ways to improve your communication skills.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipCommunication is Understanding

Communication is Understanding
Why do your wonderful ideas fall flat when you share them with your friend? It is
because you do not receive the expected feedback from your friend. In other words, you
are unable to communicate your ideas the way you conceived them. Communication
becomes effective when the receiver responds the same way as intended by the sender.

Communication is a two-way process involving exchange of ideas. It is a skill that you

acquire through practice.

In this section, you will :

 Realise that transfer of meaning or understanding is the most important aspect of

communication
 Become aware of the five Cs of communication .

Test Your Understanding

Test Your Understanding

The following media shows how a Team leader communicates important decisions to his
members.
Which of these two scenarios had a greater impact on you? Take the following activity to
know the principles of effective communication.

Better communication means effective transfer of meaning or the intended message to

the receiver.

In other words input should be equal to intake. Input is the sender’s message and intake
is the receiver’s understanding. In an ideal communication, input should equal intake.
Lack of proper input by the sender or intake by the receiver leads to miscommunication.
Therefore, a message should not have vocabulary and grammatical errors that can affect
the way it is understood or received.

The five Cs of communication are clarity, conciseness,completeness, correctness and

consistency. The following section, will discuss how these five Cs can help achieve this
ideal state of communication, input=intake.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipFive Cs of Communication

Five Cs of Communication
Be it a large corporation or a small company, effective communication is the key to your
success.

In this section, you are going to study the five Cs of communication. To communicate
effectively, you need to master the five Cs or the five principles of communication.

Five Cs of CommunicationClarity

Clarity
The first C of communication is clarity. Clarity relates to lack of ambiguity or vagueness
in a message. Listeners or readers should be able to understand the message clearly. 
Any strain or difficulty in understanding a text will mean that the message lacks clarity.
Speakers or writers should make a conscious effort to convey the meaning smoothly and
with ease. Use of simple words, correct grammar, proper sentence construction, proper
tone and clear voice contribute to clarity.

The following media shows you how lack of clarity leads to miscommunication.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipFive Cs of CommunicationCompleteness

Completeness
A message is 'complete' when it satisfies the expectation of the receiver of the message.
The receiver should not wonder why the message is partial, fragmented or broken. A
complete message should have a proper beginning, a middle and an end. The writer or
speaker must provide all the necessary details related to the topic. The receiver should
not make any kind of presumptions to understand a particular message. The sender
should anticipate the expectations and difficulties of the receiver and communicate a
complete message.

The following media explains about the Completeness:

Contribute to effective communication on board shipFive Cs of CommunicationConciseness

Conciseness

This would mean brevity or economy in the use of words. Unnecessary and liberal use of
words can be boring and can even distort the message. 'Wordiness' often has a negative
impact on the receiver. Receivers appreciate simple words as they can easily grasp the
meaning. It is better to use active voice rather than passive voice.

Conciseness means saying what you want in fewest possible words without sacrificing
the other C qualities. It saves time and expense of both sender and receiver.

Conciseness means to eliminate wordy expressions and to include only relevant material.

The following media shows the importance of conciseness in communication.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipFive Cs of CommunicationCorrectness

Correctness
This relates to accuracy in the use of grammar and vocabulary. The message should not
have grammatical errors, inappropriate words, spelling errors and so on. Any such error
will hinder the process of getting a message across to the receiver.

In this context, it is necessary to make a distinction between a developmental error and

a detrimental error. A sender makes a developmental error while attempting to use a
higher form of language. The receiver understands such a message in spite of the error.
A detrimental error refers to the mistakes that affect the process of receiving the
message.

For example, look at the following utterances:

1. I didn't come tomorrow. (The error is very glaring and confusing. Hence a
detrimental error)
2. While coming fastly, I did not saw the dog on the road.

This error is fundamental and distorts meaning. You should stay away from detrimental
errors and not feel shy of developmental ones.
The following media explains about the Correctness:

Contribute to effective communication on board shipFive Cs of CommunicationConsistency

Consistency
This factor relates to logicality or coherence. When the message is incoherent, it is very
difficult to make sense. All parts of the message should be systematically and logically
connected and interrelated. There should be no contradiction of ideas, or any deviation
from the central idea. Appropriate transitional words should be used to link the ideas.
Key terms and phrases must be repeated to maintain consistency.

The following media explains about the Consistency:

Contribute to effective communication on board shipMethods of communication

Methods of communication
The word Communication, is derived from the word 'communis' which means to share or
communicate. In simple, communication is the process of exchanging ideas, information
etc., between two or more persons. Communication process includes a sender, a
message and a recipient. Generally the communication may be in the form of verbal or
written.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipMethods of communicationVerbal and

Paraverbal Communication

Verbal and Paraverbal Communication

Verbal communication contributes to 45% of our communication. It involves the use of
language and meaning (both oral and written). Para-verbal communication is neither the
language nor the signs used in a communication, but the other channel of
communication that encompasses intonation, cadence, volume, and pace of saying
words. Verbal and para-verbal communication can be made effective through the choice
of right words & emphasis of the same.

Communication is a process which involves exchange of information, thoughts, ideas and

emotions. Based on the channels used for communication, the communication process
can be broadly classified as verbal communication and non verbal communication. Verbal
communication involves sending and receiving verbal messages between two individuals
or among a group of people. Verbal communication is essential for emotional wellbeing.
In paraverbal communication, neither the language nor the gestures are used. It
encompasses the tone, cadence and pace of saying words.
The following media, gives a detail information about verbal and
paraverbal communication.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipMethods of communicationVerbal and Paraverbal

CommunicationTypes of Verbal Communication

Types of Verbal Communication

The word verbal is connected with words and use of words. Any
communication using words, is verbal communication. Words are the
precise and powerful sets of symbols. Words not only denote but also
connote meanings. This is the prime reason, why all formal
communications are usually in words.

The following media gives a detail information about the types of

Verbal Communication.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipMethods of communicationVerbal and Paraverbal

CommunicationParaverbal Communication

Paraverbal Communication
Para-verbal communication refers to that communication in which the
sender transmits the message through tone, pitch and pacing of the
voice. In Para-verbal communication, the importance is laid on how we
say something, not what we say. Voice modulation is an important aspect
of oral presentation which includes pitch, range, speed, volume,
articulation and fluency. From vocal differences, the recipients can infer a
positive or a negative Para-verbal message.

The following media gives a detail information about the

characteristics of Para Verbal Communication:

Contribute to effective communication on board shipMethods of communicationNon-verbal Communication

Non-verbal Communication
Introduction
“ Any problem big or small, within a family or an organization always
seems to start with bad communication” Communication is the shared
feelings or shared understanding. Communication is the basis of every
effective relationship. If communication between people has died, then
relationship comes to an end. Communication influences people. It is an
important factor for success.
Contribute to effective communication on board shipMethods of communicationNon-verbal
CommunicationElement of Non- verbal Communication

Element of Non- verbal Communication

Elements of Non-verbal Communication:
Non-verbal communication is a vital form of communication. Most of the messages we
send to other people are nonverbal communication. There are six elements which comes
under the non-verbal communication and they are:

 Body language
 Silence
 Appearance
 Facial expressions
 Voice
 Eye contact

The following media gives a detail information about Elements of

Non-verbal Communication. 

Contribute to effective communication on board shipMethods of communicationNon-verbal

CommunicationTypes of Non- verbal Communication – Posture and Facial Expression

Types of Non- verbal Communication – Posture and

Facial Expression 
Facial expression
The expression on the face is an important mode of non-verbal communication. Facial
expressions are often the basis of significant impressions about a person. These
impressions could be friendliness, trustworthiness, status of a person etc. A smile, frown,
raised eyebrow, yawn and sneer can also convey information.

The following media gives a detail information about importance of Facial

expression.

Postures:
Posture is the way a person holds himself. Postures and gestures are not
to be confused, as the former is more or less a stable state and the later
is associated with movements. A person's body postures communicate a
rich variety of messages. Though difficult to interpret, it contributes much
to communication.
The following media gives a detail information about postures and its
classification.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipMethods of communicationNon-verbal

CommunicationTypes of non verbal communication - Gestures

Types of non verbal communication -  Gestures

Learning Objectives
At the end of this sub topic, you would have learnt about

 Gestures and Gestures in various cultures

 Gestures in an Interview

Gestures:

Movements of hands, face, legs, and other parts of the body to express something could
be either voluntary or an automatic instinctive response and such activities are known as
gestures.

The following media gives a detail information about gestures and gestures in
various cultures:

Gestures in Interview:
Gestures play a very significant role in an interview. Gestures define the body language
or the expression of individuals when he/she appears for an interview. In fact human
body is an instrument of expressions. Gestures are expressed through your body
language such as eye contact, appropriate facial expressions, pleasing smile, good
listening etc.

The following media gives a detail information about Gestures in an Interview:

Positive and Negative Gestures of Non-verbal Communication:

The following media gives a detail information about Positive and

Negative Gestures of Non-verbal communication:

ontribute to effective communication on board shipMethods of communicationNon-verbal

CommunicationStrategies for Improving Your Communication

Strategies for Improving Your Communication

Cultivate good body language and eradicate bad ones. Analyse your present body
language and spell out what is good and bad. Here are few strategies by which you can
improve your body language.

 Don’t cross your arms or legs

 Have eye contact, but don’t stare
 Don’t be afraid to take up some space
 Relax your shoulders
 Nod when others are talking
 Don’t slouch, sit up straight
 Lean, but not too much
 Smile and laugh
 Keep your head up
 Don’t fidget
 Use your hands more confidently
 Keep a good attitude
 Contribute to effective communication on board shipBarriers in Communication
 Barriers in Communication
 Communication plays a vital role in everyday affairs, whether it is our personal or
professional life. Communication can take place in several forms, both oral and
written. Even physical gestures play an important role in communication. The
tone and pitch of your voice makes a difference too. Therefore, one has to be
careful with all these barriers to communication.
 A communication becomes successful only when the receiver understands
completely what you tried to convey. When your message is not clearly
understood you should understand that you are facing a barrier to
communication. Barriers to effective communication could cause roadblocks in
your professional and personal life and it could be one of the major hurdles in
achieving your goals. This topic provides you with guidance and techniques you
can use to effectively manage these communication barriers and positively
influence your communication outcomes.
 Contribute to effective communication on board shipBarriers in CommunicationGeneral Barriers
 General Barriers
 Barriers to good communication result from poor coding and decoding of
information in the process of communication. The speaker or the writer codes the
information.The receiver (listener or the reader) may not get exactly the same
message while decoding it. This loss of infomation is due to several factors. They
are called as barriers to communication. Normally there is 50% to 70% loss of
meaning while conveying the messages from a sender to a receiver.
 At the end of this section you will be able to understand how physical proximity,
perception, emotion, culture, gender, language and lack of subject knowledge can
be barriers to effective communication.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipBarriers in CommunicationGeneral BarriersPhysical

Barriers

Physical Barriers
The following media explains about the Physical Barriers:
Some locations are better than others for communicating to others. Even simple changes
to layout of the room, more or even fewer lights, change of temperature, more space to
move around in, or less background noise can make a big difference to the way the
speaker and the receivers feel.

Following are the physical barriers:

The Competing Stimulus: It becomes very difficult to pass on the message orally, if
another confirmation giving information simultaneously within hearing distance,
sometimes-loud music or traffic noise creates barrier in the communication process.

Environmental Stress: When a strong light can create undesired strain on the eyes of
the communicator, message is not received properly. A high temperature, humidity, bad
ventilation etc. contribute in the sending and receiving of message.

Subjective Stress: Due to sleeplessness, ill health, consumption of drugs, mental strain

etc. communicator can not interpret the message in desired manner.

Ignorance of Media: User should be well conversant with media that is adopted for
conveying the message. The use of a media with which the receiver is not familiar would
turn the media itself into a barrier. For example, the uses of visual media like maps and
charts to instruct workers, who have not been familiar with maps and charts, would
switch off their attention for lack of knowledge of the media.

Technical Barriers: Mechanical barriers include any disturbances, which interfere with

the fidelity of the physical transmission of the message. A telephone in poor working
condition creates mechanical barrier. In mass communication, mechanical barriers also
include smeared ink in the printed matter, a rolling screen on TV, a type too small to be
read in the newspaper. Mechanical devices used for the communication need frequent
checking and proper maintenance.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipBarriers in CommunicationGeneral

BarriersPerceptual Barriers

Perceptual Barriers
The problem with communicating with others is that we all see the world
differently. Each person views the world in different ways based on past experience, age,
nationality, culture, education, occupation, sex, status and personality.

The following media explains about the Perceptual Barriers:

Contribute to effective communication on board shipBarriers in CommunicationGeneral BarriersEmotional

Barriers

Emotional Barriers
One of the chief barriers to open and free communications is the emotional barrier. It is
comprised mainly of fear, mistrust and suspicion. The roots of our emotional mistrust of
others lie in our childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful what we said
to others. As a result many people hold back from communicating their thoughts and
feelings to others. They feel vulnerable.

While some caution may be wise in certain relationships, excessive fear of what others
might think of you can stunt your development as effective communicators and your
ability to form meaningful relationships.

As a speaker:

Any strong emotion will result in only the emotion being transmitted with no information.
Positive emotions like energy, enthusiasm, vitality and commitment, are necessary but if
there are traces of negative energy like anger, depression, frustration, hurt then
probably it is better to leave the information giving to another time.

As a receiver:

Your emotions could also be a barrier to communication if you are engrossed in your
emotions for some reason. In such cases, you tend to have trouble listening to others or
understanding the message conveyed to you.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipBarriers in CommunicationGeneral BarriersCultural

Barriers

Cultural Barriers
We live in a culturally diverse world. You will encounter individuals from different races,
religions, and nationalities in your day to day encounters. Effective communication with
people of different cultures is especially challenging. Cultures provide people with ways
of thinking--ways of seeing, hearing, and interpreting the world. Thus the same words
can mean different things to people from different cultures, even when they talk the
"same" language. There is often anxiety surrounding unfamiliar cultures. What manners
are acceptable? What will offend a person from a very different background? It can be
paralysing to deal with other people if you do not know what to expect.
Knowing about other cultures will help you develop your skills. Be proactive when
approaching a new culture. This is a learned skill which means it will require research,
practice, and growth. People from different backgrounds may have varied approaches to
conflict management, learning styles, family structure, religion, and most other aspects
of life. It is impossible to know the varied systems of all cultures, so approach this
process one culture at a time as you meet and deal with new people.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipBarriers in CommunicationGeneral BarriersLanguage

Barriers

Language Barriers

Language that describes what we want to say in our terms may present
barriers to others who are not familiar with our expressions, buzz-words
and jargons. Use the strategies below to ensure you're not putting up
your own roadblocks to effective international communication.

Same language:

Keep it Simple - Simple vocabulary means more people can understand what is being
talked about. This goes both ways – when communicating to someone who is weaker in
the language you speak, or when they are communicating to you.
Speak slowly and clearly - Focus on clearly enunciating and slowing down your
speech. Even if you’re pressured for time, don’t rush through your communication. Doing
so often takes more time, as miscommunication and misunderstanding can result and
you’ll ultimately have to invest additional time in clearing up the confusion.

Avoid idioms - Business language is often contextual, and therefore culture specific. For
example, in the US, baseball terms are used extensively: ‘Straight off the Bat,’ ‘Ballpark
figures,’ ‘Out in left field,’ ‘Touch base,’ ‘Strike a deal’. As a good general rule, if the
phrase requires knowledge of other information— be it a game or metaphor—recognize
that this may make your communication more difficult to be understood.

Be careful of jargon - Watch the use of TLAs (Three Letter Abbreviations) and other
organizational language that may not be understood by others. If you use them, provide
in parentheses a description of what these are so others can learn to use the same
language you do.

Inability to converse in a language that is known by both the sender and receiver is the
greatest barrier to effective communication. When a person uses inappropriate words
while conversing or writing, it could lead to misunderstanding between the sender and a
receiver. Typically, little communication occurs unless one or both parties learns a new
language, which requires an investment of time and effort. People travelling abroad
often encounter a language barrier.

People who come to a new country at an adult age, when language learning is a
cumbersome process, can have particular difficulty "overcoming the language barrier".
Similar difficulties occur at multinational meetings, where translation services can be
costly, hard to obtain, and prone to error.

Notes

Contribute to effective communication on board shipBarriers in CommunicationGeneral BarriersGender

Barriers

Gender Barriers
The following media explains about the Gender Barriers:

There are distinct differences between the speech patterns in a man and those in a
woman. A woman speaks between 22,000 and 25,000 words a day whereas a man
speaks between 7,000 and 10,000. The reason for this lies in the wiring of a man's and
woman's brains. When a man talks, his speech is located in the left side of the brain but
in no specific area. When a woman talks, the speech is located in both hemispheres and
in two specific locations. This means that a man talks in a linear, logical and
compartmentalised way, features of left-brain thinking; whereas a woman talks more
freely mixing logic and emotion, features of both sides of the brain. It also explains why
women talk for much longer than men each day.

Men are widely observed to come quickly to the point they wish to make, while women
tend to use more detail in leading up to the point. In communicating with women, men
may become impatient as they search for the point, or lose interest. If they interrupt,
women can be frustrated or offended. In talking with men, therefore, women can use
two techniques to communicate more effectively. First, begin with the point, or "bottom
line," if possible. Second, omit unnecessary detail. On the other hand, men can refrain
from interrupting, or take care not interrupt immediately. When leading a conversation,
men cannot expect that women will interrupt when they have something to say.

Notes
Contribute to effective communication on board shipBarriers in CommunicationGeneral BarriersLack of
Subject Knowledge

Lack of Subject Knowledge

If a person who sends a message lacks subject knowledge then he may not be able to
convey his message clearly. The receiver could misunderstand his message, and this
could lead to a barrier to effective communication

As a receiver:

Communication is always difficult if the person “transmitting” the message and the
person who is receiving the message have a different knowledge background.
Contribute to effective communication on board shipBarriers in CommunicationBarriers to
Effective Listening

Barriers to Effective Listening

A typical speaker says about 125 words per minute. A typical listener can receive 400-
600 words per minute. Thus, about 75 percent of listening time is free time. The free
time often diverts the listener. To overcome this problem, be an active listener rather
than a passive one.

Key Factors

The key factors which create barriers to effective listening are:

Focusing on a personal agenda. When we spend our listening time formulating our

next response, we cannot be attentive to the speaker.

Criticizing the speaker.We get distracted by critical evaluations of the speaker when
we focus on the messenger rather than the message.

Understanding speech rate vs thought rate. Speech rate is usually much slower

than the rate at which we think. To understand a speaker , you may need to listen and
think than merely focusing on the words spoken. Conversely, to enable a non native
listener understand better, it may be important for the speaker to slow down the rate of
speech.

Experiencing physical difficulty. Feeling physically unwell, or experiencing pain can

make it very difficult to listen effectively. You may wish to communicate that this is not a
good time, and reschedule the discussion. Otherwise, you may need to concentrate
intensely on you listening to the point being strained.

Experiencing information overload. Too much information can make it very difficult

to listen with full attention.

Overcoming the barriers

One important listening skill is to be prepared to listen. A listener's premature frown,

shaking of the head, or bored look can easily convince the other person there is no
reason to elaborate or try again to communicate his or her excellent idea.

Stop. Focus on the other person, their thoughts and feelings. Give your full attention to
the speaker.

Look. Pay attention to non-verbal messages, without letting yourself be distracted.

Notice
body language and non-verbal cues to allow for a richer understanding of the speaker’s
point.

However, avoid getting distracted from the verbal message.

Listen. Listen for the essence of the speaker’s thoughts, details, major ideas and their

meanings. Seek an overall understanding of what the speaker is trying to communicate,

rather

than reacting to the individual words or terms that they use to express themselves.

Be empathetic. Imagine how you would feel in their circumstances. You need not be
drawn into all of their problems or issues, as long as you acknowledge what they are

experiencing.

Ask questions. Use questions to clarify your understanding, as well as to demonstrate

interest in what is being said.

Provide feedback. Providing feedback is the most important active listening skill. Nod
in agreement. Look the person straight in the eye. Lean forward. Be an animated
listener. Repeat key points.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipBarriers in CommunicationBarriers to Effective

Speaking

Barriers to Effective Speaking

"All big things have little names such as life and death, peace and war, or dawn, day,
night, hope, love, and home. Learn to use little words in a big way. It is hard to do, but
they say what you mean. When you don't know what you mean - use big words; they
often fool little people."

We live in a "verbal" environment. Speech constitute the most frequently used tool for
communicating. Spoken words usually facilitate communication. They have the power to
create emotions and move people to take action. However, careless, improper use of
language in a given situation, can create a communication barrier.

On completion of this section you will be able to:

 Understand the internal and external barriers to effective speaking

 Apply techniques to overcome the barriers

Key Factors

Unless you know the nuances of the language of communication, you will not be able to
convey your message effectively. For the message to reach the correct audience, it
should be concise, accurate and understandable.
Interruptions - The interruptions may be due to lack of privacy for discussion, a drop-
in visitor, an emergency, or even the curiosity of someone else wanting to know what
two other people are saying. In the extreme case, there is a reluctance among people
even to attempt discussion with another person because of the near certainty that the
conversation will be interrupted. Less extreme but serious is the problem of incomplete
instructions because someone came and interrupted.

Lacking clarity.

Different people may interpret the same words differently. Sometimes abstract, overly-
formal language, colloquialisms, and jargon, can obscure your message more than they
serve to impress people.

Using stereotypes.

Most people learn from their own experiences and run the risk of treating different
people as if they were the same i.e. if you’ve met one doctor and you think all the
doctors are same.

Stereotyping leads to typifying a person, a group, an event or a thing on oversimplified

conceptions, beliefs, or opinions. Stereotyping is a barrier to communication when it
causes people to act as if they already know the message that is coming from the sender
or worse, as if no message is necessary because "everybody already knows."

Jumping to conclusions.

Confusing, facts with inferences, is a common tendency. Assuming you know the reasons
behind events, or that certain facts necessarily have certain implications is a common
mistake.

The lack of concentration results in people “jumping to conclusions” based on what they
think they saw or heard, or completing the sentence with their own words or thoughts,
which can be totally different from what was said or written.

Using disconfirming responses. There are a number of ways that you might respond
to other people which have a negative effect on the communication between you and
others.

The two most common barriers are:

 failing to acknowledge attempts to communicate (giving no response at all)

 making an irrelevant response (not addressing what was just said)

Lacking Confidence.

A lack of confidence can be a major barrier to effective communication. Shyness,

difficulty being assertive, or lack of self-worth can hinder your ability to make your needs
and opinions known. Also, a lack of awareness of your own rights and opportunities in a
given situation can prevent you from expressing your needs openly.

Overcoming the barriers

Focus on what you know. Describe your own feelings rather than evaluating others.
Express yourself in terms of information, observations, and specific issues, rather than
making assumptions about other people or situations.

Focus on the issue, not the person. Try not to take everything personally, and
similarly, express your own needs and opinions in terms of the issue at hand. Solve
problems rather than attempt to control others.

Be genuine rather than manipulative. Be yourself. Be honest with yourself, focus on

working well with the people around you, and act with integrity.

Be flexible towards others. Be open to other's way of doing and expressing things.
Diversity brings creativity and innovation.

Present yourself as an equal rather than a superior. Even when you are in a

position of authority, focus on what you and the other person each have to offer and
contribute to the job or issue.

Use confirming responses. Respond to other in ways that acknowledge their

experiences. Thank them for their input. Confirm their right to their feelings, even if you
disagree. Ask questions, express positive feeling; and provide positive feedback when
you can.

Be consistent between verbal and non-verbal cues. Non-verbal cues tend to be

more convincing than verbal messages. For example, if you are expressing a serious
concern to someone, do not grin broadly while discussing it, then the listener may not
know whether to take you seriously or not.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipBarriers in CommunicationBarriers to Effective

Writing

Barriers to Effective Writing

Your writing can and will make a statement about you in the reader's mind. It can
portray you as a polished, knowledgeable individual - or a sloppy, unsophisticated one.

Effective writing starts with a good grasp of the mechanics of writing. Those include
grammar, punctuation, spelling, and knowing the difference between like-sounding
words and using them appropriately.

When thoughts and ideas are expressed clearly and succinctly in writing, the reader is
able to understand the message and the intent of the writer. Effective communication
occurs.

While certain liberties and poetic license might be acceptable in some forms of writing,
for business or academic communication it is imperative that written communication be
clear, concise and mechanically sound.

Key Factors
It is important to understand that a person might be a skilled speaker, yet have poor
writing skills. You may be able to sell an idea or win over an audience with a verbal
presentation - yet lose them in follow-up written communication.

Written communication differs in many ways from oral interactions. Although writing can
be used for two-way communication, as with e-mail or text-based chat rooms on the
Internet, it is mostly one-way rather than interactive.

Written communication, taking place between writers and readers who are not in contact
with each other and have no opportunity for interactive clarification of meaning and
intent, demands much more than speech with respect to clarity of intent, content, and
the unstated implications of what is said.

At the same time, while spoken utterances are retained only in the memories of the
hearers, if at all, writing remains a durable record of what has been said, and can be
read by any number of people, even over expanses of space and time. If there are errors
or misinformation in written materials, it is very difficult to correct them once the
materials are distributed. This again shows how important it is that the intent and
meaning of written texts be as clear as possible.
 Overcoming the barriers

When writing, once something is in written form, it cannot be taken back.

Communicating in this way is more concrete than verbal communications, with less room
for error. This presents written communicators with new challenges, including spelling,
grammar, punctuation, even writing style and actual wording.

Familiarise yourself with the basic tips (PDF) importantant for effective writing.

While this takes some practice, there are many sources available to assist with writing
style, including “The Elements of Style”, by Strunk and White.

In writing, tact is always necessary in formal situations where you do not know the
audience very well or you have to communicate unwelcome, controversial or provocative
information. In such situations you need to get the balance right between
communicating necessary information and maintaining good relations.

Few points on writing tactfully are discussed here.

Conflicting Situations General Situations

 When making any kind of accusation or
criticism, avoid 'I......you' sentences.
 Avoid starting off with negative phrases
('I did not tell you to do that...').
 Avoid starting off with subjective verbs
like 'I believe', 'I feel', 'I think' and try to
put the facts of the situation first.
 Avoid phrases like 'it would seem that' or
'it appears that' as a basis for
judgement.
 Don't over-use intensifiers like
'absolutely' and 'totally' and avoid using
bold or underlining as emphasis.
 Always try to put the context or history
first before making any difficult request
– to help people in understanding why
they have to do something.
 Avoid exclusive phrases like 'as everyone
is aware' or 'as you all no doubt know'.
 Avoid 'must' and 'should' when making
requests in favour of 'would' and
'please'.
 When making requests to a large group,
use the collective term instead of 'you'

Perhaps the most important thing to remember when you write something is to check it
thoroughly when it is completed. Even when you think it is exactly what you want, read
it once more. This “unwritten” rule holds true for everything you write – articles, reports,
letters, proposals, and so on.

When checking your written communications, make sure the document is clear and
concise. Is there anything in the written communication that could be misinterpreted? Is
your written communication well organized? Does each idea proceed logically to the
next? Close appropriately, making sure to include your contact information. While this
may seem obvious, it is sometimes overlooked and can make your written
communications look amateurish. This can diminish your chances of meeting your
written communication’s goals.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipEffective Listening skills

Effective Listening skills

Effective listening is an important part of communication. Listening is a very active
process, unlike the general assumption that it is simple and does not require much of an
effort. A listener concentrates on the message that is spoken by the speaker. Upon
effective listening, he would be able to aptly respond to the speaker. Listening is an
activity where meaning is exchanged between the speaker and the listener. In the
absence of getting across the correct meaning or message, listening is said to have
failed.

ontribute to effective communication on board shipEffective Listening skillsListening Carefully

Listening Carefully
Often people put in more effort to become effective speakers and writers, rather than
become effective listeners. People think that listening is easy and it comes naturally to
human beings. But this is only a false assumption. Listening can be a difficult task too for
many people. It needs constant practice to develop good listening habits.

You learn a lot by listening. Others respect you and take you seriously only when you
listen to them effectively. Listening plays a role in enhancing your speaking skills too.
Listening effectively is an excellent habit to accumulate lot of knowledge in a short time.

The following media explains about the Listening:

ontribute to effective communication on board shipEffective Listening skillsListening Carefully

Listening Carefully
Often people put in more effort to become effective speakers and writers, rather than
become effective listeners. People think that listening is easy and it comes naturally to
human beings. But this is only a false assumption. Listening can be a difficult task too for
many people. It needs constant practice to develop good listening habits.

You learn a lot by listening. Others respect you and take you seriously only when you
listen to them effectively. Listening plays a role in enhancing your speaking skills too.
Listening effectively is an excellent habit to accumulate lot of knowledge in a short time.

The following media explains about the Listening:

Contribute to effective communication on board shipEffective Listening skillsBad Habits of Listening

Bad Habits of Listening

If people listen to you, you feel happy. You feel important and accepted. Likewise, if
others don't pay attention to what you are saying, you feel isolated. Bad listening is very
common, but not always intentional. It happens by way of habit. Make sure that you do
not develop any of the following habits, which may come in your way of becoming an
effective listener. Some of the irritating habits are:

 Interrupting the speaker

 Not looking at the speaker
 Rushing the speaker and making him feel that he is wasting time
 Showing interest in something other than the conversation
 Getting ahead of the speaker and finishing her thoughts
 Not responding to the speaker's requests
 Forgetting what was talked about previously
 Asking too many questions about details.

The following media shows some of the bad habits of listening.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipEffective Listening skillsBarriers to Effective Listening

Barriers to Effective Listening

Listening and communication go hand-in-hand. Effective listening leads to effective
communication. Good listeners are good communicators. There are several reasons
which hinder effective listening.

The following sections will deal with the barriers to effective listening, which have been
grouped under the following two heads:

 Internal Barriers
 External Barriers

Internal Barriers

The following are the internal barriers of listening:

 Not focusing on the message - As listeners, you can mentally handle more
than 400 spoken words per minute. But speakers can speak only 125-175 words
per minute. This allows your mind to wander into other thoughts. Sometimes
speakers present a thought or word which remind you of a past experience. At
once you start to think about the experience and soon forget about the speaker.
 Passive listening - Passive listening is easier than focusing on what the speaker
is saying. In a word, you pretend to listen, but actually think of something else.
This results in ineffective communication.
 External distraction - Often, external factors become a barrier to effective
communication. There are lot of other activities going on while you are trying to
communicate. This takes your attention away from the speaker. It is better to
continue , when the environment is conducive.
  Early conclusion - You should wait for the speaker to finish before responding.
You will miss out on information if you are too busy thinking about your own
response. You can ask questions to clarify doubts, or politely suggest that the
speaker's message does convey his actual intention.
 Unfamiliar language - You need to put in effort to understand words or
concepts you are not familiar with. Most often you fake attention in such cases as
the topic of discussion fails to draw your interest.
 Preset ideas about the topic - Your preconceived ideas about the topic or the
speaker prompts you to accept conclusions beforehand. In such situations, you
deprive the speaker a fair hearing.

External Barriers

Many external barriers also hinder effective listening. Some of them are:

 Not speaking loudly: Sometimes, soft or low voice of the speaker makes it

difficult for the listener to understand the message clearly.
 Mannerisms: Speaker's mannerisms like scratching the head, using too many
fillers , fidgeting, clock watching can be distracting for the listener.
 Loud noises: Loud noises, like blaring loud speaker, people shouting, busy traffic
can also make it difficult for the listener to concentrate.
 Room temperature: Conducive conditions are very necessary for effective
listening. If the room or place is too hot or cold or not properly ventilated, then
effective communication cannot take place.
 Interruptions: Frequent interruptions on the part of the speaker can impede
listening. This could be phone calls, talking to other people in between, taking
frequent breaks,etc.
 Deadlines: Effective listening cannot take place if the listener has some
deadlines to meet. The listener's mind will be pre-occupied with the task on hand
instead of what is being said.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipEffective Listening skillsImproving

Listening Skills

Improving Listening Skills

As there is a solution to every problem, likewise you have many ways to improve your
listening skills. Take the case of Peter and see what his friend did to help him.

The following media explains about the Improving Listening Skills:

Contribute to effective communication on board shipEffective communication

Effective communication
In all aspects of our lives, communicating is an essential skill that we use to make
friends, build relationships, and carry out everyday functions at work and play. Everyone
has their individual style of communicating, some people being more effective at it than
others. Your ability to communicate can determine how successful you will be at
maintaining relationships or progressing through the ranks in the workplace. Rarely does
this ability or lack of it become life threatening. If the communication process breaks
down, we can retreat to another room, office or even get away from the situation . . .
and life will go on.

At sea, the situation is very different. Your safety, along with the safety of crew and
vessel, is dependent on how well people communicate on the vessel. Not only the safety
concerns, but everyday life on the vessel can be “awkward” if the communication
process breaks down. There is nowhere to retreat to or get away from the situation – the
issues are full front and center. Using the wrong wording or a “perceived” improper tone
can easily lead to problems. Appropriate communication on the vessel will not only make
it safer and maintain an amicable attitude amongst crew, but will also make daily life
much more pleasant.

Communication is the process of exchanging information, knowledge, emotion and

understanding between parties. This process can be executed in three ways.

1. One way communication

Transmission from sender to receiver with no desire or intention for feedback

 Fast, simple instructions

 With no feedback, we are unsure if the message was heard or understood
 Crew may not hear the full message or misinterpret it, resulting in confusion. This
misunderstanding will leave both parties frustrated and stressed.

2. Two way communication

Transmission of information back and forth between parties

 This process requires more time

 You receive feedback that helps you determine whether the message has been
received and interpreted properly
 If the message has been misunderstood, the person delivering the message will
know this immediately and they will have to transmit the message again, with
increased volume or different choice of wording

3. Non-verbal communication
Transmission of information and feelings through gestures and body language

 Non-verbal communication may be the only way to transmit your message, if

there is a lot of background noise or a substantial distance between the two
parties, as can often be the case when we are at sea.
 If we combine non-verbal methods with a verbal message, we will increase the
impact of the transmission and it may be deciphered and understood quicker than
a verbal message alone. Captain’s verbal message to raise an anchor can be
enhanced by pointing up and rotating hand.
 However if we are utilizing two ways of transmitting a message, we must make
sure that they are in sync and delivering the same message. Otherwise the
recipient will get mixed messages and confusion results.
Effective communication on board a vessel also relies on crew members being good
listeners. They must be attentive in order to receive and decipher the complete
message, as well as make the speaker feel heard and understood. If the audience is not
focused on the speaker, only part of the message is received, resulting in frustration and
hostility in both parties.

On beautiful sunny days at sea, with moderate wind on the stern quarter, life on the
vessel can be pure bliss. However, a small change in weather conditions, or a
mechanical failure can increase the stress levels on the vessel, putting the emotional
atmosphere on the vessel into a tailspin. This is when effective communication is
required the most, but the increase in stress usually reduces our ability to transmit
messages and listen effectively. This in turn leads to a misinterpretation of the message
and friction builds between the parties.

If the physical environment (weather/mechanical breakdown) continues to deteriorate,

emotions will run high and possibly get out of hand. The communication process
becomes disrupted and can completely break down. Crew relations and safety will be
jeopardized.

This is a time when effective communication needs to be at its peak so all crew can work
as a team. Quite often, changing environmental conditions require quick thinking,
problem solving, and creative ideas. If the crew is communicating well with each other,
they will remain focused, allowing ideas and solutions to flourish.

There are also situations where crew members need to react very quickly. An
approaching hazard may require immediate response to commands and there may be
little time for two-way communication. The “order” comes across urgently and the crew
needs to react with speed and precision. It will be the tone of voice and the volume that
will demand the appropriate response. Many times, it is just this tone and volume that
gets the backs up of crew members. Therefore, in the general day-to-day running of the
vessel, communication needs to be clear and concise, involving participation from both
parties. This takes time and quite often a concerted effort.

Effective communication is one of the key factors that helps create and maintain a safe
environment on and around your vessel. This will not only make for safer voyages, it will
maintain an amicable crew, and miles of pleasant sailing.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipEffective communicationInteracting with

Shipboard Personnel

Interacting with Shipboard Personnel

Effective interaction with shipboard personnel is vital to ensure a smooth voyage. The
focus of this course is primarily on providing you an insight into operational instructions
during watchkeeping on bridge, on passage and during bad weather.

On Passage

Instructions during watchkeeping and on passage and during bad weather are unique to
shipping industry. The communication must be precise and clear. Reliable officers are
handed over the charge of ship when the master retires for the night. The
communication must, therefore, be written in the Night Order Book and must be signed.

At the end of this topic, you will be able to:

 explain how the instructions are given during watchkeeping

 describe how the Third officer and cadet interact during passage
 understand the communication required during bad weather

The following media shows the activities carried out during watchkeeping on passage.

Watchkeeping on Bridge

During the 2000 to 2400 watch on the bridge on a calm clear night, the Master expects
to retire for night and leaves the vessel in the hands of his reliable officers. His
instructions for the night are written in the Night Order Book, which is signed by the
officers. A proper lookout is kept.

The Master comes onto bridge during Third Officer's watch. He writes in the Night Order
Book and speaks to the Third Officer who is keeping a lookout through the wheelhouse
windows. He then goes down companionway to boat deck.

This following media gives you a brief conversation between the Master and the Third
Officer.

Watchkeeping in Engine Room, UMS Ship

During a routine voyage, equipment must be tested and minor incidents occur
requiring communication between the deck and engineer officers on duty.

This following media is a brief conversation between the Third Engineer and the

Third Officer during watchkeeping in the engine room in an Unmanned
Machinery Spaces ship (UMS ship).
Instructions to Cadet
An uninterrupted watch provides opportunities for the officer on watch to tutor the cadet
on watch; however, a proper lookout must be maintained.

This media shows how the Third Officer observes and tutors the cadet during
watchkeeping.

Handing over Watch

A small fishing vessel is detected by an effective vessel lookout and action is

taken to avoid collision.

Scenario: Cadet receives instruction from Third Officer and then leaves the
bridge for the accommodation. The Cadet returns to the Bridge and the Seaman
goes down to call his relief. The Seaman returns to the Bridge and after a short
while the Second Officer’s Seaman comes on the Bridge. After a brief handover
Third Officer’s Cadet and Seaman go down after reporting to the Third Officer.
The Second Officer arrives on the bridge.

Third Officer handing over the watch to the Second Officer leaves the bridge and
Second Officer walks over to the bridge window and looks ahead. The Second
Officer then walks onto port bridge wing and speaks to his Seaman on lookout.
Seaman calls to Second Officer in wheelhouse. Second Officer tells Cadet to take
over the steering and Cadet comes into wheelhouse. The Second Officer goes to
port wing and watches the fishing boat pass.

This following media shows how the Third Officer, Second Officer, the Cadet and
the Seaman converse during the handing over watch for the above secenario.
Watchkeeping at Night in Traffic

The scenario shows typical communication between watchkeepers. Here the

officer on watch uses interaction with another vessel to instruct the cadet on
watch and to take appropriate action, that is to give way by altering course.

Scenario: The Second Officer and cadet on starboard wing of bridge discussing about the
vessel ahead of them and RoR in general. Seaman from port wing comes to starboard
wing to inform the Second Officer regarding a vessel on the starboard bow. All of them
come onto the bridge. The Second Officer goes to look at radar display. A short while
later the Second Officer goes to the radar to check the distance between the vessels and
closest point of approach. He then returns to the bridge wing. The cadet at wheel is
altering to starboard. Later after the crossing vessel is clear, the Second Officer tells the
cadet to resume original course.

This following media shows how the Third Officer, Second Officer, the Cadet and
the Seaman converse during watchkeeping at night in traffic for the above
scenario.

Bad Weather – On the Bridge

Warning of severe weather has been received and action is being taken to
ensure all is ready.

The following media shows the steps taken on the bridge to combat bad
weather.

Bad Weather – In the Engine Room

Severe weather precautions are just as necessary in the engine room.

Everything must be secure and preparations made to alter engine speed.
The following media shows the steps taken in the engine room to combat bad
weather.

Easing the Motion

The following media shows the Master commanding from the bridge to ease the
motion and stresses on the ship, slow it down rather than alter course.

Contribute to effective communication on board shipEffective communicationInteraction with Shore personnel

Interaction with Shore personnel

Communication with Office Personnel

The Master on behalf of his ship and the crew has to communicate regularly with the
Office personnel in connection with various operations of the ship.

Scenario: A 38,000 DWT bulk carrier “M V Jupiter Ace” is on a voyage from Vizag to
Hong Kong. The carrier is scheduled for drydocking after completion of discharging cargo
at Hong Kong. Preparations such as tank cleaning etc., are in progress for the
drydocking. One day before arrival in Hong Kong, the Master calls the Marine
Superintendent in-charge of personnel.

The following media is a typical scenario of communication between the Master

and the Office personnel regarding some issues on board his ship.

Communication with External Parties

The crew needs to communicate with external parties on a day to day basis during the
business of the ship. Scenario: The ship orient express is arriving at port of Durban. The
chief officer from the ship's bridge is communicating to the port control regarding the
ship's arrival. The port control reciprocates with the berthing information. Port officials
arrive on the ship for inward clearance. The scenario depicts the communication that
takes place between the ship's crew and the external parties.

The following media is a typical example of the communication of the ship and
external parties upon arrival at a port.
Contribute to effective communication on board shipEffective communicationCommunication Prior
To Departure

Communication Prior to Departure

It is the captains duty to communicate the ships readiness to depart immediately before
the departure using the VHF. However, the responsibility may be delegated to the deck
officers. This is particularly in case the Master is involved in other important matters due
to the hectic schedule.

As a seafarer, you would need to be familiar with the various shipboard activities prior to
the vessel's departure. These include the draft check, communication with port
authority, security search, maneuvering preparations, meeting the pilot and singling up.

Draft Check

Final draft check becomes the important task during the preparation of a vessel for
departure.

Once the cargo operation is complete, the Chief Officer asigns the Duty Officer to read
the sea side draft with help of deck hand. Chief officer and draft surveyor
(receiver/shipper's representative) checks the drafts on shore side.

The following media shows the procedure for draft check prior departure.

When the communication is not face to face, there is need for identification.

Example: In the telephone communication between the Third Officer and the
Fourth Engineer each identifies himself.

Communication with port authority

On completion of draft check and cargo calculations, the vessel is finished with
port operations.

Then the vessel will have to inform the port authorities that the cargo operations
completed and the vessel is ready for departure. Accordingly the Port authority
issues the sailing time and and the pilot boarding instructions.
The following media shows the communication with port authority.

After confirming the departure schedule the ship staffs carries out security
search on board to ensure the security of the vessel prior departure.

Security Search

After the cargo operations are over, the vessel should prepare for departure from the
port.

Prior to departure preparations the vessel should complete the ship security search to
ensure that vessel is clear of security threat.

The ship security search will be carried out as per ship's security plan.

In general, Master is ship security officer and the Chief officer and Chief Engineer are
responsible for deck and engine department search areas on board a merchant vessel.

The security search consists of:

 Search for a stowaway

 Search for unidentified object / bomb / explosive
 Search for contraband items / drugs

The following media shows the activities involved in ship security search procedures.

After completing the above, vessel prepares for departure which is described in
next topic.

Preparations for departure

One of the operations during maneuvering preparations is controls test.

Both deck and engine teams are involved in testing steering and main engine.
The Third Officer and the Third Engineer liaise with each other to try out the
steering gear.

The following media demonstrates various communication involved among

shipboard personnel during departure preparations.

Controls test

All navigational equipment and communication equipment needs to be tested

prior to departure to ensure safe navigation of the vessel.

The following media explains the communication during steering test.

Testing Engines

Vessels main engine to be tested prior departure to ensure safe navigation of the
vessel within the confined waters of the port or terminal.

The following media describes the engine test prior departure.

Receiving the Pilot

Whenever the pilot boards the vessel, certain communication is involved with the Pilot
which is outlined in the following media.
Master Pilot information exchange

The most important communication prior departure of the vessel is between

Master and pilot which is necessary for exchanging the information about the
vessel and port respectively.

The following media illustrates a typical communication between master and

Pilot during the 'Master Pilot information exchange'.

Singling up

Singling up means to release all  lines but one each at forward and aft ends of
the vessel.

So that the released lines can be secured properly prior casting of last line, so
that the vessel can easily depart the berth.

After making fast the tugs at forward and aft, the singling up will be carried out
as shown in the following media.

Comply with emergency procedures

Comply with emergency procedures

This broad topic includes types of emergencies, signals and alarms for emergencies,
shipboard plans and preparations to combat emergencies including the emphasis on
shipboard drills and correct communications during emergencies.

The video shows how ships personnel must respond to an emergency situation 
 Comply with emergency proceduresTypes of emergencies

Types of emergencies
There can be various types of emergencies occurring on board ships. Here, we
discuss the major ones, while acknowledging there could be many other. As a
priority, we are seriously concerned with those challenges that can sink a ship.
while many other emergencies remain our concerns. Each one of thee will need
the shipboard actions from the crew toward their own lifesaving, involving
rescue from the stricken ship on lifeboats, liferafts; communicating from such
rescue boats and make it to their safety.
Causes of Total Losses 2006-2015

  2006 200 2008 2009 201 2011 2012 201 2014 2015 Grand
7 0 3 total

Foundered (sunk, 64 69 73 61 64 45 55 70 50 63 614

submerged)

Wrecked/stranded 29 35 34 23 23 28 26 21 18 12 219
(grounded)

Fire/explosion 19 18 16 14 11 8 13 15 6 3 123

Collision (involving 23 17 12 13 10 3 5 2 2 3 90
vessels)

Machinery 11 14 8 7 4 6 15 2 5 2 74
damage/failure

Hull damage (holed, 4 11 4 7 4 3 6 1 4 2 46

cracks, etc.)

Miscellaneous 1 3 1 2 6 1 1 1 2   18

Contact (e.g. 2 2 1 1     2   1   9
harbour wall)

Piracy   1   1 2 1         5

Missing/overdue 1 1     1           3

Grand Total 154 171 149 129 125 95 123 112 88 85 1,231
Source: Lloyd’s List Intelligence Casualty Statistics. Data Analysis & Graphic: Allianz
Global Corporate & Specialty

Comply with emergency proceduresTypes of emergenciesCollision

Collision
Collision and Allision - These terms are sometimes used interchangeably, but technically,
a collision is when two vessels strike each other, while an allision occurs when a vessel
strikes a stationary object, such as a bridge or dock.

In case of collision, the following should be considered as a general plan of action, with
suitable modifications to suit the actual type of ship involved:

 Stopping engines, sounding the general alarm (and fire alarm, if necessary).
 Assembling the emergency party.
 Issuing protective clothing (and breathing apparatus, if necessary).
 Preparing for or implementing fire-fighting measures (in the event of a fire).
 Mustering the crew and searching for any missing person.
 Alerting the necessary departments of dangers, such as loss of power, stability
etc.
 Closing all water-tight doors (to contain any possible flooding).
 Getting the rescue boat ready for launching, looking for survivors, and assessing
possible hull damage and its effect on stability.
 Assessing possible pollution due to rupture of fuel and or cargo (oil or chemical)
tanks; taking corrective action to minimise the quantum of pollution; reporting
the incident.

Even with the latest developments in navigational equipment and communication

systems, collision accidents between ships continue to occur around the world. Some of
the main reasons for such accidents are negligence, incompetence and
miscommunication.

Ship Collision just do not leave the ships damaged; they can also lead to major
pollutions and claim several innocent lives.  

Considering the vulnerability of such situation mentioned below are important points to
consider when a vessel meets with such unfortunate emergency.

Note: It should be understood that the following points are just for the purpose of
guidance, and during a real situation, one’s knowledge, seamanship and personal
competence come in to play in handling the situation and saving lives.

1. Inform the Master and Engine room: This is obvious, but make sure you inform
the Master, if he is not on bridge. Inform the engine room and stop the engine. The
officer on watch should not hesitate to call the master even if he has the slightest doubt
about any given situation. (The decision to stop the engine would depend on the severity
of the accident and immediate action to be taken.)

Master’s experience, knowledge and his overriding authority helps in making quick and
bold decisions to save lives. Once the master takes over the command of the situation,
act on his orders. Mark the position of collision on chart or by pressing the mob button
on GPS for future reference. Exhibit NOT UNDER COMMAND (NUC) signal if the ship has
lost its headway completely.

2. Immediately Send Distress Signal: Send designated or undesignated distress

messages through VHF, MF/HF, SAT C or any other available means, depending on the
sea area you are in and time limit you have. If you have enough time inform the
company and the nearest coast radio station about the incident.

3. Record Important Data: Record the time of ship collision, name and IMO number of
the vessel(s) you collided with. Waste no time in arguing with other vessel. Leave VHF
channel 16 unoccupied, through which, you can get necessary information regarding
assistance and help if the situation demands. Use any other VHF channel for inter/intra
ship communication. If possible, take a photograph of the collision from a secure
location.

4. Sound the Alarms: Sound the general emergency alarm; general alarm signal is
sounded as precaution. It should not be mistaken as a signal for abandoning the ship.
Take attendance, if anybody is missing report the same to the master. Inform the officer
responsible on muster station about the situation.  Make arrangements, to search and
find the missing person. The responsible officers and crew should lower the life boats up
to embarkation deck and make all arrangements to abandon the vessel at quick notice.
It should be noted that engine room should not be left unattended if the impact of
collision is minimal, which do not need an immediate evacuation of the compartment.
Also, the engine room in-charge should ensure all officers and crew working in the
engine room are ready with their life jackets and TPA if immediate evacuation is required
in the later stages.

5. Assess the Damage: Send an officer responsible to the area where the vessels have
taken the impact. Inquire about the percentage of damage occurred. If the damaged
area is an enclosed space, ensure to take all necessary precautions, for enclosed space
entry. Make an assessment of the damage and report the same to master. Any decision
should be taken by the master or if the master is incapable of making decision or carry
out his duties, the person next to his command should do so.

6. Take the Soundings: Send crew to take sounding of all ballast tanks, fresh water
tanks, and wing tanks. Give instruction to engine room to take sounding of all tanks in
engine room. All tanks soundings are to be taken and recorded, because the tanks far
away from the impact can experience damage or crack due the shock created by the
collision. Record the sounding of all tanks and compare it with the previous sounding
data. If there is any change in the sounding, there can be a crack or a hole in the tank.
The sounding of the particular tank or tanks should be monitored carefully and the rate
of increase or decrease in water should be calculated.

7. Take Immediate Action In Case of Damage: If any tank or tanks appeared to

have suffered damage and ingress of water is confirmed, make necessary arrangements
to pump out the water. If the pumps are not effective and cannot contain the ingress of
water, the whole compartment can be sealed preventing other compartments from being
flooded. If a self- closing water tight door is provided, it should be operated from the
bridge itself.

8. Check For Oil Spill: If any of the fuel tanks or oil tank is damaged and if there is
imminent danger of oil spill. The procedures mentioned in SOPEP plan should be followed
to contain the oil spill.

9. Provide assistance: Assistance may be provided to the other vessel if required and

if feasible.

10. Reach the Nearest Port, If Possible: If the master attempts to correct adverse
list or trim, he should consider the effects of shear force, bending movements, free
surface effect when transferring liquids and ballasting and de-ballasting on the hull. If
the ship stays afloat without danger and engines are ready to manoeuvre, set course for
the nearest port for repair.  All the above mentioned duties have to be carried out in a
very quick sequence and with utmost precision as collision can lead to other emergencies
simultaneously.

11. Abandon the Ship Only if Everything Else Fails: If the owned vessel appears to
be sinking and leaving no other choice except to abandon the vessel, it should be a
verbal order from the master. It should be always kept in mind that a ship is the best
lifeboat. The master and crew should always try and carry out all necessary means to
keep it afloat. But once the decision is made to abandon the vessel, no time should be
wasted. All crew should carry out their duties effectively and escape from the sinking
ship as quickly and as far away as possible.

Comply with emergency proceduresTypes of emergenciesFire

Fire
Shipboard fires could be the worst disaster that the seafarer always fears; there is only
the crew who has to fight a fire, anywhere on the ship.
In the event of a fire in the cargo area, the engine room or the accommodation, the
following should be considered as a general plan of action:

 Sounding of the fire alarm

 Assembling the emergency party
 Ensuring everyone is accounted for, especially those within the space on fire
 Attempting initial or preliminary measures to contain the threat
 Mounting proper fire-fighting responses, such as the release of CO2 inside
enclosed spaces
 Preparing boats for launching
 All other necessary support actions

Fire drills

Fire drills should be planned in such a way that due consideration is given to regular
practice in the various emergencies that may occur depending on the type of ships and
the cargo.

Each fire drill shall include:

1. Reporting to stations and preparing for the duties described in the muster list;
2. Starting of a fire pump, using at least the two required jets of water to show that
the system is in proper working order;
3. Checking of fireman's outfit and other personal rescue equipment;
4. Checking of relevant communication equipment;
5. Checking the operation of watertight doors, fire doors, fire dampers and main
inlets and outlets of ventilation systems in the drill area; and
6. Checking the necessary arrangements for subsequent abandoning of the ship.

The equipment used during drills shall immediately be brought back to its fully
operational condition and any faults and defects discovered during the drills shall be
remedied as soon as possible.

The media below shows the stowage of a fire control plan and explains the
meanings of symbols shown.

Comply with emergency proceduresTypes of emergenciesFoundering

Foundering
Foundering is basically taking on water to the point where the vessel becomes unstable
and begins to sink or capsize.
Ships of all kinds have always foundered and been lost. The sea and ocean bottoms are
full of wrecks. Despite that the pre-technical era now is behind us, accidents continue.
According to international statistics between 100 and 150 merchant vessels of 500 gross
tons or bigger are lost every year, in spite of being equipped with high-tech navigation
equipment and staffed by professionals. Thanks to modern technology the chance of
being rescued and surviving is greater now than before which is a consolation. But many
still drown: over 800 passengers and crew perished in the Baltic with Estonia (1994).
Risks at sea are so plentiful, such as severe weather, heavy seas, fire onboard, engine
failure, steering breakdown, rigging failure, grounding, collision, cargo displacement and
so on. Phenomena of this kind can often be measured and considered with scientific-
technological methods.

Comply with emergency proceduresTypes of emergenciesGrounding

Grounding 
Groundings and strandings are probably the most common types of marine casualties. A
grounding is when a ship strikes the seabed, while a stranding is when the ship then
remains there for some length of time. Both can damage a vessel and result in oil spills
depending on the ocean bottom type (rocky, sandy, muddy), sea conditions, and
severity of the event (is the ship a little scraped or did it break open).

Grounding, even without initial damage, induces extreme loads onto marine
structures. It is a marine accident of profound importance due to its impact and may
lead to the following:

 The loss of human life.

 The environmental impact, especially in the case where large tanker ships are
involved.
 Financial consequences to local communities close to the accident.
 The financial consequences to ship-owners, due to ship loss or penalties.

The following is a general plan of action, with suitable modifications to suit the actual
type of ship involved:

 Stop engines and sound the general alarm.

 Check soundings of all double bottom spaces, cofferdams etc.
 Get ready for re-floating and close all water-tight doors.
 Assess hull damage and stability.
 Assess possible effects of the grounding on cargo.
 Determine shoal depth, sea bed composition and direction of deep water.
 Carry out jettisoning of cargo, if possible.
 Prepare boats for launching and carry out other necessary actions.
 Carry out de-ballasting if necessary and if feasible and / or plan jettisoning of
cargo if possible.
 Check for oil pollution & take remedial measures.
 Close the sea chest valves and lock the rudder temporarily.
 Check the tide timings and keep the engines on stand by for re-floating attempts.
 Inform all concerned with updates from time to time.
 Exhibit the vessel aground lights / shapes.
The following media illustrates the case study related to collision leading to
grounding:

Comply with emergency proceduresTypes of emergenciesFlooding

Flooding
Flooding, especially of the engine room is dangerous, as it can affect the entire life
support system of the ship. The following should be considered as a general plan of
action, with suitable modifications to suit the actual type of ship involved:

 Stopping engines and sounding the general alarm

 Checking soundings of all double bottom spaces, cofferdams etc.
 Closing all water-tight doors
 Assessing hull damage and stability
 Assessing possible effects of the flooding on the cargo
 Preparing boats for launching and other necessary actions

In cases of water ingress or flooding of a compartment, a flooding checklist should be

followed and a proper investigation should be carried out to determine the safety of the
ship.

The Titanic
 
Comply with emergency proceduresTypes of emergenciesBlackout

Blackout
In the event of the loss of main electrical power, the main engine could immediately
shutdown and this could lead to a dangerous situation, if the vessel is manoeuvring in
narrow, congested waters, or near the coastline or at sea facing rough weather.

While attempting to restart generators, do not make main air bottles completely empty.
This happens if repeated attempts are made to start the generators without first
identifying the fault and rectifying it. In case air bottles are empty, then the ship is in
dead ship condition as per SOLAS.

The emergency generator will then start automatically and come on-load and the
emergency power will then be available. It is not possible to restart the main engines
until the ship's main alternators are restarted and taken onload.

The following should be considered as a general plan of action with suitable modifications
to suit the actual type of ship involved:

 Sounding the general alarm

 Assessing reasons for the power failure
 Assessing possible effects of the power failure on the machinery
 Necessary actions to restore power and propulsion
 Exhibit NUC lights or shapes
 Prepare for anchoring, depths & location permitting.
 Monitor weather forecasts closely

Additionally, a blackout checklist should be followed to investigate the problem and

restore the power.
Notes

Comply with emergency proceduresShipboard Contingency Plans for response to emergencies

Shipboard Contingency Plans for response to emergencies

Shipboard contingency plan

Shipboard contingency plan is to provide guidance and advice to enable the Master and
vessel’s company to deal with accidents or emergency situations. It is not possible to
cover every eventuality. This document is intended to provide a framework on which the
Master can build to cope with the situation at hand.

In any emergency the initial action taken will depend on the nature and extent of the
incident, the sole judge of which is the Master. Depending on the circumstances and
seriousness of the case, testimony / evidence may be required by Authorities
investigating the incident. Therefore, it is essential that all facts are accurately recorded
at the time of the incident or shortly thereafter.
 Responsibilities during emergencies

 The Master shall take total control of the ship during all shipboard
accidents and emergency situations.
 The Chief Engineer will take control of all machinery spaces during
accidents or shipboard emergencies.
 The Chief Officer will take control of all deck operations, eg. fire party,
clearing away life saving equipment and lifeboats, anchoring, tow lines
etc., during accidents or shipboard emergencies.
 The Second Officer will assist the Master on the bridge or as otherwise
ordered during accidents or shipboard emergencies.
 The Second Engineer will assist the Chief Engineer or as otherwise
directed during accidents or shipboard emergencies including taking
soundings of tanks, bilges etc.
 The designated GMDSS Officer will take control of communication and
assist the Master.

When a ship requiring assistance is in waters which are under the jurisdiction of
a coastal State and that State has laws allowing it to intervene in an emergency
and wishes to do so, then the Master should:

 Ask for clarification as to who is exercising the coastal States powers.

 If necessary and time permits, speak with company.
 Seek clarification of the extent to which the Master can still exercise
authority in relation to the operation and salvage of the ship.
 Ask the coastal State for an expert assessment of the condition of the ship
if in doubt about the actions being taken, and
 If still in doubt or in disagreement with the actions or instruction given by
the Coastal State, clearly state so.

The Shipboard Contingency Plan contains the response actions for various
emergencies which may arise, and should include:

 Allocation of duties and responsibilities

 Actions to be taken to regain control of a situation
 Communication methods
 Procedures for notifying authorities

For example, the organization structure and the responsibilities of various members in
the shipboard emergency response team is shown below.

Shipboard Emergency Response Team

Team Members Responsibilities

Bridge Team Master Overall in charge

 3rd officer Assist Master

Able seaman -1 Assist Master

Emergency Team Chief Officer In-charge of emergencies on deck

2nd Engineer In-charge of emergencies in engine room

3rd Engineer Assist Team Leader

Bosun Assist Team Leader

Fitter Assist Team Leader

Engine Team 4th Engineer In-charge of emergency machinery

Oiler-1 Assist 4th Engineer

Medical Team Chief Cook Provide first aid

Steward Assist Chief Cook

Support Team 2nd Officer In charge of Support

The contingency plan contains procedures and responsibilities of different teams

during an emergency. These procedures are developed for different anticipated
emergency scenarios.

Emergencies for which response plans should be developed and

maintained include: structural failure, main engine failure, steering gear
failure, electrical power failure, collision, grounding, cargo transfer, pollution,
fire, flooding, abandon ship, man overboard, terrorism, piracy, medical
evacuation, heavy weather damage, treatment of serious injury and ship specific
emergencies.

As per Shipboard Contingency Plan , check lists for all above mentioned
emergencies should be available onboard as a guide to tackle if any situation
arises onboard. The following are the few check lists given for the references and
for better understanding. The Master shall ensure that drills are carried out
for the identical emergencies.

 Fire (pdf,261Kb)
 Abandon Ship (pdf, 206Kb)
 Steering Failure (pdf,209Kb)

The purpose of the drills is to:

  Improve awareness of the potential hazards facing personnel and the ships.
 Increase the standard and speed of response to identified potential emergency
situations
 The drills,training session and exercises must be carried out within the time bar
and relevant schedule should be in line with SOLAS, MARPOL and Flag
requirements. They are compulsory. Excuse such as ship’s tight commercial
schedule is not acceptable.

ENTRIES IN LOG BOOKS AND OTHER DOCUMENTS, whether official or not, must be

accurate, factual and indisputable. All Log Books and documents are to be completed in
ink and in neat and legible handwriting. Erasures, blanks or other incorrect entries made
invalid through interference will not be accepted. The only acceptable method is a. Rule
through the incorrect entry by a single straight line and initial in the margin, and b.
make the correct entry and initial again. Log Book entries regarding suspected damage
should contain the following entry:“Damage to vessel, if any, unknown”.

Company's Response Plan

In case of an emergency situation, the Master needs to notify the Designated Person
Ashore (DPA). The Designated Person Ashore (DPA) shall be responsible for the
constitution of the Emergency Response Team depending on the nature and seriousness
of the situation and also for ensuring that drills are carried out to practice the various
emergency situations. The Company Response Plan is applicable to all office personnel
who form part of the Company’s Emergency Response Team.

The concept of Company’s ERT shall be to establish an emergency preparedness system

for ensuring efficient use of all resources available, internal as well as external, to
endeavour to resolve, combat, mitigate or prevent any emergency situation which may
occur on any of the company’s vessel or personnel.

The Company Response Plan contains procedures to be adopted ashore to respond to

emergency situations involving Company’s ships and includes:

 The composition of the team and duties of persons acting within the response
plan.
 Procedures for the mobilization of an appropriate Company Emergency
Team.
 Procedures to follow in response to different types of emergencies.
 Procedures for establishing and maintaining contact between the ship and
Emergency Response Team ashore.
 Ship particulars, plans, stability information, and ‘safety, security and
environmental protection’ equipment carried onboard.
 Checklists appropriate to the type of emergency which may assist in the
systematic information exchange with the ship.
 List of contact names and communication details of all relevant parties
who may need to be notified and consulted.
 Reporting methods for ship and shore based Emergency Response Team.
 Procedures for notifying and liaising with the next of kin of persons
onboard.
  Procedures for issuing press releases, information bulletins, and answering
queries from the media and others.
 Backup arrangements for the company's initial response in the event of a
protracted emergency.
 Rostering Company personnel and specialists.

The Shore Emergency Response Team is organized as shown below:

Comply with emergency proceduresEmergency signals

Emergency signals 
You are aware that it is far more important to prevent a fire rather than fight-to-
extinguish a fire. For preventing fire, more so a serious one, it is all the more necessary
to detect it and alert all on board to act as necessary before it is too late.

Let us therefore examine, what are the statutory requirements to detect fires and raise
alarms in such regard.

 Alarm signals of the vessel are detailed in the muster list along with the action to
be carried out so that all the crew and passengers can follow those instructions
readily.
 An emergency can occur much before an alarm but an alarm can help us to tackle
an emergency situation arising, quickly and correctly, as alerted by the type of
alarms sounded. Alarm systems are installed all over the ship’s systems and
machinery to notify the crew on board to alert them of any dangerous situation
that might be developing.
 Alarm on board ships are audible as well as visual to ensure that a person can at
least listen to the audible alarm when working in an area where seeing a visual
alarm is not possible and vice versa.
 It is a normal practice in the international maritime industry to have alarm signals
for a particular warning to be  similar in all vessels.

Requirements in General

The regulations are laid down for the purpose of detecting a fire in a space it originates
and, to have a provision for raising an alarm which will alert people to escape and even
fight the fire for containing and extinguishing. For achieving these ends the following
means are required to be provided:-

 The fixed fire detection and fire alarm system as provided, must be compatible
for the nature of the space, fire-growth potential and, potential generation of
smoke and gases;
 Manually operated call points, placed effectively for ensuring a ready means to
alert all concerned; and,
 Fire patrols ought to provide an effective means of detecting the location of fires
and, alerting the navigation bridge and fire-teams.
Comply with emergency proceduresEmergency signalsFire alarm signal

Fire Alarm Signal
Fire Alarm: A fire alarm is sounded as continuous ringing of ship's electrical bell or
continuous sounding of ship's horn.

The fire alarm is usually an intermittent audible signal whereas fault and manual test are
normally a continuous audible signal.

Any person seeing or suspecting that a fire has broken out should call out an alarm,
inform other available crew members of the exact location and operate the nearest
manual alarm.

This will initiate a visible and audible alarm at the bridge control panel. Activation of
manually operated call points (and automatic detectors) provides the location of the
section where the activation took place. If the signal has not been acted upon within two
minutes, it will cause an alarm to be sounded through the crew accommodation spaces,
control stations and machinery spaces.

Manual fire alarm call points are installed throughout the accommodation spaces, service
spaces and control stations. One call point shall be located at each exit and no part of a
corridor is to be more than 20 m from a call point.

Comply with emergency proceduresEmergency signalsAbandon ship

Abandon ship
NO SHIP IS ABANDONED EXCEPT BY ORDER OF THE MASTER 

The order “ABANDON SHIP” will be done ONLY by master or his deputy (in case master
is incapacitated) and ABANDON signal MUST always be confirmed by word from the
Master in command.
 Actions to be taken when required to abandon ship It cannot be over-stressed that the
order to abandon ship is the final decision to be taken by the Master when, according to
his judgement, there is no other way to save the lives the of passengers and the crew.
Hasting to abandon ship is not recommended because in most emergency cases the ship
remains the safest place to be on and people have often drowned after abandoning a
ship that eventually did not sink. 

So, basically the Abandon Ship procedure involves in summoning people on board to
muster stations with the general alarm followed by announcement on the public
address or other communication system and ensuring that the persons on board are
made aware of the order to abandon ship;

 Reporting to stations and preparing for the duties described in the muster list;
 Checking that persons on board are suitably dressed;
 Checking that life jackets or immersion suits are correctly donned;
 Lowering of at least one lifeboat after any necessary preparation for launching;
 Starting and operating the lifeboat engine; and
 Operating davits used for launching the life rafts.

Comply with emergency proceduresEmergency signalsShipboard alarms: location, purpose

and function

Shipboard alarms: location, purpose and function 

Other fitment requirements of smoke / fire detectors and fire alarm systems

Ship Type Location on the ship General Comments

Any Smoke detectors must be installed in
all stairways, corridors and escape
routes within accommodation spaces
Passenger A fixed fire detection and fire alarm
ships carrying system shall be installed in a
more than 36 manner that will provide smoke  public toilets, CO2 rooms and similar spaces need
passengers detection in service spaces, control
stations and accommodation spaces,
including, stairways, corridors,
escape routes within accommodation
spaces.
Passenger There must be fitted (please refer to
ships carrying the last column to the right in this
not more than row, for the fitment requirements)
Consideration must be given to the installation of
special purpose smoke detectors within ventilation
ducting.
1) Smoke detectors need not be fitted in private
bathrooms and galleys. Spaces such as voids,
not with a fixed fire detection and alarm system.
Detectors fitted in cabins when activated, shall
also be capable of emitting an audible alarm 
within the space where they are located.
2) An efficient fire patrol should be maintained so
that an outbreak of fire may be promptly detected.
Each member of the fire control must be trained to
be familiar with the arrangements of the ship as
well as the location and operation of any
equipment he may be required to use.
Either : A fixed fire detection and fire alarm
system shall be   installed in a manner that  will
detect the presence of fire in such spaces and
36 passengers throughout each separate zone,
vertical or horizontal, in all
accommodation and service spaces.
Also, if considered necessary by the
Administration, to be fitted in control
stations, except spaces which afford
no substantial fire risk such as void
spaces, sanitary spaces.
Cargo ships Accommodation and service spaces,
control stations must be protected
by a fixed fire detection and fire
alarm system and / or an automatic
sprinkler, fire detection and fire
alarm system as shown in the last
column in this row, depending on
the protection method adopted
Any Manually operated call points as per
the FSS Code, must be provided
throughout the accommodation
spaces, service spaces and control
stations.
Comply with emergency proceduresEmergency signalsShipboard alarms: location, purpose
and functionGeneral alarms
provide smoke detection in corridors, stairways
and escape routes within accommodation spaces
Detectors fitted in cabins, when activated, must
also be capable of emitting an audible alarm within
the space where they are located;
Or: An automatic sprinkler, fire detection and fire
alarm system of an approved type complying with
the FSS Code, which will protect such spaces and,
in addition, a fixed fire detection and fire alarm
system, capable of providing smoke detection in
corridors, stairways and escape routes within
accommodation spaces.
Method IC: A fixed fire detection and fire alarm
system installed in a manner that will provide
smoke detection in all corridors, stairways and
escape routes within accommodation spaces.
Method IIC: An automatic sprinkler, fire detection
and fire alarm system of an approved type
complying with the FSS Code, which will protect
accommodation spaces, galleys, other services
spaces (excluding spaces which do not have
substantial fire risk, such as void spaces, sanitary
spaces etc.)
Additionally, A fixed fire detection and fire alarm
system shall be installed and arranged as to
provide smoke detection in all corridors, stairways
and escape routes within accommodation spaces.
Method IIIC: A fixed fire detection and fire alarm
system shall be installed as to detect the presence
of fire in all accommodation spaces and service
spaces, providing smoke detection in corridors,
stairways and escape routes within
accommodation spaces, (excluding spaces which
do not have substantial fire risk, such as void
spaces, sanitary spaces etc).
Additionally, A fixed fire detection and fire alarm
system shall be installed and arranged as to
provide smoke detection in all corridors, stairways
and escape routes within accommodation spaces.
One manually operated call point must be located
at each exit. Manually operated call points must be
readily accessible in the corridors of each deck
such that no part of the corridor is more than 20
metres from a manually operated call point.
General Alarms
The General Emergency Alarm is a alarm used on board ships in times of emergency.
General Alarm: The general alarm on the ship is recognized by 7 short ringing of bell
followed by a long ring or 7 short blasts on the ship's horn followed by one long blast.

Within 24 hours of embarkation of all passengers, the crew will conduct a mandatory
muster drill in which the General Emergency Alarm is sounded. The purpose of the drill is
 to educate passengers and crew of emergency procedures should an actual emergency
occur. The signal alerts passengers and crew of an emergency so that they will begin
proper procedures in which all persons collect their life jackets and proceed to their
assigned muster stations.

There is also an abandon ship alarm which is used should it become necessary to
abandon ship, after all other efforts have been exhausted. This signal is given audibly by
the ship's Master over the PA system. It is never given by automatic means or with
recorded media.

The following media explains about the Emergency Signal:

Other Important Alarms

Man Overboard Alarm: When a man falls overboard, the ship’s internal alarm bell
sounds 3 long rings and ship whistle will blow 3 long blasts to notify the crew on board
and the other ships in nearby vicinity. 

Ship Security Alarm System: Most of the ocean going vessels are fitted with security
alert alarm system, which is a silent alarm system sounded in a pirate attack
emergency. This signal is  connected with different coastal authorities all over the world
via a global satellite system to inform about the piracy.

The Ship Security Alert System (SSAS) is one safety measure for strengthening ship
security and subduing acts of piracy and/or terrorism against shipping. Widely
Acknowledged as a part of the International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS
code), the Ship Security Alert System (SSAS) complements the International Maritime
Organization (IMO)’s attempts to increase maritime vessel security.

Cospas-Sarsat, with IMO's cooperation, came up with this project of Ship Security Alert
System (SSAS). The basic idea is that in case of an attempted piracy effort or terrorists
act, the ship’s SSAS beacon would be activated, responding to which an appropriate law-
enforcement or military forces would be dispatched for rescue.

Comply with emergency proceduresEmergency signalsShipboard alarms: location, purpose

and functionShip’s whistle

Ship’s whistle
The 1972 International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea ('72 COLREGS),
ANNEX III, entered into force by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), specifies
the technical requirements for sound signal appliances on ships.

Frequency range and minimum decibel level output is specified for each class of ship.
The class is determined by the vessel's length. Sound pressure level intensity at a
distance of one meter from the horn is stipulated, which determines the theoretical
range of the horn, although the actual range will, under many conditions, be much
greater than this. This information is displayed in the following table,

Whistle Length of Limits of Minimum Sound Audibility range

Class vessel Fundamental Pressure level in 1/3
 (metres) Frequency (Hz) Octave Band at 1 (nautical miles)
metre (dB)
I > 200 70 ‐ 200 143 2
II 75 ‐ 200 130 ‐ 350 138 1½
III 20 ‐ 75 250 ‐ 700 130 1
IV 12 to < 20 250 ‐ 700 120 ½
 

The range of audibility in the table above is for information and is approximately the
range at which a whistle may be heard on its forward axis with 90 per cent probability in
conditions of still air on board a vessel having average background noise level at the
listening posts (taken to be 68 dB in the octave band centred on 250 Hz and 63 dB in
the octave band centred on 500 Hz).

In practice the range at which a whistle may be heard is extremely variable and depends
critically on weather conditions; the values given can be regarded as typical but under
conditions of strong wind or high ambient noise level at the listening post the range may
be much reduced.

Installation

When a directional whistle is to be used as the only whistle on a vessel, it shall be

installed with its maximum intensity directed straight ahead.

A whistle shall be placed as high as practicable on a vessel, in order to reduce

interception of the emitted sound by obstructions and also to minimize hearing damage
risk to personnel. The sound pressure level of the vessel's own signal at listening posts
shall not exceed 110 dB (A) and so far as practicable should not exceed 100 dB (A).

Fitting of more than one whistle

If whistles are fitted at a distance apart of more than 100 metres, it shall be so arranged
that they are not sounded simultaneously .

Combined whistle systems

If due to the presence of obstructions the sound field of a single whistle or one of the
whistles referred to in paragraph 1(f) above is likely to have a zone of greatly reduced
signal level, it is recommended that a combined whistle system be fitted so as to
overcome this reduction. For the purposes of the Rules a combined whistle system is to
be regarded as a single whistle. The whistles of a combined system shall be located at a
distance apart of not more than 100 metres and arranged to be sounded simultaneously.
The frequency of any one whistle shall differ from those of the others by at least 10 Hz.

Fully Electric Horn

Operation

When the compressed air is allowed to act on the diaphragm, it vibrates to produce
sound waves which passes through the horn and gets amplified in it. Initially the horns
were operated manually, but now they come attached with a air flow control system.

The control system is an electrical arrangement which is used to control the supply of
the compressed air coming from the air compressor. The arrangement is so made that
the whistle provides the sound making operation as long as any of the switches is in the
"on" position. This arrangement is generally made for making long blasts. In order to
make short blasts, the operating switch can be given short on/off operations, since cut
off occurs instantaneously after each blast. Though, nowadays , fully automatic control
systems are available to provide both long and short blasts. 

Location of Whistle Control

The whistle operating switches are usually located on the bridge wings and inside the
bridge. The whistle can also be operated manually from the lanyard, which extends from
the bridge and where the whistle is fixed. The system is designed in such a way that in
spite of fluctuation in the compressed air the quality of sound signal is not affected.

Comply with emergency proceduresEmergency signalsShipboard alarms: location, purpose and

functionShip’s bell

Ship’s bell

The Bell Detail

Diameter 300 mm, according the IMO Convention on the International Regulations for
Preventing Accidents at Sea (COLREG) 1972. In a vessel at anchor of 100 m or more in
length the bell shall be sounded in the forepart of the vessel and immediately after the
ringing of the bell the gong shall be sounded rapidly for about 5 seconds in the after part
of the vessel.

A ship's bell is used to indicate the time aboard a ship and hence to regulate the
sailors' duty watches. The bell itself is usually made of brass or bronze and normally has
the ship's name engraved or cast on it.

Unlike civil clock bells, the strikes of the bell do not accord to the number of the hour.
Instead, there are eight bells, one for each half-hour of a four-hour watch. In the age of
sailing, watches were timed with a 30-minute hourglass. Bells would be struck every
time the glass was turned. But, it was not until the 19th century that the first mechanical
ship's bell clock was produced in America.

The ship's name is traditionally engraved or cast onto the surface of the bell, often with
the year the ship was launched as well. Occasionally (especially on more modern ships)
the bell will also carry the name of the shipyard that built the ship. If a ship's name is
changed, maritime tradition is that the original bell carrying the original name will
remain with the vessel. A ship's bell is a prized possession when a ship is broken up and
often provides the only positive means of identification in the case of a shipwreck.

Bell or Gong Requirements under SOLAS

(a)   Intensity of signal

A bell or gong, or other device having similar sound characteristics shall produce a sound
pressure level of not less than 110 dB at a distance of 1 metre from it.

(b)   Construction

Bells and gongs shall be made of corrosion‐resistant material and designed to give a
clear tone. The diameter of the mouth of the bell shall be not less than 300 mm for
vessels of 20 metres or more in length. Where practicable, a power‐driven bell striker is
recommended to ensure constant force but manual operation shall be possible. The mass
of the striker shall be not less than 3 per cent of the mass of the bell.

Comply with emergency proceduresEmergency signalsShipboard alarms: location, purpose and

functionCO2 alarms

CO2 Alarms
The fixed fire detection and fire alarm system (FAS) for machinery spaces must be
installed in:

 Periodically unattended machinery spaces;

 Machinery spaces in which: (a) In lieu of continuous manning of the machinery
space, the installation of automatic and remote control systems and equipment
has been approved; and, (b) The main propulsion / associated machinery,
including the main sources of electrical power, are provided with various degrees
of automatic or remote control and are under continuous manned supervision
from a control room, and, (c) Enclosed spaces containing incinerators.

The FAS has two operating levels; one is accessible for all crew members and the second
level is only accessible for authorized crew members. The second level can only be
entered by entering a personal code via the push buttons on the front of the Fire Alarm
Panel. In addition, an installation mode is used by authorized personnel during
installation.

The following functions are accessible for all crew members in level 1:
  Lamp test function.
 Dimming function.
 Stop Horn function for Fire and/or Fault alarm. This function is only available
when selected during installation.
 Panel Reset function for Fault alarm. This function is only available when selected
during installation.

The following functions are accessible for authorized crew members in level 2:

 Stop Horn function for Fire and Fault alarm.

 Panel Reset function for Fire and Fault alarm.
 Disable/enable zone. and Re-activate Siren output and internal buzzer

Fire Alarm Procedure

A Fire alarm is generated when one or more of the detectors and/or manual call points
connected to the zone inputs comes into alarm condition. The Fire Alarm System is able
to distinguish all individual zone alarms.

The Fire alarm procedure is as follows:

 Activation of: Fire Alarm lamp, internal buzzer (2Hz), external Siren (continuous)
and identification of sensor in alarm on LCD display.             
 When Stop Horn is pressed in Level 2 the internal buzzer and external siren are
silenced. 
 When Panel Reset (Ack) button is pressed in Level 2 the system is reset. Alarm
lamp will extinguish and LCD display will be cleared when fire alarm condition has
disappeared.

Note that the internal buzzer and external siren can be activated again in Level 2 by
pressing Stop Horn for more than 2 seconds.
A SHIPBORD LAYOUT PLAN FOR FIRE DETECTION IN COMPARTMENTS AND CO2 ALARMS

Cargo Space CO2 Alarm: The cargo spaces of the ship are also fitted with fixed
firefighting system which has a different alarm when operated. An alarm is sounded by
an alarm button as the CO 2 cabinet is opened and in some ships there is also a stop for
the engine room fans incorporated.

Machinery Space CO2 Alarm: The machinery space is fitted with CO2 fixed with fire
extinguishing system whose audible and visual alarm is entirely different from machinery
space alarm and other alarm for easy reorganisation.

Comply with emergency proceduresEmergency signalsShipboard alarms: location, purpose and

functionMachinery Space and Engineer’s call alarm

Machinery Space and Engineer's Call Alarms

Machinery space Alarm: The machinery in the engine room has various safety devices
and alarms fitted for safe operation. If any one of these malfunctions, a common engine
room alarm is operated and the problem can be seen in the engine control room control
panel which will display the alarm. After accepting the alarm, the sound stops but the
alarm light remains lit, indicating that the fault remains and it only goes off after the
fault is rectified and cancelled. The navigation bridge alarms are also organized in a
similar way. 

Navigational Alarm: In the navigation bridge, most of the navigational equipment and

navigation lights are fitted with failure alarm. If any of these malfunctions, an alarm will
be sounded in an alarm panel displaying which system is malfunctioning.
       

Alarm Monitoring System (AMS) : The system is designed to capture status of

machineries available in the engine room space for malfunctioning situations, critical
conditions, warning conditions to duty engineers & officers.

The system is based on Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) and handles signals from
field sensors (fixed to each machinery) to show relevant alarms and indications. System
mainly consists with a logic controller, remote sensor/signal capturing panels, indicators
& buzzers and computer system. The Logic controller and other remote Input/Output
panels are interlinked via a single cable network and field sensors directly connects to
the appropriate or nearest Input/Output panel.

The central computer located in the Engine Control Room, captures all the sensor/signal
status from machineries and displays entire alarming conditions, (flashing) with audible
alarm and records every event in a database for reporting and other purposes
(troubleshooting..etc). At the same time officers in the bridge can also have indications
of the system status.
AMS Monitors signals from:

1. Main engines(P/S)
2. Thrusters / Propeller
3. Aux./Shaft Generators, PMS
4. Compressed air system
5. Gear Box
6. Propulsion
7. General alarm monitoring
8. Level monitoring of tanks ..etc (optional)

All monitoring data is displayed in the Engine Control Room computer and gives
relevant alarm messages with audible alarm to acknowledge by the duty
Engineer.

The AMS consists with following features: 

1. Highlights the category of an alarm belongs to for the latest alarm message(s)
2. User configurable alarm parameters (alarm levels)
3. Alarm message displays with comprehensive description with time stamp (new
event lists on top)
4. Alarm events can be acknowledged by individually and indicates the user action
on each event and highlights with a color code to distinguish the status
5. Alarm suppression for selected field sensors (eg. to use at a repair..etc)
6. Online alarm/event printing
7. Large history for alarm/event records
8. Engineers watch & call system (eg. for emergency)
9. Engine room “Unattended Machinery Space” and “Engine Control Room” attended
mode changeover
10. Dead man alarm system
11. Redundancy for communication & main computer
12. Input/Output channel diagnosis
13. Reports (with relevant trend graphs)

Extension Alarm System

The AMS can be extended with a reliable engineer calling system for unmanned
machinery space operation (UMS). The EAS (Engineer Alarm System) functions are
executed on an EAS Operator Panel. On duty indication and engine room alarms are
displayed on the EAS 3 LED Panels in accomodation areas. The Extension Alarm System
consists of the following components:

 EAS Operator Panel - This panel is used for Attended/Unattended selection, on

duty selection and patrol timer (dead man timer) functions. Usually the panel is
installed in control room console.
 EAS 3 LED Panels - These panels are used for On Duty and Engine Room Alarm
indication via LED's. An alarm buzzer is integrated as well in the panel. 
 Watch Entrance Unit - This unit is used for Attended/Unattended selection and
Patrol Timer On/Off selection (via keyswitch). This unit is applied in case it is not
allowed to execute these functions on the EAS Operator Panel. The Watch
Entrance Unit is bulkhead mounted near the entrance of the engine room.
 Timer Reset Units - This unit is used in order to reset the patrol timer. Timer
Reset Units are bulkhead mounted on various locations in engine room.
 EAS Control Processor - This unit takes care of the communication in between
the EAS 3 LED Panels, Watch Entrance Unit and the Timer Reset Units.
 EAS SYSTEM LAYOUT

Comply with emergency proceduresEmergency signalsShipboard alarms: location, purpose and

functionFire Detectors

Fire Detectors
Some typical fire detectors are shown above.

Infra Red Flame Detectors

Figure above shows a simple infra red type of flame detector. Flames usually have a
characteristic “flicker frequency” of about 25 Hz and this is sensed to cause an alarm to
trigger. The radiation sent by the “flicker frequency” is sent to the lens / filter unit, which
allows infra-red rays to pass and be focussed upon the cell and causes a signal to be
generated. This signal from the cell goes into the selective amplifier, which is tuned to
25 Hz, then into a time delay unit (so that false alarms are not generated, unless there
is a persistent flame for about 2/3 minutes) and finally leading to an alarm being
triggered.
Pneumatic Type Detector

Increase in temperature as may be caused by a fire, increases the air-pressure inside

the hemispherical-bulb and causes the diaphragm to move up. If the rate of bleed of air
through the bleed-valve is sufficiently steady, the diaphragm will not be caused to move
up and close the contacts. If however, the rate of rise of temperature causes sufficient
pressure build-up inside the bulb (and in excess of the air being bled), the diaphragm is
caused to rise, the contacts are made and an alarm is triggered.

Bi-metallic fire Detector

Two coils bi-metal coils are encased in a protective metal cap, as can be seen in the
diagram above . When there is a rise in temperature say due to fire, the metal-strip end
of A will move to close the gap C at a rate that is faster than B(since it is better
insulated) to move for maintaining the gap C. If the rate of rise of the temperature is
high enough to close the gap C, al alarm is triggered.

Periodical Tests of Detectors

 Under varying conditions of ventilation after installation, the fixed fire detection,
and, fire-alarm systems needs to be tested.
 The functioning of the fixed fire detection and fire alarm systems must be
periodically tested to the acceptability of the Administration, by means of
equipment producing hot air at the appropriate temperature, or smoke or aerosol
particles having the appropriate range of density or particle size, or other
phenomena associated with incipient fires to which the detector is designed to
respond.

A typical “Fire Alarm Circuit”

The following media explains about the Fire Detection System:

Fire Detectors

 
The circuit above is largely self explanatory. In the detectors, as can be seen in the
diagram, the internal contacts are not making contact. When they do make contact (due
to having detected smoke / flame), they short the circuit and cause operation of the
audible alarm. Any fault that may develop due to a damaged insulation or a rupture in a
cablem will cause the system failure alarm to trigger.

Should there be a failure of the mains supply power, alternative battery power is made
available from the fully charged batteries for a period of 6 hours or so. Most of the
systems operate on 24 volts dc. In case the system operates on 220 volts ac, an inverter
converts the 24 volts dc to 220 volts ac.

Comply with emergency proceduresEmergency signalsDistress signals

Distress signals
Reception of safety messages

Any message which you hear prefixed by one of the following words concerns SAFETY

MAYDAY (Distress) - Indicates that a ship, aircraft or other vehicle is threatened by

grave and imminent danger and requests immediate assistance.

PAN PAN (Urgency) - Indicates that the calling station has a very urgent message to
transmit concerning the safety of a ship, aircraft or other vehicle, or the safety of a
person.

SECURITE (Safety) - Indicates that the station is about to transmit a message

concerning the safety of navigation or giving important meteorological warnings.

If you hear any of these words, pay particular attention to the message and call the
master or the officer on watch.

SOLAS Annex IV
Distress signals
The following signals, used or exhibited either together or separately, indicate distress
and need of assist.

 A gun or other explosive signals fired at intervals of about a minute;

 A continuous sounding with any fog-signaling apparatus;
 Rockets or shells, throwing red stars fired one at a time at short intervals;
 A signal made by any signaling method consisting of the group ... --- ... (SOS) in
the Morse Code;
 A signal sent by radiotelephony consisting of the spoken word “MAYDAY”;
 The International Code Signal of distress indicated by N.C.;
 A signal consisting of a square flag having above or below it a ball or anything
resembling a ball;
 Flames on the vessel (as from a burning tar barrel, oil barrel, etc.);
 A rocket parachute flare or a hand-flare showing a red light;
 A smoke signal giving off orange-coloured smoke;
 Slowly and repeatedly raising and lowering arms outstretched to each side;
 A distress alert by means of digital selective calling (DSC) transmitted on:

1. VHF channel 70, or

2. MF/HF on the frequencies 2187.5 kHz, 8414.5 kHz, 4207.5 kHz, 6312 kHz, 12577
kHz or 16804.5 kHz;
  A ship-to-shore distress alert transmitted by the ship’s Inmarsat or other mobile
satellite service provider ship earth station;
 Signals transmitted by emergency position-indicating radio beacons;
 Approved signals transmitted by radio communications systems, including
survival craft radar transponders.

The use or exhibition of any of the foregoing signals, except for the purpose of indicating
distress and need of assistance and the use of other signals which may be confused with
any of the above signals, is prohibited.

Attention is drawn to the relevant sections of the International Code of Signals, the
International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue Manual, Volume III and the
following signals:

 A piece of orange-colored canvas with either a black square and circle or other
appropriate symbol (for identification from the air);
 A dye marker.

The following media (Annex IV Distress Signals) explains about the Annex IV

Distress Signals:
Comply with emergency proceduresEmergency signalsDistress signalsPyrotechnics

Pyrotechnics
What are Pyrotechnics?

Pyrotechnics are distress signals which convey that the people using the pyrotechnics
are in grave or imminent danger and require immediate assistance. It is a visual method
of sending SOS signals.

Different types of Pyrotechnics available on board ships

According to shipping regulations, every ship is required to carry a set of Pyrotechnic

equipment on board ships. This set mainly includes hand flares, rocket parachute flares,
and smoke signals.

Red Hand flare: A red hand flare is a small stick which when activated, produces an
intense red smoke or light without an explosion.
  
 1. Open the lid.
2. Pull the loop. The flare ignites after 2s delay.
3. Hold the flare in your hand.
4. Hold high and away from the body and slightly down wind.
Red hand flare which burns with a luminous intensity of not less than 15000 candela for
a burning period not less than 1 minute. Hand flares should be held up at lee ward side
at arms length, in order to increase their range visibility for searching vessels. Care
should be taken to hold them to leeward side of the survival craft. Hand flares are of use
when signaling to aircraft or to ships at short range, say within 5-8 nautical miles or 9 to
15 km(range of visibility of the survival craft, when used at night, it is important of the
burning flare should not be looked at, since survivor's night visibility could be
paired. Red hand flares, rather than smoke signals, should be used when visibility is
poor, in high and conditions and during the hours of darkness.

A hand flare shall:

 Have a self-contained means of ignition

 Burn with a bright red color
 Have a burning period of not less than 1 min
 Continue to burn after having been immersed for a period of 10 s under 100 mm
(4 in) of water
These can be used both in the day and night and are ideal for use when ships or aircraft
are in view. These flares should be activated when rescue craft or aircraft are heading in
the direction of the survival craft.

Some of their features are as follows:

 Visible for up to 5 nautical miles (9 km) in the day and up to 10 nautical miles
(18 km) at night

Used to guide rescue craft in the direction of the survival craft

When firing the red hand flare one must do as follows to avoid contact damage with
sparks that may be released by the flare:

 Fire to leeward
 Wrap your hand with a wet cloth

Rocket parachute flare: As the name suggests, the equipment has a flare which is
launched at minimum height of 300 m (980 ft) in the air, where it self-activates to
produce intense red smoke. A parachute opens up and reduces the rate of decent which
gives more time to the flare to remain at a height and to provide a clear view to nearby
ships. At least 12 rocket parachute per vessel on board a passenger and cargo ships to
be carried, in addition to those required to be carried aboard survival crafts (life boat
and life raft).
 
  
Parachute Rocket Flare
 1. Remove bottom lid
2. Trigger falls down
3. Hold it away from the body, slightly down wind 
4. Squeeze trigger against outer casing
Angle rocket flare suspended on a parachute; luminous intensity not less than 30,000
candela; turning time-at least 40 seconds, totally get extinguished at a height of 45 to
50 m (148 to 165 ft) above the sea level. At the time of firing a rocket parachute flare, it
should be fired at angle which attained an altitude of at least 300 m (980 ft). Descend
rate - not more than 5 m/s (16 ft/s).

When an observer sees rocket in air in low visibility he must take its bearing. Rocket
parachute flares draw the attention of ships, people ashore, helicopter search and rescue
party indicting that survivors are there. Remember rocket parachute flare should not be
fired when any helicopter or plane is approaching.

Under normal conditions rocket parachute flares can be fired vertically if there is no
wind. If a strong wind is blowing they should be fired at same angle about 10-15 degree
away from the direction of the wind according to the speed of wind. If fired into the wind
the rocket will tend to seek the wind direction and be deflected at a large angle. This will
reduce its maximum altitude and hence its range of visibility. The rocket will not reach to
the required height of 300 m (980 ft), this will reduce its chances of visibility.
If there is low visibility or low clouds rocket must be kept below the clouds by
deliberately tilting the flare over to about an angle of 45° downwind before firing it.

It has an approximate range of about 20-25 miles (37 - 46 km) but in very clear
visibility it may be seen about 35 miles (65 km) range, if a plane flying at 3000 feet (910
m) height.

Although there is little recoil, there is a sudden 'whoosh' as the flare is fired and care
should be taken to hold the flare canister firmly.

Rocket parachute flares are good first detection devices for long range signaling to ships
and aircraft. Great care should be taken not to fire them when air craft or helicopters are
in the close proximity.

The rocket shall, when fired vertically, reach an altitude of not less than 300 m (980 ft).
At or near the top of its trajectory, the rocket shall eject a parachute flare, which shall:

 Burn with a bright red color

 Have a burning period of not less than 40 s
 Have a rate of descent of not more than 5 m/s (16 ft/s)
 Not damage its parachute or attachments while burning

These are provided both on the vessel and on all survival crafts. They must be used only
under the instruction of the person in charge of the survival craft. They are used to help
the rescue craft pin point the location of survival craft(s).

They are more effective at night and can be used to attract the attention of ships or
aircraft at distances of about 32 km (17 NM) in favorable conditions. As it takes time for
a parachute flare to drift down after it reaches its maximum height, rescue craft can take
the bearing of the flare; helps in accelerating detection.

Buoyant smoke signals: This pyrotechnic equipment is held in a compact container of

a buoyant nature so that it can float on the water surface to signal distress situation.

A buoyant smoke signal shall:

 Emit smoke of a highly visible color at a uniform rate for a period of not less than
3 min when floating in calm water
 Not emit any flame during the entire smoke emission time
  Continue to emit smoke when submerged in water for a period of 10 s under 100
mm (4 in) of water

These are for daytime use only. 

One must remember the following when using these signals

 They are not effective in a strong wind

 They are more easily seen by aircraft than by boats
 They are visible even in good conditions for about 4 km (2 nm)
 Follow instructions on the canister when activating
 They are good to pinpoint one’s location

   

1. Open the lid

 2. Pull out the top 
3. Throw out to the lee side 

Highly visible thick orange smoke emitted for a period of not less than 3 minutes, while
it is floating in calm water. It must be capable of operating in a seaway. Every effective
day time signal, especially when viewed from above. It shows up well in ht sun light, but
has low effect in case of strong wind. It tends to blow parallel to the waves high wind
conditions. This is a disadvantage when used for signaling to surface ships. Use smoke
signals rather than hand flares in good visibility conditions, in bright day light and when
winds are light. Approximate range - 5 to 7 miles (9 to 13 km).

Disposal of expired pyrotechnics

Pyrotechnics must be kept in a weather tight container and have a strong life of 3 years
and their date of manufacture and expiry marked on them. The disposal instruction of
outdated pyrotechnics states that these should never be used for practice purpose. The
outdated pyrotechnics must be disposed off by one of the following means:

Returning them to the supplier / manufacturer. Requesting life-raft service station to

deal with the disposal of expired pyrotechnics when the life-rafts are sent ashore for
servicing.

The firing of distress signal in other than distress condition is an offense. Expired
pyrotechnics must not be used at sea for test or practice purposes or used on land as
fire works, and should be landed ashore as soon as possible after their date of expiry.

Man overboard Smoke Marker (Lifebuoy self - activating smoke signal)

Man overboard Smoke Marker (Lifebuoy self - activating smoke signal) shall emit smoke
of a highly visible color at a uniform rate for a period of at least 15 min when floating in
calm water.
Method 1:

1. Remove Lifebuoy.
2. Throw Lifebuoy overboard.

Method 2:

1. Pull out lock pin.

2. Lifebuoy pulls the Signal with it.

Comply with emergency proceduresEmergency signalsDistress signalsLife-saving signals

Life-saving signals
Life-saving Signals

Signaling torch/strobe light  

The SOS in the morse code message can be sent by a signaling torch at night when
ships and/or aircraft are seen. The reasons for this being:

 The torch can provide directional signals

  A flashing light is more likely to attract attention than a steady light

Heliograph

The Heliograph is used to reflect sunlight toward an approaching rescue craft. This
reflection can be seen at a range of up to 32 km (17 NM) in good conditions and at a
lesser range in hazy conditions. On a bright day it is the most effective visual signal that
can be used to attract attention of a rescue craft. 

Instructions on how to use the heliograph are given in its packet, correct use is
important to maximize its effectiveness.

Some points to remember when using the heliograph

 It is easiest to use when the sun is in front or above the observer 

 It is difficult to use with the sun behind the observer
 Attempt to flash the reflected light onto and away from the target
 Direct flashes at high-flying aircraft, or ahead of the direction of the sound of the
aircraft that cannot be seen
 Flash the heliograph around the horizon at regular intervals if a search has been
activated
 Search aircraft can be directed to survival craft location by the heliograph
Heliograph
Comply with emergency proceduresEmergency signalsDistress signalsLine throwing appliances

Line throwing appliances

Line Throwing Appliance: A line throwing appliance is not a distress signaling
equipment but is equipment to be used in distress situations. It is used so that a
connection can be made by a strong line between the distressed ship and the safe ship
to pass on towing lines.
Line Throwing Apparatus

Line-throwing appliance (abbreviated as LTA) acts as a life saving appliance and

is used in almost all the situations where a line is required to be passed correctly
and rapidly. 

LTA has a water-resistant container (including an integral handle and triggers

mechanism) with a solid fuel rocket and 300 m (980 ft) line itself.
 Dimensions Diameter: 235 mm (9 in)

Length: 310 mm (12 in)

Gross weight 5 g (2 ounces)

Line diameter 4 mm (0.15 in)

Line strength Not less than 2 kN

Range of shooting  (for calm weather condition) Up to 300 m (980 ft)

 Compact, trustworthiness of a design, simple in operation

 The increased tightness of the case offers 5 years warranty period of a storage.
 Fire blast-proof at transport and operation 
 The product is friendly to the environment at a storage, operation and recycling.

Every line throwing appliance shall:

 Be capable of throwing a line with reasonable accuracy

 Include not less than four projectiles, each capable of carrying the line at least
230 m (750 ft) in calm weather 
 Include not less than four lines
 Have brief instructions or diagrams clearly illustrating the use of the line-throwing
appliance
Comply with emergency proceduresEmergency signalsDistress signalsSearch and Rescue

Search and Rescue

IAMSAR (INTERNATIONAL AERONAUTICAL AND MARITIME SEARCH AND
RESCUE ) is to assist local states in meeting their own search and rescue (SAR) needs
and the obligations they accepted under the convention on International Civil Aviation ,
Maritime Search And Rescue (MSAR) and Safety of Life At Sea (SOLAS). IAMSAR provide
guidelines for a common aviation and maritime approach to organizing and providing
‘SAR’ services. States are encouraged to develop and improve their SAR services, to co-
operate with neighbouring states and to consider their SAR services to be part of a
global SAR system.

Objectives

On completion of this sub-topic, you will be able to:

 State the purpose of IAMSAR (International Aeronautical and Maritime Search

and Rescue).
  Describe the SAR (Search and Rescue) process followed in case of a distress
signal transmission.

PURPOSE of IAMSAR is to provide guidance to those who:

 Operate aircraft,vessels or other craft , and who may be called upon to use the
facility to support SAR operations.
 May need to perform on-scene co-ordinator functions for multiple facilities in the
vicinity of a distress situation
 Experience actual or potential emergencies and may require search and rescue
(SAR) assistance.

RESPONSIBILITIES AND OBLIGATIONS TO ASSIST

Under long-standing traditions of the sea and various provisions of international law,
ship masters are obligated to assist others in distress at sea whenever they can safely do
so. The responsibilities to render assistance to a distressed vessel or aircraft are based
on humanitarian considerations and established international practice.

The media below explains about IAMSAR communication and "SAR" functions/duties at
different level during search and rescue operations when emergency "distress" signal is
received from a ship.
omply with emergency proceduresMuster list, Muster stations

Muster list, Muster stations

A muster list is displayed in prominent areas of the vessel so that every crew
member/passenger on onboard can read it. Some of the important areas where the
muster list is posted are - Bridge, Engine room, accommodation alleyways etc., areas
where ship’s crew spends the maximum of their time.
Comply with emergency proceduresMuster list, Muster stationsDuties allocated to crew members in
the Muster List

Duties allocated to crew members in the Muster List

The Important features displayed in the muster lists are:

Types of Emergency and different alarms for the same

Main emergencies like fire, man overboard, abandon ship, oil spill are listed along with indication of
visual and audible alarms.

Instruction to follow in case of different types of emergency

Brief instruction is given in case the alarm for a particular emergency is sounded, which includes
action to be taken by the crew onboard.

Common Muster point for all the crew

The common muster point is clearly described if any emergency alarm is sounded. Normally life boat
deck area is made as a common muster point.
Crew list of all crew member with assigned life boat

The qualified and competent crew name and his team (passengers etc,) is displayed along with the
assigned life boat for abandon ship emergency. Normally two life boats are assigned in between all
the crew member i.e. port side and starboard side life boats.

Assigned duties for abandon ship

All the crew listed in the muster list are assigned with duties to perform in emergency situation like
carrying EPIRB and SART, lifeboat and life raft launching etc.

Inspection and Checks based on Muster List:

 Crew members are aware of their duties indicated in the muster list, that they are familiar
with the duties assigned to them and are aware of the locations where they should perform
their duties, this is done by asking the crew relevant questions.

 Muster list is up to date, may require an up-to-date crew list.

 Ensure that muster lists (SOLAS regulation III/37) are exhibited in conspicuous places
throughout the ship, including the navigational bridge, the engine-room and the crew
accommodation spaces.

 When determining if the muster list is in accordance with the regulations, verify whether:
1. The muster list shows the duties assigned to the different members of the crew;
2. The muster list specifies which officers are assigned to ensure that life-saving and fire-
fighting equipment is maintained in good condition and ready for immediate use;
3. The muster list specifies the substitutes for key persons who may become disabled, taking
into account that different emergencies may call for different actions;

 Determine that the duties of assigned crew members manning the survival craft are in
accordance with the requirements of SOLAS and should verify that a deck officer or
certificated person is placed in charge of each survival craft to be used.

 A second-in-command should also be nominated in the case of lifeboats.

 Key crew members could be but are not limited to:

1. Bridge Team including GMDSS operators who must also be able to communicate with the
shore and other vessels
2. Fire Parties
3. Damage Control Parties
4. Boat Preparation Parties
5. Passenger Muster Personnel on passenger ships.
  Determine if UHF or VHF hand held radios are being used and that the crew are familiar with
their use and that they are aware of reception dead zones and areas and what alternative
communication methods are available. (Sound powered phones, etc.).

omply with emergency proceduresMuster list, Muster stationsDuties assigned with the location of
crew’s lifeboat station

Duties assigned with the location of crew’s lifeboat station

A typical Muster List Format that will show the detail distribution of duty with
actual crew names inserted on the Station Bill.
With the manpower having reduced to a fundamental minimum on
board ships, it is all the imperative to keep safety at sea as the prime
concern for the crew. Regular maintenance of lifeboats, life rafts and
other such safety entities must be done thoroughly. After all, at the
time of distress, it the survival craft that is going to get us to
safety. Although it might seem difficult after a day’s work, drills on
ships must be carried out to ensure that the crew is thorough with each
and every safety procedure with regard to evacuation or any other
emergency. It is only with regular practice of the drills that the
operation of the lifeboat/rescue boat and life rafts becomes a lot easier.
I’m sure we will all agree that after repeated drills, every nook and
corner of the survival craft comes easily to the memory.

Seven points to remember with regard to manning of survival

craft:
1. The number of trained personnel for the purposes of mustering and
otherwise must be sufficient. The same is important in assisting the
untrained persons. Assigning the right spots at the muster station
helps demarcate the new from the seasoned, making it an easier
way to monitor the untrained persons. No one gets on ship knowing
everything and therefore it is important that the ones that are no so
thorough are trained without judgement and with full effort.

2. The number of crew operating the craft and its arrangements for
embarkation and launching must be sufficient. As it is we do not
have much   manpower to spare. At the time of crisis, the last thing
required would be the challenge to crew associated with a certain
job. For example, you cannot have the embarkation ladder setup by
a single person.

3. A certified/authorised person, preferably a deck officer (as is the

case usually) must be assigned as the in-charge of the survival
craft(s) with the duties designated to each member at each station.
Assigning of duties is a task given to the third mate which should be
undertaken keeping in mind each member’s capabilities. The person
in charge should also be elaborate in his explanation at each drill
about individual duty so as to avoid any confusion later on. For
example, a lot of people mention the ‘painter’ when asked but don’t
really know what it is. 

4. The officer in-charge of a respective station must have a list of the

individuals that belong to that station along with their assigned
duties. To ensure that the crew is well acquainted with their duties,
the in-charge must explain each person their duties and ensure that
the individual is competent to carry out his task. A crewmember,
say an OS, might not be familiar with the duty of fetching the SART
from the bridge. Such things should be kept in view, when assigning
duties and/or, when conducting a drill.

5. Qualified personnel capable of handling communication equipment

such as the radiotelegraph, handheld VHFs etc.

6. Power driven crafts must have an individual who can handle and
operate the engine as well as possess knowhow of carrying out
minor adjustments to the machinery. In any case, every craft will
have a certified engineer with knowledge of the craft’s engine.

7. The distribution of personnel between (or among) the survival crafts

must be done in a way that each station has a fair share of qualified
and capable individuals who are trained in the handling and
operation of the survival craft. It should not be the case that the
one station is ripe with all the able individuals while the other isn’t
 so. The Master, via the third mate, should ensure that this
distribution is maintained. 

Survival Craft Muster and Drill- A few Salient Points

 Crew members other than those who cannot be relieved from their
normal duties should muster, wearing lifejackets, at their lifeboat
and liferaft stations.

 The person in charge of each survival craft must have a list of its
crew and ensure that they are fully acquainted with their duties.

 The second-in-command of a lifeboat must also have a list of the

lifeboat crew.

 In cargo ships provided with totally enclosed lifeboats which are

boarded and launched from the stowed position, drills should
periodically include the boarding of a lifeboat in its stowed position
in order that crew members can become practiced in boarding a
boat rapidly, locating a seating position and using the seat belts.

 In the case of other totally enclosed lifeboats equipped with

seatbelts, crew members should be periodically drilled in using the
seatbelts but such lifeboats should not be boarded at the
stowed position by the full complement at any one time. 

 When a drill is being carried out inside a totally enclosed lifeboat,

crew members should also be made familiar with the launching
procedures and made aware of what to expect when the engine and
air support and water spray systems, where fitted, are in operation.

Comply with emergency proceduresUse of personal safety equipment

Use of personal safety equipment

Personal Life-saving Appliances

The media below indicates all life saving equipment on board ship.

Prolonged exposure to the elements of the sea, especially in cold waters, presents many
challenges to an individual's survival, especially hypothermia which causes rapid and
continued loss of body heat. Immersion Suits are designed to provide full-body thermal
protection similar to a diver's wet suit, as well as built-in flotation. One immersion suit
should be provided for every person onboard a cargo ship with additional suits provided
at places of work and watch-keeping duties, which are remotely located from the
immersion suit storage area. Immersion suits must be stored in readily accessible and
clearly marked locations. The storage facilities must ensure that immersion suits are
maintained in good condition.

You need to familiarize with personal protective gears and learn to wear and make use of
during drills, and in emergency. Failure to be properly attired could cause injury and
even death without notice. You should know where these are to be kept on board and
how to take good care of them during and after use. This includes, helmets or hardhats,
safety shoes and protective gloves, eye-goggles, ear/hearing protection. 

One important point that applies to most PPE: remember, a common size may not be
suitable for everyone; while most of the PPE can be adjusted to fit a head or other body
parts, you should always check for a comfortable and snug fitting. Time and again crew
have been found wearing hardhats incorrectly or forget to secure lifejacket. If you find
anything of such nature, report to the safety officer on board for immediate help and
rectification.

Personal life saving equipment consists of lifebuoys, life jackets, immersion suits and
thermal protective aids. Other equipment includes portable radios, SART, EPIRB, line
throwing apparatus and pyrotechnics. Pyrotechnics consists of buoyant smoke floats,
rocket parachute flares and hand flares. They are covered under the topic Lifeboats and
Liferafts.

Comply with emergency proceduresUse of personal safety equipmentLifebuoys

Lifebuoys
 1. Lifebuoys shall be:

a) So distributed as to be readily available on both sides of the ship and as far as

practicable on all open decks extending to the ship’s side; at least one shall be
placed in the vicinity of the stern; and

b) So stowed as to be capable of being rapidly cast loose, and not permanently

secured in any way.

2. At least one lifebuoy on each side of the ship shall be fitted with a buoyant lifeline
equal in length to not less than twice the height at which it is stowed above the
waterline in the lightest seagoing condition, or 30 m (100 ft), whichever is the
greater.
3. Not less than one half of the total number of lifebuoys shall be provided with
lifebuoy self- igniting lights; not less than two of these shall also be provided with
lifebuoy self-activating smoke signals and be capable of quick release from the
navigation bridge; lifebuoys with lights and those with lights and smoke signals
shall be equally distributed on both sides of the ship and shall not be the
lifebuoys provided with lifelines.
4. Each lifebuoy shall be marked in block capitals of the Roman alphabet with the
name and port of registry of the ship on which it is carried.

Lifebuoys (in Passenger Ships)

A passenger ship shall carry not less than the number of lifebuoys prescribed in the
following table:

Length of ship in metres Minimum number of lifebuoys

Under 60 (197 ft.) 8

60 (197 ft.) and under 120 (394 ft.) 12

120 (394 ft.) and under 180 (590 ft.) 18

180 (590 ft.) and under 240 (790 ft.) 24

240 (790 ft.) and over 30

Lifebuoys (in Cargo ships)

Cargo ships shall carry not less than the number of lifebuoys prescribed in the following
table:

Length of ship in metres Minimum number of lifebuoys

 Under 100 (328 ft.) 8

100  (328 ft.) and under 150 (492 ft.) 10

150 (492 ft.) and under 200 (660 ft.) 12

200 (660 ft.) and over 14

Self-igniting lights for lifebuoys on tankers shall be of an electric battery type.

Lifebuoy specifications

Every lifebuoy shall:

 Have an outer diameter of not more than 800 mm (31 in) and an inner diameter
of not lass than 400 mm (16 in)
 Be capable of supporting not less than 14.5 kg (32 lbs) of iron in fresh water for a
period of 24 h
 Have a mass of not less than 2.5 kg (5.5 lbs)
 Be fitted with a grabline not less than 9.5 mm (0.4 in) in diameter and not less
than four times the outside diameter of the body of buoy in length. The grabline
shall be secured at four equidistant points around the circumference of the buoy
to form four equal loops.

Lifebuoy self-igniting lights shall:

 Be such that they cannot be extinguished by water

 Be of white color and capable of either burning continuously or flashing at a rate
of not less than 50 flashes and not more than 70 flashes per minute

Lifebuoy self-activating smoke signals shall:

 Emit smoke of a highly visible color at a uniform rate for a period of at least 15
min when floating in calm water
 Continue to emit smoke when fully submerged in water for a period of 10 s
 Be provided with a quick-release arrangement

Buoyant lifelines shall have a diameter of not less than 8 mm (0.3 in).

Comply with emergency proceduresUse of personal safety equipmentLifejackets

Lifejackets
 A lifejacket shall be provided for every person on board the ship, and, in addition:

1) For passenger ships on voyages less than 24 h, a number of infant lifejackets

equal to at least 2.5% of the number of passengers on board shall be provided;
 2) For passenger ships on voyages 24 h or greater, infant lifejackets shall be
provided for each infant on board;
3) A number of lifejackets suitable for children equal to at least 10% of the
number of passengers on board shall be provided or such greater number as may
be required to provide a lifejacket for each child;
4) A sufficient number of lifejackets shall be carried for persons on watch and for
use at remotely located survival craft stations. The lifejackets carried for persons
on watch should be stowed on the bridge, in the engine control room and at any
other manned watch station; and
5) If the adult lifejackets provided are not designed to fit persons weighing up to
140 kg (308 lbs) and with a chest girth of up to 1,750 mm (69 in), a sufficient
number of suitable accessories shall be available on board to allow them to be
secured to such persons.

 Lifejackets shall be so placed as to be readily accessible and their position shall

be plainly indicated. Where, due to the particular arrangements of the ship, the
lifejackets may become inaccessible, alternative provisions shall be made to the
satisfaction of the Administration which may include an increase in the number of
lifejackets to be carried.
 The lifejackets used in totally enclosed lifeboats, except free-fall lifeboats, shall
not impede entry into the lifeboat or seating, including operation of the seat belts
in the lifeboat.
 Lifejackets selected for free-fall lifeboats, and the manner in which they are
carried or worn, shall not interfere with entry into the lifeboat, occupant safety or
operation of the lifeboat.
           

Lifejackets (in Passenger Ships – additional requirements)

 1. In addition to the lifejackets required every passenger ship shall carry lifejackets
for not less than 5% of the total number of persons on board. These lifejackets
shall be stowed in conspicuous places on deck or at muster stations.
2. Where lifejackets for passengers are stowed in staterooms which are located
remotely from direct routes between public spaces and muster stations, the
additional lifejackets for these passengers shall be stowed either in the public
spaces, the muster stations, or on direct routes between them. The lifejackets
shall be stowed so that their distribution and donning does not impede orderly
movement to muster stations and survival craft embarkation stations.

On all passenger ships and all cargo ships, each lifejacket shall be fitted with a light.

Lifejacket specifications

Lifejackets shall be marked by either weight or height, or by both weight and height, as
per the table below:

Lifejacket sizing criteria

Lifejacket marking Infant Child Adult

User’s size:      

Weight (kg) Less than 15 (33 lbs) 15 (33 lbs) or more but 43 (95 lbs) or more
less than 43 (95 lbs)

Height (cm) Less than 100 (3 ft 3 in) 100 (3 ft 3 in) or more 155  (5 ft) or more
but less than 155 (5 ft)

An infant or child lifejacket shall be marked with an infant or child symbol.

Each lifejacket shall be fitted with a whistle firmly secured by a lanyard.   

Inflatable lifejackets

An inflatable lifejacket shall inflate automatically upon immersion, be provided with a

device to permit inflation by a single manual motion and be capable of having each
chamber inflated by mouth.

Comply with emergency proceduresUse of personal safety equipmentImmersion suits

Immersion Suits
An immersion suit or an anti-exposure suit of an appropriate size, shall be provided for
every person assigned to crew the rescue boat or assigned to the marine evacuation
system party. If the ship is constantly engaged in warm climates where, in the opinion of
the Administration thermal protection is unnecessary, this protective clothing need not
be carried.

Immersion suits and thermal protective aids (in Passenger Ships)

All passenger ships shall carry for each lifeboat on the ship at least three immersion suits
and, in addition, a thermal protective aid for every person to be accommodated in the
lifeboat and not provided with an immersion suit. These immersion suits and thermal
protective aids need not be carried:

1. For persons to be accommodated in totally or partially enclosed lifeboats; or

2. If the ship is constantly engaged on voyages in warm climates where, in the
opinion of the Administration, they are unnecessary.

Immersion suits (in Cargo ships)

 1. An immersion suit of an appropriate size shall be provided for every person on
board the ship. However, for ships other than bulk carriers, these immersion suits
need not be required if the ship is constantly engaged on voyages in warm
climates where, in the opinion of the Administration, immersion suits are
unnecessary.
2. Immersion suits shall be so placed as to be readily accessible and their position
shall be plainly indicated.

Immersion suit specifications

An immersion suit shall be constructed with waterproof materials such that: 

 It can be unpacked and donned without assistance within 2 min

 It will cover the whole body with the exception of the face
 Following a jump from a height of not less than 4.5 m (15 ft) into the water there
is no undue ingress of water into the suit

It shall have sufficient buoyancy and stability in calm fresh water to:

 Lift the mouth of an exhausted or unconscious person clear of the water by not
less than 120 mm (4.5 in)
 Allow the wearer to turn from a face-down to a face-up position in mot more than
5s

An immersion suit made of material which has no inherent insulation shall be so

constructed, that it continues to provide sufficient thermal protection, following one jump
by the wearer into the water from a height of 4.5 m (15 ft), to ensure that when it is
worn for a period of 1 h in calm circulating water at a temperature of 5°C (41°F), the
wearer’s body core temperature does not fall more than 2°C (36°F).

An immersion suit made of material with inherent insulation shall provide the wearer
with sufficient thermal insulation, following one jump by the wearer into the water from
a height of 4.5 m (15 ft), to ensure that the wearer’s body core temperature does not
fall more than 2°C (36°F) after a period of 6 h immersion in calm circulating water at a
temperature of between 0°C (32°F) and 2°C (36°F).

Donning procedure

All crew must be familiar with the location(s) of immersion suits and lifejackets and the
methods of donning these items. Drill procedures and activities should incorporate
demonstrations and practice to ensure that all crew can safely use an immersion suit
immediately when required. The manufacturer’s inspection and maintenance
recommendations must be followed to ensure that the condition of each immersion suit
remains suitable for immediate use.

Clothing
Persons should wear standard clothing consisting of:

 Underwear (short sleeved, short legged)

 Shirt (long sleeved)
 Trousers (not woolen)
 Woolen socks

In addition, they should preferably wear two woolen pullovers, if no inherent insulation is
provided in the immersion suit.

The immersion suit shall be constructed with waterproof materials such that:

 It can be unpacked and donned without assistance within 2 min, taking into
account any associated clothing, and a lifejacket if the immersion suit is to be
worn in conjunction with a lifejacket
 It will not sustain burning or continue melting after being totally enveloped in a
fire for a period of 2 seconds
 It will cover the whole body with the exception of the face. Hands shall also be
covered unless permanently attached gloves are provided
 It is provided with arrangements to minimize or reduce free air in the legs of the
suit
 Following a jump from a height of not less than 4.5 m into the water there is no
undue ingress of water into the suit.

An immersion suit which also complies with the requirements of life-jackets may be
classified as a life-jacket.

An immersion suit which has buoyancy and is designed to be worn without a lifejacket
shall be fitted with a light and the whistle complying with the requirements for life-
jackets.

If the immersion suit is to be worn in conjunction with a lifejacket, the lifejacket shall be
worn over the immersion suit. A person wearing such an immersion suit shall be able to
don a lifejacket without assistance.

In such cases the immersion suit shall permit the person wearing it:

 To climb up and down a vertical ladder at least 5 m in length

 To perform normal duties associated with abandonment
 To jump from a height of not less than 4.5 m into the water without damaging or
dislodging the immersion suit, or being injured
 To swim a short distance through the water and board a survival craft

An immersion suit made of material which has no inherent insulation shall be:

 Marked with instructions that it must be worn in conjunction with warm clothing;
 So constructed that, when worn in conjunction with warm clothing, and with a
lifejacket if the immersion suit is to be worn with a lifejacket, the immersion suit
continues to provide sufficient thermal protection, following one jump by the
 wearer into the water from a height of 4.5 m, to ensure that when it is worn for a
period of  1 hour in calm circulating water at a temperature of 5°C, the wearer's
body core temperature does not fall more than 2°C.
 An immersion suit made of material with inherent insulation, when worn either on
its own or with a lifejacket, if the immersion suit is to be worn in conjunction with
a lifejacket, shall provide the wearer with sufficient thermal insulation, following
one jump into the water from a height of 4.5 m, to ensure that the wearer's body
core temperature does not fall more than 2°C after a period of 6 hours immersion
in calm circulating water at a temperature of between 0°C and 2°C.

A person in fresh water wearing either an immersion suit or an immersion suit with a
lifejacket, shall be able to turn from a face-down to a face-up position in not more than 5
seconds.

Training

It is important that all personnel carry out regular practice and training while dressed in
the suit. This will enable them to become familiar with the suits and any restrictions or
limitations found while wearing them.

Before entering the water, the suit must be correctly fastened and undamaged. This is
very important if the suit is loose fitting. If unfastened or torn, a loose fitting suit will
become full of water and will immobilize the user with a risk drowning.

Comply with emergency proceduresUse of personal safety equipmentThermal protective aids

Thermal protective aids

A thermal protective aid shall be so constructed that, when used to enclose a person, it
shall reduce both the convective and evaporative heat loss from the wearers body.

It shall:

 Cover the whole body of persons of all sizes wearing a lifejacket with the
exception of the face. Hands shall also be covered unless permanently attached
gloves are provided
 Be able of being unpacked and easily donned without assistance in a survival
craft or rescue boat
 Permit the wearer to remove it in the water in not more than 2 min, if it impairs
ability to swim
 Function properly throughout an air temperature range -30°C to +20°C (-22°F to
68°F)
Thermal protective aid
Clothing and Donning Procedures

The hand and arm construction of each thermal protective aid must be provided with a
glove that facilitates the wearer to close and open the zipper or carry out other tasks
other tasks. The manufacturer's name and instructions for use must be marked on the
thermal protective aid.

Clothing

Persons should wear standard clothing consisting of:

 Underwear (short sleeved, short legged)

 Shirt (long sleeved)
 Trousers (not woolen)
 Woolen socks
In addition, they should preferably wear two woolen pullovers, if no inherent insulation is
provided in the thermal protective aid.

The thermal protective aid shall fulfill the following requirements:

 Cover the whole body of persons of all sizes wearing a lifejacket with the
exception of the face.
 Hands shall also be covered unless permanently attached gloves are provided;
 Following a demonstration, the test subjects shall be able to unpack and don the
thermal protective aid over a lifejacket when seated in a survival craft or rescue
boat without assistance.
 Permit the wearer to remove it in the water in not more than 2 min, if it impairs
ability to swim.
 The thermal protective aid should be capable of being unpacked and donned at an
ambient temperature of -300 C.
 Before the donning test the thermal protective aid should be kept in a
refrigerated chamber at a temperature of -300 C for 24h.
 The thermal protective aid shall function properly throughout an air temperature
range -30°C to +20°C.

Comply with emergency proceduresUse of personal safety equipmentAnti-exposure suits

Anti-exposure Suits
An anti-exposure suit shall be constructed with waterproof materials such that it:

 Reduces the risk of heat stress during rescue and evacuation operations
 Covers the whole body except the feet, coverings for the hands and head may be
provided by separate gloves and hood, which shall be permanently attached to
the suit
 Can be unpacked and donned without assistance within 2 min

It shall permit the person wearing it to:

 Climb up and down a vertical ladder of at least 5 m (16 ft) in length

 Jump from a height of not less than 4.5 m (15 ft) into the water with feet first,
without damaging or dislodging the suit or its attachments, or being injured
 Swim through the water at least 25 m (82 ft) and board a survival craft

An anti-exposure suit shall provide the wearer with sufficient thermal insulation,
following one jump into the water that totally submerges the wearer, to ensure that,
when it is worn in calm circulating water at a temperature of 5°C (41 °F), the wearers
body core temperature does not fall at a rate of more than 1.5°C (2.7°F) per
hour after the first 0.5 h.

Comply with emergency proceduresUse of personal safety equipmentFireman's outfit

Fireman’s outfit
A firefighter's outfit shall consist of a set of personal equipment and a breathing
apparatus.

Personal equipment

Personal equipment shall consist of the following:

 Protective clothing of material to protect the skin from the heat radiating from the
fire and from burns and scalding by steam. The outer surface shall be water-
resistant; 
 Boots of rubber or other electrically non-conducting material;
 Rigid helmet providing effective protection against impact;
 Electric safety lamp (hand lantern) of an approved type with a minimum burning
period of 3 h. Electric safety lamps on tankers and those intended to be used in
hazardous areas shall be of an explosion-proof type; and
 Axe with a handle provided with high-voltage insulation. 

The fire fighters need to protect themselves from the fire while fighting it. The fireman's
outfit provides this protection and is heat resistant. The fireman should thoroughly
familiarise himself with the various parts of the Fireman's outfit, as this may save lot of
critical time. The equipment should be checked properly prior to use. If the equipment is
not checked properly then there may be situations where the rescuer himself may
become a casualty.

The fireman's out fit consists of Heat resistant jacket and trouser, Helmet with visor and
neck protector, boots and gloves. The accessories which are carried after wearing
fireman's suit are a lamp with three hours of battery operation and safety harness.

Gas and chemical suits are used in gas and chemical carriers. Container ships also have
chemical suits if they carry dangerous chemical cargo.

Every fire fighting team should be equipped with a fireman's outfit to extinguish a fire.
The fireman's outfit consists of a breathing apparatus, protective clothing, a safety lamp
and a fire axe.

Protective Clothing

Video 36

Video 37

The following media describes a fireman's outfit.

Video 38

Care and Maintenance

The following checks are to be carried out on the breathing apparatus:

 Check the pressure of air cylinders and recharge if the pressure drop is more than
10% (of full pressure)
 Tally the mark on the cylinder with the cylinder certificate
 Check the harness for damages and replace, where required
 Buckle and strap the face mask for ease of operation
 Wash the face mask with light soapy solution and rinse with fresh water
 Smear rubber parts with a thin layer of paraffin wax
 Check the operation of the demand and exhale valve
 Check for any audible leaks within the system and rectify, if required
 Carry out a low pressure test to check if the audible alarm is functional
 Carry out the face mask sealing test
 Check the condition of the life line and replace, if found damaged
 Pressure testing of cylinders to be carried out as per flag state requirements.

Clothing and Accessories

The following checks are to be carried out on the fireman's outfit: Ensure that fire
resistant jackets and trousers are free from tear and damages

 Ensure that fasteners of jackets and trousers are in good condition

  Ensure that boots and hand gloves are free from damages
 Ensure that the helmet is free from cracks and the visor is clean
 Ensure that the safety lamp is intrinsically safe to operate in hazardous
atmospheres
 Ensure that charged batteries last for at least 3 hours continuously
 Ensure that spare batteries and bulbs are available onboard
 Ensure that the insulation of the fire axe handle is not damaged to prevent
electric shocks
 Sharpen the edges of axes and smear with paraffin jelly to prevent corrosion.

Comply with emergency proceduresUse of personal safety equipmentBreathing apparatus

Breathing Apparatus
Breathing apparatus shall be a self-contained compressed air breathing apparatus for
which the volume of air contained in the cylinders shall be at least 1,200 L, or other self-
contained breathing apparatus which shall be capable of functioning for at least 30 min.
All air cylinders for breathing apparatus shall be interchangeable.

Compressed air breathing apparatus shall be fitted with an audible alarm and a visual or
other device which will alert the user before the volume of the air in the cylinder has
been reduced to no less than 200 L. 

Lifeline

For each breathing apparatus a fireproof lifeline of at least 30 m in length shall be

provided. The lifeline shall successfully pass an approval test by statical load of 3.5 kN
for 5 min without failure. The lifeline shall be capable of being attached by means of a
snap-hook to the harness of the apparatus or to a separate belt in order to prevent the
breathing apparatus becoming detached when the lifeline is operated. 

The Breathing Apparatus or the BA set as it is commonly known as, forms the standard
part of the fireman's outfit. When used correctly it assists fireman in rescue operation
keeping him safe. The designated fireman in a fire party should regularly practice
donning of the BA set so that he does not miss out any steps during actual fire fighting.

Checks to be carried out before using the SCBA (Self contained breathing
apparatus)

 Carry out a thorough visual examination of the SCBA, its connections and other
components.
 Gradually open the cylinder valve and read the pressure in the gauge.
 Close the cylinder valve and observe the pressure gauge. The drop in the
pressure should not be more than 10 bar in one minute.
 Release the air, bypassing the demand valve to check the operation of the
whistle. The whistle should sound at the indicated pressure on the cylinder gauge.
 Carry out mask leakage test to check that there is no leakage in the mask. For
this:

1. Don the apparatus completely and breathe normally.

2. Close the valve of the cylinder, and breathe until all the air within the system is
exhausted.

3. Once this is done the mask will automatically pull onto the face. This will not
happen if there are leaks within the mask. Readjust and repeat the test so that
the mask automatically pulls onto your face.

 Check for proper operation of the demand valve and the exhalation valve. For
this:

1. Open the cylinder valve fully and breathe deeply.

2. Hold the breath and check if there are any audible leaks within the system.
 3. Continue to breathe normally and check if air flows through the exhalation
valve.

4. Check the operation of the supplementary valve.

Video 39

Video 40

Video 41

Using of SCBA
Video 42

The following media explains the Compressed Air Breathing Apparatus:

Video 43

Donning procedure

The following media explains Donning procedure for BA:

Video 44

BREATHING APPARATUS CONTROL

Prior to entry it is important that each breathing apparatus wearer reports to control so

that the following are recorded:-

 Name
 Cylinder pressure
 Time entering
 Location of team and job in hand.

The average person uses 40 litres of air/minute. However, during physical exercise and
the likely adrenalin flow in an emergency situation this consumption is likely to be much
higher, coupled to this you have the actual fitness levels of the personnel involved. Thus
although the theoretical exit time will have been calculated this could vary quite
 considerably from the actual time someone may have. Thus it is the responsibility of the
wearer to regularily check the contents of his pressure gauge.

Consumption and Duration Table

The volume of air inside the cylinder should be at least 1200 litres of fresh air enough to
last for a normal functioning of 30 minutes. When the amount of air in the cylinder is
reduced to 10 minutes of supply, an audible alarm is activated to warn the wearer of
limited air supply. A pressure gauge is provided to indicate the air pressure in the
cylinder. Spare cylinders should be provided for each SCBA apparatus. If an air
compressor is provided onboard the ship to fill up air in the cylinders, then the ship need
to carry only spare cylinders carrying 1200 litres of breathing air per each breathing
apparatus set.

An approximate consumption and duration table:

Degrees of Air consumption Duration of cylinder having Duration of cylinder having

work (Ltr/min) 1200 ltrs capacity (min) 1800 ltrs capacity (min)

Resting 8 – 12 150 – 100 225 – 150

Light work 12 – 20 100 – 60 150 – 90

Moderate work 20 – 40 60 – 30 90 – 45

Heavy work 40 – 60 30 – 20 45 – 30

With this in mind the wearer should allow time to exit the space he is in but also
maximize the working air available. The working air is defined as the difference between
the full bottle pressure and the whistle pressure, i.e. you should be out of the space and
in fresh air when your whistle sounds.

For example:-

300 bar, 9 litre cylinder

Total Time 61 min

Whistle Time 10 mins

Working Time 51 mins

200 bar, 9 litre cylinder

Total Time 45 mins

Whistle Time 10 mins

Working Time 35 mins

Thus you must be thinking about exiting the space when you have used half the working
air i.e.

start press 200

whistle press 60

working press 140

return to exit 130 bar

If a team fails to re-appear at the exit after calculated exit time then rescue team should
be sent in to find them.

BA Signals

One pull from I/C: how are you

Two pull from wearer: we are moving forward pay slack on all lines

Three pull from I/C: come out

Three pull from wearer: pick up slack we are coming out

More than three pulls: we are landed in

From wearer in sharp: emergency. Come and rescue

THE BA SHUFFLE

Both members of a team will move using this method to ensure the ground is safe ahead
before committing their weight to it. The BA wearer keeps his weight on one foot and
then sweeps the ground ahead in a semi cicular motion with his other foot. At the same
time he uses his free hand to sweep above his head and in front to ensure a clear route.
No.2 will shuffle along beside him.

When opening a door it is always important to ascertain which way the door opens ie
towards or away from you, and then using door or frame as protection in case of
backdraft on opening. Only ever crack open door and keep low until you are sure it is
safe to proceed.

SEARCHING OUT

It is important to make a thorough search of an area quickly. To achieve this No1 will
maintain contact with the door frame whilst No2 reaches out as far as possible away
from direction of travel - don’t forget most likely place to find casualty is behind or close
to the door! Once the area around door is clear the team swings around so that No1 has
contact with appropriate bulkhead and No2 remains out towards the middle of the space
but always in contact with No1.
TURN ROUND AND RETREAT

When team deem it is time to retreat be means of gauge checking or because they have
found casualty they turn around and follow the other hand out of the incident ie a left
hand search in becomes a right hand search out.

LADDERS AND STAIRWAYS

Both are potentially hazardous to the BA wearer, if possible teams must be made aware
of any during brief prior to entry. You should always go backwards down stairs testing
each step prior to committing your weight. No 2 should be guided by No 1. When
bringing casualty down No 1 will go first and No 2 will drag casualty down behind him
being guided and supported by No 1.

It is vital teams are correctly briefed and are clear which hand search they are to carry
out with any restrictions imposed. The team themselves must take care to follow brief
exactly for their own safety and the safety of those following.

omply with emergency proceduresUse of personal safety equipmentEmergency Escape Breathing

Device

Emergency Escape Breathing Device

Emergency Escape Breathing Device (EEBD)

EEBD is used in case of emergency escape and the duration it will last is 10 minutes.

The following checks are to be carried out on the EEBD:

 Ensure that the seals of EEBD cylinders are secure

 Check the neck seal and mask condition
 Check the manometer of pressurised cylinders for net loss of pressure.
  
  
The following media describes an EEBD

Video 45
                                                                                                IMO Sign for EEBD

An EEBD is a supplied air or oxygen device only used for escape from a compartment
that has a hazardous atmosphere and shall be of an approved type.

EEBD shall not be used for fighting fires, entering oxygen deficient voids or tanks, or
worn by firefighters. In these events, a self- contained breathing apparatus, which is
specifically suited for such applications, shall be used. 

Definitions 

Face piece means a face covering that is designed to form a complete seal around the
eyes, nose and mouth which is secured in position by a suitable means.

Hood means a head covering which completely covers the head, neck and may cover
portions of the shoulders. 

Hazardous atmosphere means any atmosphere that is immediately dangerous to life or

health.
Particulars 

 The EEBD shall have a service duration of at least 10 min.

 The EEBD shall include a hood or full face piece, as appropriate, to protect the
eyes, nose and mouth during escape. Hoods and face pieces shall be constructed
of flame-resistant materials and include a clear window for viewing.
 An inactivated EEBD shall be capable of being carried hands-free.
 An EEBD, when stored, shall be suitably protected from the environment.
 Brief instructions or diagrams clearly illustrating their use shall be clearly printed
on the EEBD. The donning procedures shall be quick and easy to allow for
situations where there is little time to seek safety from a hazardous atmosphere. 

Markings
Maintenance requirements, manufacturer's trademark and serial number, shelf life with
accompanying manufacture date and name of the approving authority shall be printed on
each EEBD. All EEBD training units shall be clearly marked. 

Comply with emergency proceduresUse of personal safety equipmentResuscitation apparatus

Resuscitation apparatus
There are three types of resuscitators, which are devices using positive pressure to
inflate the lungs of an unconscious person who is not breathing, in order to keep them
oxygenated and alive.

1. The first type is an oxygen powered resuscitator. These are driven by pressurised
gas delivered by a regulator, and can either be automatic or manually controlled.
2. The second type is a manual version (also known as a bag valve mask) consisting
of a mask and a large hand-squeezed plastic bulb using ambient air, or with
supplemental oxygen from a high-pressure tank.
 3. The third type is the Expired Air or breath powered resuscitator.

IMO Sign for Resuscitator

Comply with emergency proceduresActions upon hearing the emergency alarm signals

Actions upon hearing the emergency alarm signals

Action of Crew

Familiarity with emergency procedures as per the Muster List

Every crew member with emergency duties assigned on the muster list must be familiar
with their assigned duties before the voyage begins.

On a vessel engaged on voyage when the passengers or special personnel are scheduled
to be on board for more than 24 hours, musters of the passengers and special personnel
must take place within 24 hours after their embarkation-passengers and special
personnel must be instructed in the use of the life jackets and the action to take in an
emergency.
Whenever new passengers or special personnel embark, a safety briefing must be given
immediately before sailing or immediately after sailing.

The briefing must include the instructions required by §199.80 and must be made by
means of an announcement in one or more languages likely to be understood by the
passengers and special personnel

The announcement must be made on the vessel's public address system or by other
equivalent means likely to be heard by the passengers and special personnel who have
not yet heard it during the voyage

The briefing may be included in the muster, if the muster is held immediately upon
departure. Information cards or posters, or video programs displayed on the vessel video
displays, may be used to supplement the briefing, but may not be used to replace the
announcement.

First, what kind of emergencies are we talking about?

There could be Fire Emergency! Continual Sounding Alarm is sounded. Acknowledge

that. It is indeed the Fire Alarm!

or, there are other General Emergencies indicated by the General Emergency alarm. You
hear Seven short blasts followed by a long blast being repeated. So, it is a general
emergency alarm!

For the crew, it is simple: get to your assembly point or the Muster Station to be briefed,
before you get to your respective emergency stations as you have been trained during
the fire drill. 

Action Scenario for Fire Alarms

The following graphic will demonstrate the ideal crew movement in the outbreak
of fire:
For any other General Emergency Alarms, crew should assemble at their
assigned locations as per the station bill and wait for further instructions of the
officer-in-charge for that station.

Preparing for Abandon Ship

In case of a major accident, the Master may be compelled to order the vessel to
be abandoned. Since the ship provides all life support systems, any decision to
abandon is not to be taken lightly. However, should the vessel be no longer safe
because of collision, fire, explosion or any other reason, the order to abandon
may be given.

The action to be taken by the ship's crew would depend upon the existing
conditions. In case the abandon ship could be an outcome, the immersion suit
needs to be essentially carried. Life jacket should be donned and secured tightly.
Individuals in cold water with a badly secured life-jacket would find the task of
rescuing with wet, cold hand extremely difficult, if not impossible.

A survival craft is designed to protect the lives of persons in distress. A rescue

boat is designed to rescue persons in distress and is also used to marshall
survival crafts. The different types of survival crafts include open lifeboats,
enclosed lifeboats, free fall life boats, inflatable life rafts and davit launched life
rafts.

Action of Passengers

General Alarm

 After the alarm has been sounded, passengers are told to then make their way to
their Muster Station. Crew are especially assigned to mobilise the passengers
 Upon reaching their muster station, passengers are informed of the use of life
jackets, lifeboats, etc. (this may be a repeat or quick refresher based on time
available).
This can escalate to an Abandon ship alarm to be announced by the PA system by the
Master

 Under this, the crew will make the lifeboats ready for the evacuation process and
the passengers need to depend upon the instructions of the crew.
 In certain cases, it has been observed that the crew has also panicked or the
Captain himself is unable to manage the situation (Costa Conchordia);
passengers will have to depend upon the brief training or drills that they attended
to rescue themselves.
 Try not to panic and jump overboard; you might be safer on board for rescue by
coast guard or other such authorities.

  

Muster Station Signage

Comply with emergency proceduresValue of training and drills

Value of training and drills

Examining Value of training and drills

According to STCW 78/95 Convention every seafarer is obliged to have certified

knowledge about safety precautions applied on board. Besides, SOLAS 74/78 Convention
indicates time intervals and content of drills that has to be conducted on board. In spite
of technological development the number of accidents at sea remains a problem.
Majority of the incidents have their origins in human errors, which might have been
caused by bad communication, lack of knowledge/experience, poor training, remissness,
wrong management system and many others. Understanding the role of the human
element within the system is essential for safety improvement. One of the ways of
finding out about the dangers, which can occur onboard because of the human factor, is
to check crew skills in practice and improve them with onboard training and drills.

Drills and training on board are essential part of seafarers’ life. There are many
regulations which describe the way and frequency of drill to be conducted. Regulations
25 and 26 from Chapter III of Safety of Life at Sea 74 Convention specify muster lists
and drills practice on board passenger and cargo vessels. The most important ones are:
abandon ship drill, firefighting drill and general emergency alarm drill. What is more,
every ship has   a contingency plan concerning a procedural practice for a variety of
situations that may occur on board ship.

Preparation of the muster lists is an obligation of the ship master. It might be handed
over to the designated deck officer; however, the lists have to be approved by the
Master. Muster lists have to be posted in easily accessible places such as main halls,
mess rooms, engine room and bridge. Every crew member has to be acquainted with
their duties, the alarm signals and procedures. For every conducted alarm or drill there
has to be an entry to the log book, which is required on board by Regulation 26a of
Chapter III of SOLAS 74/78 Convention.  If the drill was not conducted, the
circumstances have to be given. 

According to the SOLAS Convention drills on cargo ships have to be conducted at least
once a month and on passenger ships at least once a week. The person in charge of
planning and conducting of the alarms is the master of the ship. It is up to master’s
decision when, how and what kind of emergency alarm is going to be performed. The
information about a drill might be given to the crew earlier or may be conducted
unannounced. In case of an unannounced drill it should be clearly stated that there is no
real emergency, this is only a drill.

Chapter III of SOLAS 74 Convention does not have to be the only regulation concerning
drills and training on board. Ship owners can introduce their own company requirements
concerning the conduct of the emergency alarms. 
Importance of the on board crew training

According to the STCW 78/95 Convention every person working on board has to have a
Basic Safety Training Certificate issued by the designated Authority. This certificate
followed by a familiarization on board for some crew is the sufficient level of knowledge.
Crew members should realize that, although they went through the training on land,
every vessel is different and equipped differently. During the familiarization the most
important pieces of information are given, but only individual interest and inquiry will
provide the crew member with the necessary skills. Drills and their different scenarios
are a perfect opportunity of gaining and improving the knowledge and give the ability of
finding the best solution in case of real emergency. 

It must be recognized that it may not be possible for all countries to control and
maintain required level of quality for land based training. So, every ship master should
take into account that certified seafarer may not possess sufficient knowledge.
Conducting drills and providing on board training will certainly help to supplement
deficiencies of on shore  education.

Alarming methods of conducting drills on boards

Despite the importance of training in case of emergency, drills on some vessels are not
being done seriously enough. In many cases drills are conducted on board just to fulfill
the company's and conventions requirements. For some crew members, a drill is just
another duty, which has to be done, often during their free time. This kind of attitude is
often a reason for simplifying the emergency alarms to the bare minimum. Drills are
sometimes being limited just to gathering at the muster station and recitation of allotted
duties. Although requirements are being fulfilled, this kind of drills does not prepare the
crew for any real emergency situation and does not give the confidence to act properly
under stress and panic conditions.

One of the reasons for this kind of attitude among crew members is because, it has
turned to be a routine. Some seafarers, especially the older ones with more experience,
do not understand the matter of repeating the same actions every week or every month.
They are convinced that they know perfectly what their duties and responsibilities are, in
case of emergency . In many cases this may turn out to be untrue.

Different attitudes towards drills

To improve the quality of training on board ship it is important to change the seafarers’
attitudes on drills and alarms. The crew has to understand that conducted drills are not
just part of their duty, but a means to ensure their personal safety and the safety of ship
operations.
There could be three types of drills:

 Drill with meeting at muster station;

 Drill with a roll call and some practical training;
 Drill proceeded by a emergency scenario playing under supervision of Master,
followed by the discussion on the performance of the drill.

The first type of the drill was the simplest one. After the alarm signal the crew gathers at
the muster station. After roll call and duties recitation the drill was over. This kind of
alarm was the shortest and least demanding.

The second type of the drill was connected with some kind of performance. This could be
for example, lowering the lifeboat, putting on firefighter outfits or using the firefighting
equipment. This kind of the drill was also conducted to satisfy the requirements, but
required more involvement from the crew members.

The 3rd type of the drill had to be prepared in advance like a "scenario playing". Master
or a designated officer provide briefing and instructions, the drill was supposed to be
conducted with as many actual details as possible. Afterwards the crew gathers together
again to discuss their actions,  positive  reactions and mistakes they had made with the
captain.In such a discussion many decisions on improving the further actions are made.

Preparing a drill scenario

Except the most common and important drills such as abandon ship or firefighting drill,
there is a variety of other dangers which may be encountered onboard and have to be
practiced. Other drills can include collision, grounding, flooding, oil spill, piracy attack
and many others. For conducting a drill with educational value for the crew a theoretical
training or briefing is performed first. Crew members have to understand main hazards
connected with each kind of emergency.  The instructions may often  sound obvious, 
e.g. for   the situation like fire onboard, but not necessarily for the situation of imposing
of the higher level of security according to ISPS Code. During the theoretical training the
officer in charge should also discuss and explain the procedures used during  the chosen
case of emergency. Crew members should also know what the duties of other people on
board to understand the commands they are being given.

The way of communicating during the drill should also be set beforehand. The command
chain should be established and language used correctly. This can become an issue
especially in a multilingual environment. Good communication during the emergency is
essential. The other issue that should be discussed and checked before the performance
of the planned drill is the equipment, which is going to be used. The crew should  be
aware of the places where the equipment is being kept and the ways of using those. The
emergency equipment, depending on its purpose, can be stored in different, designated
places. In case of outfits, their condition and sizes should be checked and well-marked.
Expiry dates should be checked on some appliances and the effectiveness of operation
inspected on the others.

When crew members are acquainted with the risks and purposes of conducting the drill,
it's scenario should be presented. As much information on the circumstances as required
should be given, but the crew should also be aware of the fact, that the situation is
dynamic and can change. The master, who is in charge of the drill being performed,
should monitor the crew’s actions. If it is impossible, another person should be
designated to do that.  If such drills are filmed, it will be easier to discuss those
afterwards.

When the drill was finished the crew would gather again and master would give the
account of the issues which had arisen during the drill. The most common problems
encountered during the alarm practices e.g., could be,

 Too long period for emergency response;

 Mistakes in communication;
 Lack of equipment or equipment unusable;
 Taking actions which could be dangerous in case of real danger;
 Other, unexpected problems.

During the debriefing discussion each of these problems can be analyzed. Their reasons
are found and possible solutions suggested.
Most common solutions to the problems could be, e.g.,

 To shorten the time of response;

 To improve a command chain;
 To improve on communication patterns;
 To adjust the duties of the crew members;
 To order, repair or replace the necessary equipment;
 To reduce the time of response in case of unexpected event.

Examples of conducted drills

Case study:  Abandon ship drill 

Abandon ship drill was announced by the abandon ship signal (one long sound) followed
by captain’s explanation. Muster station for abandon ship alarm depended on captain’s
indication. Port side or starboard side, next to the lifeboats station could be designated.
The crew members were supposed to gather at the indicated muster station equipped
with life jackets and immersion suits. After a roll call a lifeboat was lowered to the water
level. According to the safety requirements the lifeboat was lowered unmanned.

This kind of drill was conducted very often and all the crew members were aware of their
duties and procedures of launching of a lifeboat. But the  performance of lowering
showed a problems which
could cause a dangerous situation for the crew in case of emergency.

The first issue concerned unfastening of lifeboat painters. Painters were new, just fixed
to the lifeboat. In case of emergency unfastening of the tightly tied painters would be
difficult. Painters would have to be cut and in the effect the crew would lose the control
 over the boat. Another thing which could be a problem was   the  distance   from  the 
main   deck   to  the  lowered  lifeboat.  There   was   a possibility of tightening the
lifeboat closer to the ship’s side using the painters but in bad weather conditions this
action would be extremely difficult to undertake. The last concern referred to was the
crew outfits while entering the lifeboat because of restriction of movement after putting
on the immersion suits. All of these problems were discussed after the drill and following
solutions were obtained.

Table 1 Solutions applied to problems encountered during the abandon ship drill 

Problem Solution

Painters tied to tightly. Quick unfastening Use another knot for fastening the painters; they
under stress condition practically impossible have to be easy to untie

Lifeboat embarkation station will be placed at the

Lifeboat too far from the ship’s side at the
level of boat deck to avoid difficulties during
level of main deck
entering

Immersion suits restricting and slowing down Crew will embark the lifeboat wearing life jackets
the process of lifeboat embarkation and will put on immersion suits after entering

This example shows that the practical performance of a very common and often
conducted drill can bring unexpected difficulties. In case of a real abandon ship alarm
some of these problems could create a situation dangerous for the crew. After the
conduct of the drill and discussion about the encountered difficulties,  the solutions were
found and actions taken to improve the emergency preparedness  of the crew members.

Impact of on board drills and training

On  board  training  connected  with  a  case study based approach , such as in a
controlled environment of a classroom instructions  should  provide  a substantial
amount of knowledge for the drill participants. But if on board training’s role is
diminished as only an obligatory duty, there is a danger of reinforcing  p o o r a t t i t u d e
a n d   bad  habits.  A training  purpose  reduced  to just  basic procedures may not be
sufficient in case  of  real  life  emergency. Only a serious professional approach under
the guidance of the ship master and chief engineer will ensure an appropriate inculcation
of a safety mindset and readiness to combat any emergencies by the crew, planned or
unplanned.

So, yes drills are the only means for emergency preparedness: but the onus is on senior
officers to make the drills to become a real-life experience where the crew learn to work
as a team and learning from each other via sharing and problem solving. If enough such
scenarios are practised, crew will certainly be in a better position to fight uncertain and
sudden occurrence of emergency incidents on board.
Conclusions

A properly prepared crew is able to significantly improve vessel’s safety. The best way to
verify crew readiness, response reactions and under stress actions is to provide drill
scenarios as close to real life situations as possible. Scenarios should be carefully
prepared and the crew properly instructed. A valuable and skills- developing drill should
involve every crew member, who must understand the reasons for the actions taken and
be aware of the hazards connected with them.Conducting drills and alarms should not be
just a duty required by conventions but a chance to improve skills, knowledge and safety
of the crew and of the vessel.

Why do I need to do safety drills?

1. You need to do drills so you can react quickly and without thinking in an
emergency situation.
2. They also allow you to identify any deficiencies in your reaction plan.
3. Finally, the law requires you to do drills.

The following things must be covered:

 Fire
 Engine room fire
 Person overboard
 Severe weather
 Serious injury
 Assembly points
 Collision/ grounding/ flooding
 Prepare to abandon/ abandon ship
 Terrorism
 Bomb threat

You might think of other things that relate to your vessel as part of your hazard
identification/ risk assessment process.

Your Safety Management System details how you carry out emergency safety drills on
your vessel. You need to do them at least every two months.

What are the benefits?

 Drills help you and your crew respond rapidly and effectively in an emergency
situation
 Drills can help you and your crew prepare to make decisions under pressure
 Drills can help you identify how your procedures might be improved
 Drills help new crew to become familiar with the vessel, her equipment and her
procedures
 Drills help regular crew to “keep up to speed” with the vessel, her equipment and
her procedures
 Drills help develop teamwork
  Drills help develop self-confidence
 Drills help the crew to build confidence in each other which means you can be
more confident in them
 Drills help crews develop confidence in you and your ability to deal with an
emergency.
 Drills give you the opportunity to check that your safety gear is working and fix it
if necessary
 Drill records show that you are thinking about safety.

Do I need to keep records?

 You must keep records of all drills held on your vessel. Why? To help program
training, to help identify areas that might need further practice, and to help
identify maintenance issues, particularly with safety equipment
 You need to say when drills were held, who took part; what drills you did and
where you did them
 You need to say where drill records are kept, for example, in your vessel’s log or
on a drill report form
 You need to keep records for five years minimum
 Keeping drill records is a legal requirement.

Who runs the drills?

While the Master is responsible for the vessel, he or she can name any crew member to
run drills. This gives crew members a chance to gain a better understanding of what
others on the vessel have to do, particularly in an emergency.

If you ask a crew member to run a drill it will build their confidence and help them
understand what other crew members have to do in an emergency.

The person running the drill will discuss with the crew what’s going to happen (a
briefing) and after the drill, discuss what happened (a debriefing).

What’s a ‘briefing’?

 This is a meeting with all the crew before a drill

 It’s very important, so make sure everyone is there
 Everyone needs to understand why the drill is happening
 You need to explain what the drill is about and what the scenario might be (or
keep it as a complete surprise)
 Everyone needs to understand their role and its importance
 Everyone needs to understand that it’s important to react quickly in an
emergency
 Everyone needs to understand that there is no ‘pass’ or ‘fail’ in a drill but simply a
chance to improve
  Everyone needs to understand the importance of using effective closed loop
communication during drills – repeating back what they think they’ve heard to
make sure it’s correct and that everyone’s on the same page
 Make sure that no one is put in danger during a drill and that everyone’s got
Personal Protection Equipment (PPE) and that they know how to use it if needed
 Make sure they know how to use it correctly
 Make sure there is a way to stop the drill if a crew member is feeling
uncomfortable. For example, by using a simple code word.

What’s a ‘debriefing’?

 This is a meeting with all the crew after a drill

 It’s very important, so make sure everyone is there
 Make sure everyone is okay
 This is when you discuss what went well during the drill and why
 This is when you discuss what could have been done better and why
 This is a good time to look at records of the last drill to see if you’re doing things
better
 This is when you get reports on equipment, how it’s running, that it’s back in the
right place and that work requests are completed if required
 Make sure everyone gets chance to speak and that their opinion is valued and
respected
 Make sure everyone understands that it’s better to make a mistake in a drill than
in a real emergency
 Make sure the records are kept and made while things are still fresh in your mind.

Are all drills the same?

No, there are different types of drills.

'What if?' drills

'What if' drills can be a chat with your crew about what they would do in a certain
situation. For example, you might ask your deckhand what they would do if a passenger
fell in the water. Or you might ask hospitality crew what they would do if they had to
prepare passengers to abandon ship.

'What if' drills are useful if you're pushed for time. For example, if you're going to pick
up a charter and only have a short time between your berth and the pick up point. Or
you might have a deckhand keeping lookout in the wheelhouse. You could ask what they
would do if you suddenly fell ill and discuss what they say.

'What if' drills can be done if the vessel is at her mooring or tied up alongside.

'What if' drills are an easy way of keeping everyone thinking about safety.
'What if' drills should be recorded.

'What if' drills are not a replacement for scenario-based drills.

Scenario drills take a more 'real' approach. Crew members are doing what they
normally do in their usual position on the vessel. If you do drills on your vessel when she
has no passengers on board, try to get the crew to imagine that you have, say 75 per
cent, of your normal numbers. This can be a challenge for the person running the drill
but does get crew members thinking about what could happen if the vessel is full of
panicking passengers.

If you normally have loud music playing through the vessel, make sure it's playing when
the scenario starts. Loud music is a challenge to effective communication. You might
want to say that it's night time, it's just started to rain and several of your passengers
might have had a lot to drink.

You or another crew member starts a scenario. For example, smoke is filling the main
cabin. You pretend to be a panicking passenger raising the alarm. The crew must react
as if it is a real emergency.

If there is equipment that would normally be used in the situation, use it. If the fire
pump is required, bring it on line. This gives your crew the chance to operate safety
equipment, experience how it feels and develop confidence. It also means that your
safety equipment is getting a work out.

The person running the drill could now say that an intoxicated passenger has panicked
and jumped over the side.

The emergency situation of the fire has now turned into a crisis because the crew now
has to manage the fire, the intoxicated person in the water on a dark night, in the rain.
The Master is at the helm, totally reliant on the crew for information. Teamwork and
effective communication are essential.

Scenario based drills are more involved than just running equipment. It may take some
time to get used to them but they are a very effective way to become prepared for an
emergency.

Remember that no two emergency situations will ever be the same! Use your
imagination and get the crew thinking!
It'll never happen on my vessel!

"Mate, I've been doing this for 30 years. It's all common sense."

Unfortunately common sense does not equal common understanding and even the best
prepared vessels and crews can run into trouble.

Being prepared by doing drills reduces the risk of poor performance in an emergency
situation.

A few things to remember when you do drills

 Not everyone in the crew will have the same experience or skills.
 Not all crew members will be as confident as the next.
 Don’t assume that everyone understands – check!
 Identify who is good at what and use their strengths.
 Use the experiences of crew members in discussions. For example, someone may
have been involved in an actual person overboard situation. Ask them what
happened.
 Crew members should not be afraid to make comment or ask questions.
 Drills need a leader and the active participation of the crew.
 Drills should be a positive experience. While they are a serious exercise they can
still be fun.

Comply with emergency proceduresInternal communication, alarm systems, escape routes

Internal communication, alarm systems, escape routes

Communications form an integral part of fire fighting as well as any other emergency.
Good communication ensures proper flow of information from one team to the other
within the ship as well as from ship to outside parties.  It is not possible for the team in
charge to be at different places on the ship at the same time. This further
emphasizes the need of proper communication. Various equipment are available on
board to enable good communication. Good operating  knowledge of these equipment by
practising during drills will save a lot of valuable time during emergencies.

The basic communication inside ship are

 Public address system

 Ship's UHF and VHF unit

 Telephones

 Portable Walkie talkie

 Click the arrows to navigate for the onboard equipment for communication with brief
notes on them.

       

The communication equipment available between ship, shore and to other ship.

 EPIRB
 INMARSAT – B
 INMARSAT – C
 MF / HF DSC
 VHF DSC

EPIRB

EPIRB or the Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon is fitted on the side bridge
wing by means of a hydrostatic release unit (HRU). If the ship sinks, at a depth range of
2 to 5 meters, the HRU releases the EPIRB, which will float to the surface and transmit
signals to the satellite. This EPIRB is sea-water activated. Some of the EPIRB may be
activated as soon as they are removed from the installed housing.

While abandoning ship, the EPIRB should be removed from it’s stowed position and
switched on manually. It can even be towed behind the survival craft using the lanyard
attached to it.

The EPIRB transmits the ship’s ID and other particulars on 406 MHz for the COSPAS-
SARSAT satellites and a homing signal on 121.5 MHz for a SAR aircraft.

This EPIRB does not transmit ship’s position. The dedicated SAR satellites, which are
polar satellites, calculate the vessel’s position using Doppler shift. For a satellite to pick
up the signal from the EPIRB, the latter has to be in the “foot print” of the satellite. Once
the signal is received by the satellite, Missio Rescue Co-ordination Centre or MRCC is
notified and a global alert is activated.

INMARSAT – B

The vessel is fitted with Sat-B system which provides distress communication in telex
and voice mode. A qualified person is required for detailed distress procedure,
meanwhile an undesignated distress alert can be sent by any crew member (upon
receiving Master’s instructions to do so). To do so, peel off the protective cover of the
Sat-B distress button (telex or telephone). These buttons are located on the bulkhead
above the computer monitor. Press the appropriate button and keep pressed for more
than 6 seconds. The buzzer will beep intermittently for a few seconds and then the tone
will change into a continuous beep. The vessel’s ID, time and position will be
automatically transmitted to a MRCC.

If the telephone button is pressed, direct voice communication with the MRCC is possible
by picking up the telephone handset and dialing the LES ID (3 digits) followed by a #
within 15 seconds of the commencement of the continuous beep.

INMARSAT – C

Sat-C distress alerting procedure is same as for Sat-B, except that there is no voice
communication. One distress button is located on the radio console on the left-hand side
of the MF/HF DSC terminal and another near the port side VHF set.

MF / HF DSC

The undesignated distress alert button is located on the MF/HF DSC terminal on the
radio console. Triggering this button causes your distress message being transmitted on
all MF/HF distress watch frequencies monitored by all ships fitted with GMDSS as well as
to Coast Radio Stations (CRS).

VHF DSC

Distress buttons are located on the VHF sets. The range of this transmission is only
about 30 miles. On the high seas, any vessel receiving an alert on VHF DSC
automatically knows that the distress vessel is in close vicinity. In coastal waters, i.e.
within range of a CRS keeping watch on VHF DSC, this alerting ensures immediate
assistance.

Comply with emergency proceduresInternal communication, alarm systems, escape routesInternal phone
system

Internal Phone System

The internal phone system is only a small subset of the holistic communication system
that networks various modes of communications as detailed below. The system has the
capability of connecting to the satellite internet and distribute that connectivity via
intranet or internet within the ship. For wi-fi enabled vessels, there will be a need to
create wi-fi capturing/transmitting , so called, "hotspot" routers.

Public Address system is operated from the bridge. It is used to make urgent pages
and for emergencies. Instructions are posted by the various units.

Locating a necessary crew member is difficult when the only form of vessel-wide
communication is through a public address system at the ship’s bridge. By installing
speaker stations on all decks, communications capability is extended throughout the
vessel, accelerating decision making process.
  Nearby operations and turbulent waters are safety hazards when launching and
recovering a survival craft such as free fall life boat. Clear audio enables the
careful deployment
 Complex procedures, such as moving the vessel or transporting equipment into
and out of the sea, call for unified collaboration. Inter-connectivity between all
crew members enhanced cooperation.

The directory for the dial phone system is posted next to each phone. The sound
powered phone has no external power supply. A list of stations is posted on each phone.

A typical integrated Internal phone system with Public Announcement System is shown
below

Comply with emergency proceduresInternal communication, alarm systems, escape routesSound

powered phone system

Sound powered phone system

Batteryless Telephone - It  is designed as replacement of the traditional sound
powered telephone. Cranking the phone charges a capacitor-battery which can provide
up to 20 minutes of talk time before the unit needs re-cranking. Optionally, the system
can also be operated from a 24 Volt DC external power source to eliminate cranking. By
use of a dynamic microphone and a "receiver-insert", a sound level four times louder
than a traditional Sound Powered Telephone can be achieved. 
The system has a versatile range of light but robust and corrosion resistant
stations for all on-board environments. The different VSP stations can be
delivered for panel, desktop or bulkhead mounting.

Features

 Provides emergency communication independent of vessels power supply

 Excellent speech quality
 Noise compensated microphones
 Built in or separate relay for operation of signal units
 Provides output for 24 VDC to external equipment
 Supports headset directly connected to stations or via plug box
 Supports a wide range of stations for the ship environment

The 12 Way system consisting of up to 12 main stations with selector switch for selective
calling between all connected stations.
Sound powered telephone uses electro - mechanical transducers which enable
audio communication over a single wire pair without any external power or
batteries. The pressure created from a user's sound wave while talking powers
the transducer. This can be the best alternative during power failures and can
work up to 1KM range with normal sound. This is made as an explosion proof
device for safety purposes and lightweight and potable. To call using the sound
powered phone select the desired station. Crank the handle two or three times
to ring the phone, press the button on the handset and talk. The button on the
handset must be pressed both to talk and to listen.
Comply with emergency proceduresInternal communication, alarm systems, escape
routesIntercoms

Intercom
Features

 Master station with 10 lines selection

 Material: aluminium
 All call facility for general warnings
 Alphanumeric LCD display (LED backlight)
 Acoustic / luminous indication of incoming calls
 Step volume control
 Connector for gooseneck or handheld microphone
 Call signal
Talkback systems enable large number of users to maintain high-quality,
continuous conversations on one or more lines. This guarantees anyone on the
line can talk and listen without delay or fear of losing communications. Wired
and wireless systems talk back systems provide the most options for operations
of any size. These are normally Push-to-talk handsets.

Comply with emergency proceduresInternal communication, alarm systems, escape routesVoice tubes

Voice tubes
Voice pipes, the maritime term, served to transmit reports from lookout positions aloft
to the deck and from the bridge to the steering position and engine room. These were
somewhat larger in diameter than the domestic version and were often covered in sound
absorbent material to increase their efficiency.

Copper voice pipes were being fitted to British two and three-deck warships as early as
1803. A notable use was on board HMS Victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in
1805. Victory's ship's wheel was shot away early in the battle. A voice tube was then
used to carry steering orders from the quarterdeck down three decks, to where a gang
of sailors operated the ship's tiller directly using ropes and pulleys.

One disadvantage of voice pipes is that they may breach the integrity of watertight
spaces. This led to the introduction of shut-off valves on both ends of voicepipes to
prevent water from a flooded compartment from entering other compartments via its
voicepipes.

Permanently fitted, rigid voice pipes are still in use and are generally covered with heavy
lids to avoid ingress of water. The speaker has to place his mouth in the "horn" or bell-
shaped end of the pipe and the receiver has to 'bend an ear' to hear what is being said.

Voice pipes have generally been replaced by sound powered telephones. Even on
modern ships, however, they may still be found linking wheelhouse and binnacle for
communication of magnetic compass heading to the helmsman and also between the ER
and the Bridge. The speaking tubes on naval ships are used when they are in "clam"
mode instead of telephones for electronic stealth.
Comply with emergency proceduresInternal communication, alarm systems, escape routesHand-held radios

Hand-held Radios
 Portable Tri-band, including VHF Marine, FRS (Family Radio Service) and MURS
(Multi-Use Radio Service) bands
 Additional receive capabilities include AM, FM broadcasts and Aeronautical bands
 DSC Distress with GPS position when connected to a GPS
 Selectable 1,2.5 or 5 Watts of transmit power on marine band.
 Rugged Magnesium Die-cast case
 Includes 13mA Lithium-Ion battery, 110AC and 12 VDC 3-hour chargers, Drop in
charger NMEA cradle...

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environment

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine
environment
Marine pollution by ships is a growing international concern. The various causes of
Marine Pollution are discharge of oil, chemical residue, prohibited packing material,
garbage, sewage and emission of engine exhaust gas beyond acceptable limits. Look at
the graphic below for the causes of oil spill incidents.

Incidental and intentional oil pollution from ships is viewed as a very serious offense
around the world. Shipowners may be heavily penalized and punitive action may be
taken against the Master, crew member responsible for the incident and the ship. Every
individual onboard should ensure that the ship complies with the pollution regulations at
all times. It is the responsibility of every watchkeeper to ensure that precautionary
measures are taken to avoid pollution, mitigate oil discharge in case of pollution,
maintain pollution prevention equipment, report all instances of pollution promptly and
maintain proper records, as required by the regulations.

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentImpact of shipping on marine environment

Impact of shipping on marine environment 

The ‘marine environment’ is used to describe our beaches, the entrance to rivers, coral
reefs, the seas and oceans off the coastline. The ‘marine environment’ includes the
millions of animals and plants that live in the seas and oceans. The air above the seas
and oceans is included in the ‘the marine environment’.

Seas and oceans across the world are among the cleanest, with a vast variety of animal
and plant life. Our seas and oceans are home to nationally and internationally important
species. The sea provides living conditions for unique communities of plants and animals.
The marine environment supports commercial and recreational fisheries. Many countries
of the world depend almost entirely on the sea for their food.

The marine environment must be protected from pollution by everyone. Pollution can
cause serious harm to or even kill the plants and animals that live in the sea. To help
protect the marine environment, international regulations place strict laws on ships. All
the animals in the sea feed off a range of marine animal or plant life. If the plant life is
harmed by pollution this impacts on the lives of all animals such as fish, crabs, crayfish
etc.

Ships use the oceans and seas to transport the world’s cargo.
There are many types of pollution that can harm the marine environment. However, the
most common pollution of the sea comes from the land and not from ships. It has been
estimated that 80% of the rubbish, chemicals and oil found in the sea actually comes
from the land. There are strict laws to prevent pollution of the sea by ships. Ship
captains and crew who break the law can be given large fines, but accidents can happen.

The types of pollution that may originate from ships include oil, chemicals, garbage
sewage, air pollution from the ship’s engines and bunker fuel and the anti-fouling paint
on a ship’s hull. Marine pests in ship’s ballast water or clinging to the ship’s hull can also
harm new environments. Even old ships that are to be broken up or scrapped on
beaches in India, Bangladesh and China can cause pollution unless great care is taken.

Because of its inherently international nature, the safety of shipping is regulated by

various United Nations agencies. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) in
particular has developed a comprehensive framework of global maritime safety
regulations, which are enforced on a worldwide basis.

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentImpact of shipping on marine

environmentSources of Marine Pollution

Sources of Marine Pollution

When compared with land-based industry, ships are minor contributors to marine
pollution. Atmospheric inputs and land-based discharges account for 77% of the marine
pollution, whereas ships are responsible for around 12%.

The sources of pollution from ships, are:

 Oil
 Dangerous goods in bulk and packaged form
 Chemicals and liquefied gases in bulk
 Ballast water
 Sewage
 Garbage
 Anti-fouling paints
 Exhaust emissions
 Ozone depleting substances
 Cargo vapor emissions
 Noise.

Take a look at the graphical illustration below, which shows the significant
marine pollutants and their impacts.
The "sources of pollution" (PDF, 80kb) explains these sources in detail, including
their impact, regulatory requirements and various methods to prevent pollution
from ships.

In the present context of stringent environmental regulations, it is vital for a

shipping company that its ships conduct shipboard operations in an environment
friendly manner. Many countries have implemented severe penalties, stricter
enforcement, and sanctions reaching beyond the ship to include agents,
superintendents and directors.

Proper and verifiable care must be taken to ensure that environmental issues are
addressed and that vessels operate in compliance with environmental regulations that
are in force.

Training and oversight are the key controls, and you should be vigilant in understanding
the need to be proactive, to demand complete and accurate vessel equipment and
operations information, and to instill a culture of awareness, competence and
transparency aboard vessels. Use of shoreside disposal facilities should be encouraged,
where necessary, to accommodate the discharge of waste.

The table given below explains the various measures to reduce the risk of
pollution:

ake precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentComplexity and diversity of the marine
environment

Complexity and diversity of the marine environment

The marine environment has received much less attention than its terrestrial counterpart
in the area of biodiversity. This is surprising considering that marine evolution has a 2.7
billion year head start over terrestrial environments. This lack of attention probably
results from the relatively limited accessibility of the ocean as well as its vast nature (i.e.
covers approximately 70% of the earth's surface). Moreover, the previous train of
thought depicted the marine environment as an area of low biodiversity and thus,
research focused on land. Although an extensive amount of important biodiversity
information has been addressed on land, the need for more research in the marine realm
is great. 

There exists a wealth of biodiversity in marine environments as a consequence of

millions of years of evolutionary history. All except one of the presently described phyla
occur in the ocean while only about half that occur on land. Consequently, marine
organisms display a much larger phyletic diversity than those on land. Furthermore, 15
phyla are exclusively marine! Ocean creatures contain a diversity of survival strategies
not found on land and therefore, they may exhibit a higher functional diversity.
Therefore, it is possible that the marine environment has not only a high phyletic
diversity but also a great functional diversity. 

Why is Marine Biodiversity Important?

Understanding marine biodiversity is very important for a number of reasons.

The importance of marine biodiversity falls into a few categories:

 Adaptation
 Food
 Raw Materials
 Climate
 Knowledge

Adaptation

Biodiversity allows the environment to adapt to changing conditions, as has been the
case since life was created. Humans have acted to increase the rate of deterioration and
consequently, it will be a great challenge for the marine environment to adapt rapidly
enough in the future. These changes have been induced through pollution, fishing,
sediment deposition and alteration of the global climate. Considering the present human
impact on the environment, it is ironic that without genetic diversity, natural selection
cannot occur. If natural selection is limited, then adaptation is impossible. Thus, it is
evident that the preservation of biodiversity and more specifically, genetic diversity is of
paramount importance if we are to allow proper adaptation to our rapidly changing
environments.

Food

Food is a very important commodity that can be provided by our oceans including fishes,
invertebrates and algae. Finfish and shellfish are the greatest source of animal protein
especially for developing countries. Very few of the world's fish are utilized commercially
and thus, the oceans are a source for unutilized resources. Seaweeds are also very
important commercially, historically being extremely important in East Asia. Some
examples include giant kelp, nori and agarweed. Conserving biodiversity of these groups
will allow the use of unutilized resources in the future. Furthermore, a diverse ocean
could potentially help to alleviate current and future commercial fishing pressures.

Raw Materials

The potential for acquiring future raw materials from the ocean is enormous. These
materials include medicines, polysaccharides, feed for livestock and building materials.

Natural medicines began and continue to be discovered through the wealth of diversity
on the planet. Although most medicines originate from sessile land plants, the ocean
hosts many sessile animals that defend themselves through chemical means.
Furthermore, the marine realm hosts a higher biochemical diversify resulting from the
high phyletic diversity present in these waters. It is possible that chemicals for
pharmaceuticals could be obtained from these organisms which use these substances for
defense. An example includes the extract (arabinosides) collected from the
sponge Tethya crypta, which is utilized to treat herpes.

Polysaccharides for human uses are provided by seaweeds including red, brown and
green forms. An example includes alginate, which is obtained from brown algae.
Seaweeds can also be important in agriculture as feed for livestock, or compost for farm
land. It will be important, however, to be certain that this collection is sustainable, as
unsustainable seaweed collection has proven detrimental in some areas of the world.

Building materials could be acquired through coral rock and coral sand however this
must be accomplished in a sustainable manner. Furthermore, chiton from shrimp and
crab shells are used in agriculture as well as human and food supplements. The
beneficial thing about the use of these shells is that less of the animal is wasted from the
fishery alone.

Climate

Ecosystems are one of the most important factors that control the global climate. The
biogeochemical cycling of gases is greatly controlled by the living biota existing on earth
of which the marine realm is extremely important. For example, marine plants and
animals aid in controlling carbon dioxide in the ocean, as phytoplankton remove it from
the surface waters while releasing oxygen. Subsequently, when phytoplankton die, they
sink and add to the supersaturation of carbon dioxide in the deep sea. This results in a
vertical gradient of CO2 in the ocean, which has been termed the 'Biological Pump.'
Any impact on marine phytoplankton or other biota could disrupt the biological pump
and create a loss of the efficiency of CO2 sequestering by the deep sea. In turn, this loss
could lead to an increase of CO2 in the atmosphere. It is already well known that CO2
levels in the atmosphere have been increasing ever since the industrial revolution. Given
that these levels are already high, a further increase due to a loss of efficiency of the
biological pump is not desirable. Thus, preserving the diversity of these organisms could
be essential in controlling the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere.

Knowledge

Preserving marine biodiversity for the sake of knowledge itself is important. For
example, there are a number of marine ecosystems that continue to be discovered in the
present day. Hydrothermal vents were discovered only in 1976 after an expedition on
the Alvin submersible. Most species are endemic to these vents and they include
tubeworms, giant clams, mussels, crabs, polychaetes and gastropods. Although the
amount of research conducted at hydrothermal vents has resulted in an extensive
information base, a lack of knowledge exists in areas such as the factors that regulate
community structure, relative importance of local processes (e.g. dispersal), the
existence or lack of 'climax' communities and larval dispersal.

In accordance with recent marine ecosystem discoveries, is the detection of a number of

new species. For example, in the open ocean, a group of marine free-living bacterial
primary producers (prochlorophytes) were not discovered until the late 1980s, however,
they account for almost 40 % of the chlorophyll in some ocean areas. The dearth of
knowledge on marine microbes is extensive, however, present molecular techniques are
assisting science in understanding these very integral components of marine food webs.
Microbes are extremely essential in the biogeochemical cycling of many nutrients and
they are responsible for much of the recycling of organic matter in the sea (NRC, 1995).

Furthermore, there is so much that we believe we understand when in reality, our

current stage is at its infancy. For example, in marine environments, it has recently been
discovered that many organisms previously thought to be one species are actually more
than one. One of the best known examples is the mussel Mytilus edulis, which is
currently known to be three distinct species. Mytilus edulis was used as a monitoring tool
in the "International Mussel Watch Program" and it was concluded that impacts of
contamination may actually have been attributed to the different growth rates of at least
two of the cryptic species. Secondly, the marine worm Capitella, which has previously
been used as an indicator of pollution impact, is actually 15 or more sibling species
(NRC, 1995 and references therein). Thus, using sibling species without realizing it can
have many implications for our understanding of the ecology surrounding these animals
and thus, could result in inaccurate estimations of commercial resources. This has
already occurred with the Spanish mackerel, Scomberomorus maculates, now known to
be two species, which mature at different ages and sizes.

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEffects of operational or accidental

pollution by ships

Effects of operational or accidental pollution by ships

Up until the time that MARPOL came into effect it was recognised that, while accidental
pollution provided devastating local effects, it was the general operations of ships which
caused the greater amount of pollution.

Ship operation used to cause unrestricted dumping of garbage, wasted chemicals

(including nerve agents, nuclear waste and explosives), sewage and the effluents from
cleaning of cargo tanks at sea. Cargo tanks cleaned at sea by washing with seawater and
discharging the residue overboard. Air pollution was not even considered of any concern,
except when docked in port area.

Oil

“Oil” means crude oil, fuel oil, sludge, oil refuse, and refined products (other than
petrochemicals which are subject to the provisions of Annex II of the Convention) and,
without limiting the generality of the foregoing, includes the substances listed in
Appendix I to this Annex.

“Oily mixture” means a mixture with any oil content.

Noxious Liquid Substances

A Noxious Liquid Substance is any chemical listed in the International Code for the
Construction and Equipment of Ships carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (the IBC
Code) and appropriate national regulations.

Categories of hazardous substances require increasing levels of control:

 Level X – Major hazard to marine life and human health – discharge prohibited
 Level Y- Hazard to marine life and human health – discharge strictly limited
 Level Z – Minor hazard to marine life and human health – discharge limited
  Other – Substances not listed in X,Y or Z and present no hazard to marine life
and human health – no controls

Packaged Harmful Substances in Packaged Form

Harmful substances are those substances which are identified as marine pollutants in the
International Marine Dangerous Goods Code (the IMDG Code). Packaged Form refers to
the form of containment specified in the IMDG code. MARPOL specifically prohibit the
dumping or washing overboard of prohibited substances.

Sewage

Sewage means drainage and other wastes from any form of toilet or urinal, medical
premises or compartment containing animals (MARPOL Annex IV Regulation 1).

Treated sewage is described as sewage that has been contaminated and disinfected
(MARPOL Annex IV Regulation 9 and 11). NSW codifies the standard of that treatment,
in Schedule 4 of the Marine Pollution Regulations (NSW) 2006, into counts of the faecal
coliform, suspended solids and biochemical oxygen demand.

The discharge of raw sewage into the sea can create a health hazard, while in coastal
areas; sewage can also lead to oxygen depletion and an obvious visual pollution - a
major problem for countries with large tourist industries.

Garbage

The definition of Garbage in MARPOL Annex V Regulation 1 is: Garbage means all kinds
of victual, domestic and operational waste, excluding fresh fish, generated during the
normal operation of the ship and liable to be disposed of continuously or periodically
except those substances which are defined or listed in other Annexes

The IMO website provides the following information on garbage at sea.

 Garbage from ships can be just as deadly to marine life as oil or chemicals.
 The greatest danger comes from plastic, which can float for years. Fish and
marine mammals can in some cases mistake plastics for food and they can also
become trapped in plastic ropes, nets, bags and other items - even such
innocuous items as the plastic rings used to hold cans of beer and drinks
together.
 It is clear that a good deal of the garbage washed up on beaches comes from
people on shore - holiday-makers who leave their rubbish on the beach,
fishermen who simply throw unwanted refuse over the side - or from towns and
cities that dump rubbish into rivers or the sea. But in some areas most of the
rubbish found comes from passing ships which find it convenient to throw rubbish
overboard rather than dispose of it in ports. 

For a long while, many people believed that the oceans could absorb anything that was
thrown into them, but this attitude has changed along with greater awareness of the
environment. Many items can be degraded by the seas - but this process can take
months or years, as the following table shows:
 

Time taken for objects to dissolve at sea:

  Paper bus ticket  2-4 weeks

 Cotton cloth  1-5 months

 Rope  3-14 months

 Woolen cloth  1 year

 Painted wood  13 years

 Tin can  100 years

 Aluminium can  200-500 years

 Plastic bottle  450 years

Air Pollution

Ships emit  Sulphur Oxide, Nitrogen Dioxide and Carbon Dioxide gases into the

atmosphere from exhaust fumes.

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection

procedures

Environmental protection procedures

The shipboard protection areas and procedures covers the following:

1. Reduction of Marine Pollution on board 

2. Prevention of leaks and spills of oil and chemical products on board ships
3. Provision on board for education and on-the-job training 
4. Provision of ballast water management in regulated coastal areas and exchange
of ballast water at high seas
5. Information on restrictions at various ports; 
6. Available Facilities and equipment to handle ballast water
7. Reduction of the quantity of waste generated on board ships
8. Compliance of GARBAGE management plan ; 
9. Information on waste disposal facilities and equipment 
10. Prevention of Air Pollution

The pollution prevention procedures are part of the shipboard safety management

system that details each of the shipboard operations associated with possible pollution
hazards. This may include procedures involving:

 Bunkering operation of Oils;

  Loading and Discharging of dangerous cargo, such as oil;
 Tank Washing and treatment of oily waste
 Pumping of Oily bilge using OWS
 Ballasting of tanks using shipboard systems;
 Contingency Plans for any accidents that could cause pollution;
 Garbage and Sewage handling on board;
 Preventive practices for air pollution from exhaust gas emission.
 Emergency Preparedness of the crew on board for combating pollution if that
happens;
 Reporting a pollution incident
 Training and Drills for emergency readiness;

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection proceduresMARPOL

73/78

MARPOL 73/78
MARPOL 73/78

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships

Adoption:

1973 (Convention),

1978 (1978 Protocol),

1997 (Protocol - Annex VI)

Entry into force:

2 Oct 1983 (Annexes I and II);

1 Jul 1992 (Annex III);

27 Sep 2003 (Annex IV);

31 Dec 1988 (Annex V);

19 May 2005 (Annex VI)

The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) is the
main international convention covering prevention of pollution of the marine
environment by ships from operational or accidental causes.

The MARPOL Convention was adopted on 2 November 1973 at IMO. The Protocol of 1978
was adopted in response to a spate of tanker accidents in 1976-1977. As the 1973
MARPOL Convention had not yet entered into force, the 1978 MARPOL Protocol absorbed
the parent Convention. The combined instrument entered into force on 2 October 1983.
In 1997, a Protocol was adopted to amend the Convention and a new Annex VI was
added which entered into force on 19 May 2005. MARPOL has been updated by
amendments through the years.

The Convention includes regulations aimed at preventing and minimizing pollution from
ships - both accidental pollution and that from routine operations - and currently
includes six technical Annexes. Special Areas with strict controls on operational
discharges are included in most Annexes.
Pollution at sea and in coastal waters is a growing problem. The MARPOL convention was
incorporated to address this problem and find solutions to reduce incidents of pollution.
The objective of this convention is to primarily deal with oil pollution, besides other
forms of pollution including pollution from chemicals, harmful substances, sewage,
garbage, engine emissions etc.

Although the MARPOL convention was adopted in 1973, it had not come into immediate
effect. A series of grave oil pollution disasters in the mid 70's prompted the IMO to bring
about changes to the existing 1973 convention by way of a protocol in 1978. The
MARPOL convention was renamed as MARPOL 73-78 and is now referred to as such. The
MARPOL convention has six annexes covering different types of pollution.

It covers all the technical aspects of pollution from ships, except the disposal of waste
into the sea by dumping, and applies to ships of all types, although it does not apply to
pollution arising out of the exploration and exploitation of sea-bed mineral resources. 

Regulations covering the various sources of ship-generated pollution are contained in the
six Annexes of the Convention and are updated regularly. 

Generally, they facilitate the implementation of annexes, extend the concept of "special
areas", establish more sea areas as "special areas", replace list of substances, design
new construction standards for ships, precise reporting requirements and reduce amount
of oil which can be discharged into the sea from ships.

The MARPOL 73/78 Convention aims to prevent and minimize pollution from ships - both
accidental and from routine operations. It is intended to deal with all forms of pollution
from ships, other than disposal of waste into the sea by dumping, which is addressed by
another convention known as the London Dumping Convention.

The MARPOL convention applies to all types of ships and oil platforms - and currently
includes six technical Annexes:

 Annex I: Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil

 Annex II: Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in
Bulk
 Annex III: Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Harmful Substances
carried by Sea in Packaged Form
 Annex IV: Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from Ships
 Annex V: Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships
 Annex VI: Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships

The media summarises the 6 annexes of MARPOL 73/78.

Related Statutory Certificates

 International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate

 International Pollution Prevention Certificate for the Carriage of Noxious Liquid
Substances in Bulk
 International Air Pollution Prevention Certificate.

Notes

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection

proceduresMARPOL 73/78Annex I

Annex I - Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by

Oil
Entry into force: 2 October 1983

Covers prevention of pollution by oil from operational measures as well as from

accidental discharges; the 1992 amendments to Annex I made it mandatory for new oil
tankers to have double hulls and brought in a phase-in schedule for existing tankers to
fit double hulls, which was subsequently revised in 2001 and 2003.

Details the discharge criteria and requirements for the prevention of pollution by oil and
oily substances. It maintains predominantly the oil discharge criteria prescribed in the
1969 amendments to the 1954 Oil Pollution Convention. Beside technical guidelines it
contains the concept of "special areas" which are vulnerable to pollution by oil.
Discharges of oil within them have been completely prohibited, with minor well-defined
exceptions.

It basically deals with:

1. Tanker design features that are intended to minimize oil discharge into the ocean
during ship operations and in case of accidents
2. Provides regulations with regard to treatment of, the engine-room bilge water
(OWS) for all large commercial vessels and ballast and tank-washings.
3. First part broadly deals with engine room waste, oily water separators, oil-content
metres and Port Reception Facilities
4. Second part deals with cleaning of cargo tanks, Oil Discharge Monitoring
Equipment etc.
5. Another important area is the Oil Record Book, which needs to be filled-up
properly for handling and transfer of oily waste discharges / oil. 

It contains the following Chapters:

1 - General
2 - Surveys and certification

3 - Requirements for machinery spaces of all ships

4 - Requirements for the cargo area of oil tankers

5 - Prevention of pollution arising from an oil pollution incident

6 - Reception facilities

7 - Special requirements for fixed or floating platforms

8 - Prevention of pollution during transfer of oil cargo between oil tankers at sea

9 - Special requirements for the use or carriage of oils in the antarctic sea

Pollution by Oil

The media below explains pollution by oil.

The Load-On-Top (LOT) method was developed to reduce this type of pollution. In this
method, the ballast is taken in dirty cargo tanks and is deballasted through ODMCS
observing MARPOL requirements for discharge of oily water or transferred to shore
terminal and the oil which settles on top is transferred to the slop tanks. After
subsequent decanting operations during the ballast passage, the next cargo is loaded on
top of the remaining oil in the slop tanks and hence this procedure is called load on top.

To discharge the oil residues to a shore reception facility, ships are required to be fitted
with a small diameter pipeline called the MARPOL Line. The diameter of this line should
not exceed 10% of the cross-sectional area of the main cargo discharge pipeline. It
should also have a standard discharge connection of a specific flange size to connect
pipes of shore reception facilities.

Segregated ballast tanks and crude oil washing were introduced to reduce operational
pollution.

Segregated Ballast Tanks (SBT's)

Every new crude oil tanker of 20,000 tons DWT and above, and every new product
carrier of 30,000 tons DWT and above (built after the  of December, 1975), is required
to be fitted with SBTs. An SBT is one which is permanently allocated to carry ballast or
cargoes other than oil or noxious substances and has its own pump and piping system,
independent of the cargo oil and oil fuel system.

The capacities of the SBTs should be such that the ship should normally be able to
operate safely without taking ballast in cargo oil tanks, except in cases of heavy
weather.
Crude Oil Washing (COW)

Crude oil washing Requirements (not applicable for tankers used as a floating facility to
receive dirty ballast discharged from oil tankers)

 Every crude oil tanker of 20, 000 tonnes deadweight and above, as delivered
after 1st June, 1982, must be fitted with a cargo tank cleaning system, using
crude oil washing.
 Crude oil washing installations and associated equipment and arrangements shall
comply with the requirements laid down by the Administration. These
requirements must contain at least all the provisions of the Specifications for the
Design, Operation and Control of Crude Oil Washing Systems as adopterd by the
IMO(i.e. IMO Resolution A. 446(XI) and amended by the IMO resolution A.
497(XII) and subsequently by Resolution A. 897(21).

Traditionally, steam or water was used for cargo tank cleaning, which was inefficient as
oil and water did not mix. In the COW system, a part of the oil being discharged is drawn
through a smaller diameter pipeline and fed to the COW machines. These machines
direct the oil as a jet through nozzles that can turn horizontally and vertically. The oil
dislodges, stirs, agitates, dissolves and disperses sludge and sediment, carrying insoluble
particles along in suspension and preventing it from settling in the tank. To avoid
hazards due to static electricity, every ship fitted with the COW system should also be
fitted with an Inert Gas system i.e. crude oil washing is done in an inert atmosphere.

The graphical illustration below shows the lower and upper range of flammable
limits for a particular petroleum oil.
Schematic Diagram of inert gas plant

Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP) 

SOPEP stands for Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan. Regulation 37 of Annex I of
MARPOL 73/78 requires oil tankers of 150 tons gross tonnage or more and all ships of
400 tons gross tonnage or more to carry an approved SOPEP. The purpose of the SOPEP
is to provide guidance to the Master and the ship's officers on the course of action to be
taken when an oil pollution incident has taken place.

The SOPEP should be in accordance with the IMO guidelines for the development of
shipboard oil pollution emergency plans and should be approved by the administration.
No alteration or revision shall be made to this plan without prior approval from the
administration.

The primary objective of the plan is to stop or minimize oil outflow when there is damage
to the ship, and stop or minimize oil outflow when an operational spill occurs in excess of
the quantity than the permitted rate under the MARPOL convention. The plan also
provides guidance to the Master and the ship's crew on the procedures to be followed to
report an oil spill. A designated locker called SOPEP locker, is used to store oil spill
control materials. These materials are sawdust, Oil Spill Dispersant (OSD), cloth, cotton
waste, gloves, brooms, buckets, empty oil barrels etc.
A list of coastal state contacts and port contact list is provided as an annex to the plan,
which helps to coordinate with national and local authorities in combating oil pollution.
The SOPEP should be ship specific and should include a flow chart, which will serve as a
guide in reporting procedures during an oil pollution incident.

The ship's master has to comply with reporting procedures by the fastest means of
communication in compliance with regulation 37 of MARPOL 73/78. The intention of
the Reporting Information (PDF, 200kb) is to ensure that all the details regarding the
discharge or the probable discharge should reach the nearest coastal state in the
prescribed format.

The reporting procedures should have the following information:

 When to report (actual discharge; probable discharge)

 Information required (particulars and status of the ship)
 Whom to contact (coast state; nearest port; and ship's interests)

The SOPEP provides the ship's Master with clear guidance on how to mitigate oil pollution
in different situations.

Pollution is possible in the following situations:

 Spill during an operation

 Pipeline leakage
 Tank overflow
 Hull leakage
 Spill in machinery spaces
 Spills due to grounding / stranding, fire / explosion, hull damage, collision, hull
failure, and excessive list

Mitigation techniques are given in the plan to help in dealing with pollution due to the
above causes. The ship's plans and drawings, which are part of the SOPEP include the
general arrangement plan, tank plan and the fuel oil piping diagram.

The SOPEP lays down the responsibilities of the ship's key personnel involved in the
mitigation process. This includes the Master, Chief Officer, Chief Engineer, Deck Duty
Officer, Duty Engineer and Duty Ratings.

 Every oil tanker of 150 tonnes gross and above and every ship other than an oil
tanker of 400 GT and above, must carry on board a SOPEP plan as approved by
the Administration.
 The SOPEP must be prepared as based on guidelines as per the IMO Resolution
MEPC. 54(32), amended by resolution MEPC. 86(44), and written in the working
language of the master and officers. The plan must consist of:-
 1. The procedure to be followed by the master or other persons having charge of the
ship to report an oil pollution incident, based on the guidelines of the IMO, vide
resolution A. 851(20), as amended by resolution MEPC.138(53);
2. The list of authorities or persons to be contacted in the event of an oil pollution
incident;
3. A detailed description of the action required to be taken immediately by persons
on board to reduce or control the discharge of oil following the incident; and,
4. The procedures and point of contact on the ship for coordinating shipboard action
with the national and local authorities in combating the pollution.

 In the case of ships to which the regulation on, “Prevention of Pollution arising
from an incident involving noxious liquid substances” (i.e. Annex II), of MARPOL
also applies, such a plan may be combined with the SOPEP of the present Annex
(i.e. discharge of oil) and in such a case, the title of the plan shall be “Shipboard
marine pollution emergency plan”.
 All tankers of 5000 tonnes deadweight or more shall have ready access to
computerized shore-based damage stability and residual structural strength
calculation programmes.

Reception Facilities

Ships, as explained, above generate oily residues and oily mixtures. The Government of
each Party to MARPOL, does need to ensure that facilities are provided to receive such
residues / oily mixtures as remain from oil tankers and other ships, adequate enough to
meet the needs of the ships using them and without causing undue delay to ships. Such
facilities must be provided at oil loading terminals, repair ports, other ports where ships
have oily residues to discharge, etc. etc.

Such reception facilities must be provided in:-

 All ports and terminals in which crude oil is loaded into oil tankers, where such
tankers, immediately prior to its arrival, completed a ballast voyage of not more
than 72 hours, or, not more than 1200 nautical miles;
 All ports and terminals in which, oil, other than crude oil in bulk is loaded at an
average quantity of more than 1000 tonnes per day;
 All ports having ship-repair yards or tank cleaning facilities;
 All ports and terminals which handle ships provided with oil residue (sludge)
tank(s) as required by the regulation, “Tanks for Oil residues (sludge)”, as shown
above.
 All ports in respect of oily bilge waters and other residues that cannot be
discharged as per the “Discharge Criteria for Annex I (shown in tabular form)”, as
indicated below, and,
 All loading ports for bulk cargoes in respect of the oil residues from combination
carriers which cannot be discharged, in accordance with the relevant part of the
“Discharge Criteria for Annex I (shown in tabular form)”

The capacity for the reception facilities must be as follows:-

 Crude oil terminals must have sufficient reception facilities to receive oil and oily
mixtures which are prohibited from discharging {as per the relevant portion of
“Discharge Criteria for Annex I (shown in tabular form)}, ” from all oil tankers on
 voyages as per the first bullet, in the second paragraph above, in this sub.-para,
i.e. “Reception Facilities”.
 Loading ports and terminals as referred to in the second bullet, in the second
paragraph above, in this sub.-para, i.e. “Reception Facilities”, must have
sufficient reception facilities to receive oil and oily mixtures which cannot be
discharged {as per the relevant portion of “Discharge Criteria for Annex I (shown
in tabular form)}, ” from oil tankers which load oil other than crude oil in bulk.
 All ports having ship repair yards or tank cleaning facilities shall have sufficient
reception facilities to receive all residues and oily mixtures which remain on board
for disposal from ships prior to entering such yards or facilities.
 All the facilities provided in ports and terminals as referred to in the fourth bullet,
in the second paragraph above, in this sub.-para, i.e. “Reception Facilities”, shall
be sufficient to receive all residues retained according to the regulation, “Tanks
for Oil residues (sludge)”, as shown above, from all ships that may reasonably be
expected to call at such ports and terminals.
 All facilities provided in ports and terminals under this sub.-para, i.e. “Reception
Facilities”, shall be sufficient to receive oily bilge waters and other residues which
cannot be discharged, as per the relevant portion of “Discharge Criteria for Annex
I (shown in tabular form), and,
 Facilities provided in loading ports for bulk cargoes shall take into account the
special problems posed by combination carriers, as appropriate.

Reception facilities within special Areas: Excluded, since this is beyond the scope of
these contents.

Information with respect to inadequacy of reception facilities: Each Party to this

Convention, needs to notify the IMO for transmission to the Parties concerned of all
cases where the facilities provided under this regulation, i.e. Reception facilities, are
alleged to be inadequate.

Discharge Criteria for Annex I (shown in tabular form)

Vessel  type/ Sub-category Discharge Conditions

Voyage Area

Oil tankers and in Oily waste from  Discharge permitted if more than 50 nautical
all waters cargo tanks miles from the nearest land; and,
 Tanker is proceeding en route; and,
 Instantaneous rate of discharge < 30 litres
per nautical mile; and,
 Total quantity of discharge does not exceed
1/15,000 or 1/30,000 of the total cargo
(depending on the age of the vessel);and,
 Oil discharge monitoring and control system
(ODMCS) and slop tank arrangement to be
operating.

All vessels ≥ 400 Machinery space  Discharge permitted when proceeding en

gross tons and in bilges route;and
all waters
 Oil content less 15 ppm; and
 ODMCS and oil filtering equipment is
operating.
 In certain circumstances, oil and oily
mixtures, may be retained on board for
discharge to port reception facilities -  please
refer to Regulation 14 of Marpol(#)
Note: 15 ppm discharges can be anywhere at sea
(except within port limits). Ships must not be
stationary when undertaking discharge.
(#) Ships, such as hotel ships, storage vessels, etc.
which do not move unless there are non-cargo-
carrying relocation voyages, need not be provided
with oil-filtering equipment. Such ships shall be
provided with a holding tank having a volume which
is adequate (as per the Administration), for the total
retention on board of the oily bilge water. All oily
bilge water shall be retained on board for
subsequent discharge to reception facilities.
The Administration shall ensure that ships of less
than 400 gross tons are equipped, as far as
practicable, to retain on board oil or oily mixtures or
discharge them in accordance with Regulation 15.6
of Annex 1(i.e. “Control of operational discharge of
oil”; “Requirements for ships of less than 400 gross
tonnage in all areas except the Antartica”)

All vessels < 400 Machinery space  Oil and all oily mixtures retain on board for
gross tons and in bilges on shore disposal; OR
all waters
 Proceeding en route; and
 Has in operation equipment of a design
approved by the Administration that ensures
oil content less than 15 ppm.
Note: 15 ppm discharges can be anywhere at sea
(except within port limits). Ships must not be
stationary when undertaking discharge.

Discharges in Oil or oily mixtures  Ship is proceeding en route;

Special Areas from
 The oil content of the effluent without
ships ≥ 400 gross
dilution does not exceed 15 ppm;
tons
 The oily mixture does not originate from the
cargo pump-room bilges on oil tankers;
 The oily mixture, in case of oil tankers, is not
mixed with oil cargo residues;
 The oily mixture is processed through an oil
filtering equipment meeting the
requirements of Regulation 14.7(##) of
Annex 1.
 (##) – Please refer to Regulation 14 (i.e. Oil
Filtering Equipment) above.

For any ship, Oil or oily mixtures Any discharge is prohibited.

Antartic Sea

For any ship, on a Oil or oily mixtures  Ship is proceeding en route;

voyage, only part
 The oil content of the effluent without
of which is in a
dilution does not exceed 15 ppm;
special area, from
discharging  The oily mixture does not originate from the
outside a special cargo pump-room bilges on oil tankers;
area.
 The oily mixture, in case of oil tankers, is not
mixed with oil cargo residues;
 The oily mixture is processed through an oil
filtering equipment meeting the
requirements of Regulation 14 of Annex 1.

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection

proceduresMARPOL 73/78Annex II

Annex II - Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in bulk

Entry into force: 6 April 1987

Details the discharge criteria and measures for the control of pollution by noxious liquid substances
carried in bulk; some 250 substances were evaluated and included in the list appended to the
Convention; the discharge of their residues is allowed only to reception facilities until certain
concentrations and conditions (which vary with the category of substances) are complied with.

In any case, no discharge of residues containing noxious substances is permitted within 12 miles of
the nearest land.  More stringent restrictions apply to "special areas".

It contains the following Chapters:

1 - General

2 - Categorization of noxious liquid substances

3 - Surveys and certification

4 - Design, construction, arrangement and equipment

5 - Operational discharges of residues of noxious liquid substances

6 - Measures of control by port states

7 - Prevention of pollution arising from an incident involving noxious liquid substances

8 - Reception facilities

MARPOL Annex II

 Unless so stated specifically, the requirements of this Annex shall apply to all ships, certified
to carry NLS in bulk;

 Where a cargo which is subject to the provisions of Annex I of MARPOL is carried in a cargo
space of an NLS tanker, the appropriate requirements of Annex I of MARPOL shall also apply.

Exceptions

The stipulations on discharge criteria as relevant for Annex II, shall not be applicable to the discharge
into the sea of NLS or mixtures containing such substances, when such a discharge:

 Is necessary for securing the safety of the ship or saving life at sea; or,

 Is a consequence from damage to the ship or its equipment:

1. Provided that all reasonable precautions have been taken after the occurrence of the
damage or discovery of the discharge for the purpose of preventing or minimizing the
discharge; and,

2. Except if the owner or the master acted either with intent to cause damage, or recklessly
and with the knowledge that damage would probably result; or

 Is approved by the Administration, when being used for the purpose of combating specific
pollution incidents in order to minimize the damage from pollution. Any such discharge shall
be subject to the approval of any Government in whose jurisdiction it is contemplated the
discharge will occur.

Exemptions 

These stipulations are necessary for the attending Superintendent of the ship, Classification Societies
and maritime Administrations. Therefore, they are being excluded from the requirements of these
contents which are fundamentally aimed at the shipboard marine engineer.

Equivalents

The maritime Administration(Flag) to which a ship conforms, may allow any fitting, material,
appliance or apparatus to be fitted in a ship as an alternative to the stipulations laid down by Annex
II, provided such fitting, material, appliance or apparatus is as effective as that required by Annex II. 
However, this authority of the Administration must not extend to the substitution of “operational
methods” which effect the control of discharge of NLS, considering that these are equivalent to
those design and construction features which are prescribed by various regulations of Annex II. In
cases where such equivalent substitutes are permitted, the IMO must be informed so that the same
may be circulated to the other Parties to the MARPOL Convention.
In case a Liquefied Gas Carrier is certified to carry NLS, as listed in the applicable Gas Carrier Code,
the construction and equipment requirements mentioned in the paragraphs marked (A – please see
below the paragraph under “Design, construction, equipment and operations”) and (B – please see
below the paragraph under “Pumping, piping, unloading arrangements and slop tanks”) may be
deemed to be satisfied by the such a gas Carrier, provided it meets the following conditions:-

 Holds a Certificate of Fitness as per the appropriate Gas Carrier Code for ships certified to
carry liquefied gases in bulk;

 Holds an IOPP certificate for the Carriage of NLS in Bulk, in which it is certified that the said
Gas Carrier may carry only those NLS which are identified and listed in the applicable Gas
Carrier Code;

 Be provided with segregated ballast arrangements;

 Be provided with pumping / piping arrangements, which, to the satisfaction of the

Administration would ensure that the quantity of cargo-residue remaining in the tank and its
associated piping does not exceed that as specified under sub.-paragraphs marked as C
(Please see the second sub.-paragraph under “Pumping, piping, unloading arrangements and
slop tanks”), or, D (Please see the third sub.-paragraph under “Pumping, piping, unloading
arrangements and slop tanks”), below, and,

 Be provided with a Manual, approved by the Administration, ensuring that there would be
no operational mixing of cargo residues and water, and that, no cargo residues will remain in
the tank after, the ventilation procedures are the applied as prescribed in the P&A manual.

Annex II deals with the control of pollution by noxious liquid substances. Annex II came into effect
on the 6th of April, 1987. Noxious liquid substances (NLS) are listed in appendix II of the annex II of
MARPOL and the International Bulk Chemical Code. They are categorised as follows:

 Category X

 Category Y

 Category Z

 Other Substances

The discharge of residue from noxious liquid substances is only to be made to shore reception
facilities after certain concentrations and conditions are complied with. In any case, the discharge of
noxious liquid substances is to be done only beyond 12 nautical miles from the nearest land.
However, when it comes to special areas like the Baltic and the Black sea, more stringent rules apply.

Cargo Record Book

Entries should be made on a tank-to-tank basis for each operation involving NLS onboard. Chemical
tankers so constructed are surveyed and issued a certificate of fitness for the carriage of dangerous
chemicals in bulk. These include loading, internal transfer, discharging, tank cleaning, ballasting
cargo tanks, discharge of ballast from cargo tanks, disposal of residue to shore facility, discharge into
the sea or removal by ventilation and accidental discharge.

All entries are to be made promptly and signed by the officer in-charge and the Master. The cargo
record book should be readily available for inspection.

Chemical tankers built after the 1st of July, 1986 are to be constructed in accordance with the
International Bulk Chemical Code. Chemical tankers so constructed are surveyed and issued a
certificate of fitness for the carriage of dangerous chemicals in bulk. All ships in compliance with the
requirements of Annex II are surveyed and issued an International Pollution Prevention Certificate
for the carriage of NLS in bulk. The certificate is valid for 5 years and is subject to annual surveys and
port state control inspections.

Procedures and Arrangements Manual

Regulation 13 of Annex II of MARPOL 73/78 prohibits the discharge into the sea of Noxious Liquid
Substances. These include categories X, Y or Z or of ballast water, tank washings or other residues or
mixtures containing such substances, except in compliance with specified conditions including
procedures and arrangements based upon standards developed by the International Maritime
Organization (IMO) to ensure that the criteria specified for each category will be met.

Annex II requires that each ship which is certified for the carriage of Noxious Liquid Substances in
bulk shall be provided with a Procedures and Arrangements Manual. The Procedures and
Arrangements Manual has been written in accordance with Appendix 4 of Annex II and is concerned
with the marine environmental aspects of the cleaning of cargo tanks and the discharge of residues
and mixtures from these operations.

The Manual is not a safety guide and reference shall be made to other publications specifically to
evaluate safety hazards. The purpose of the Manual is to identify the arrangements and equipment
required to enable compliance with Annex II and to identify for the ship's officers all operational
procedures with respect to cargo handling, tank cleaning, slops handling, residue discharging,
ballasting and deballasting, which must be followed in order to comply with the requirements of
Annex II

This Manual together with the ship's Cargo Record Book and the International Certificate of Fitness
for the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk will be used by Administrations for control purposes
in order to ensure full compliance with the requirements of Annex II by this ship. The Master shall
ensure that no discharges into the sea of cargo residues or residue/water mixtures containing
category X, Y or Z substances shall take place, unless such discharges are made in full compliance
with the operational procedures contained in this Manual.
This Manual has to be approved by the Administration and no alteration or revision shall be made to
any part of it without the prior approval of the Administration. Ideally the procedures and
arrangements manual will have the following sections:

 The main features of MARPOL 73/78, Annex II

 Description of the ship's equipment and arrangements

 Cargo unloading procedures and tank strippings

 Procedures relating to the cleaning of cargo tanks, discharge of residues, ballasting and
deballasting

 Information and procedures (flow diagrams, prewash procedures, ventilation procedures

and list of drawings)

Categorization and listing of noxious liquid substances (NLS) and other substances

For the purpose of Annex II, NLS need to be divided into four categories:-

 Category X: NLS which, if discharged into the sea from tank-cleaning or deballasting
operations, are deemed to present a major hazard to marine resources or human health,
and, therefore justify the prohibition of discharge into the marine environment;

 Category Y: NLS which, if discharged into the sea from tank-cleaning or deballasting
operations, are deemed to present a major hazard to marine resources or human health, or
cause harm to amenities  or other legitimate uses of the sea, and, therefore justify a
limitation on the quality and quantity of the discharge into the marine environment;

 Category Z: NLS which, if discharged into the sea from tank-cleaning or deballasting
operations, are deemed to present a minor hazard to marine resources or human health,
and, therefore justify less stringent restrictions on the quality and quantity of the discharge
into the marine environment;

 Other Substances (OS): Substances indicated as OS in the pollution category column of the

IBC Code which have been assessed and found to fall outside Category X,Y or Z as defined
above, since, these substances, as at present, are considered to present no harm to marine
resources, human health, amenities or other legitimate uses of the sea, when discharged
into the sea, from tank cleaning or deballasting operations. Discharges from bilges or ballast
water or other residues or mixtures containing only substances referred to as “Other
Substances”, are exempted from the requirements of Annex II.

Shipboard marine pollution emergency plan - SMPEP

 Every ship of 150 tonnes gross and above, certified to carry NLS in bulk, must carry on board
a “Shipboard marine pollution emergency plan for NLS”, as approved by the Administration.

 This plan is to be based on the Guidelines developed by the IMO and written in a working
language(s) as understood by the Master and the other officers.

The plan shall consist at least of:

The procedure to be followed by the master or other persons having charge of the ship to report a
NLS pollution incident {as per the Article 8 of the International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships, 1973 and, the Protocol I, i.e. Provisions concerning reports on incidents
involving harmful substances}, as per the Guidelines of the IMO. The reader who is deeply interested
in reading the said “Guidelines” may refer to MEPC resolution A.851 (20) as amended by resolution
MEPC.138(53).

 In the case of ships to which the regulation on “Shipboard oil pollution emergency
plan”(Annex I of the MARPOL Convention) applies, such a plan may be combined with the
“Shipboard oil pollution emergency plan”(Annex I of the MARPOL Convention). In this case,
the title of the plan would be, “Shipboard Marine pollution Emergency Plan”.

Reception Facilities and Cargo unloading terminal arrangements

 A Government having ratified Annex II of MARPOL, undertakes to ensure providing

“reception facilities”, according to the requirements of ships visiting its ports, terminals or
repair ports as follows:-

1. Ports and terminals involved in ships’ cargo-handling, must have reception facilities,
adequate for reception of residues and mixtures containing such residues of NLS, resulting
from compliance of this Annex II, without causing undue delay for the ships involved.

2. Ship-repair ports undertaking repairs to NLS tankers, must provide facilities, adequate for
reception of residues and mixtures containing NLS, for ships calling at that port.

 The Government of each Party, are required to determine the type of facilities provided for
the purpose of fulfilling provisions of the previous bullet under this sub-paragraph, (i.e.
Reception Facilities and Cargo unloading terminal arrangements) at each cargo loading and
unloading port, terminal and ship repair port in its territories and notify the IMO thereof.

 The Government of each Party to the Convention, the coastlines of which border on any
given special area, must collectively agree and assign a date, by which time the provisions of
the first bullet above (i.e. under Reception Facilities and Cargo unloading terminal
arrangements), would be fulfilled, and from which the provisions of the regulation on
“Control of discharges of residues of NLS”, in respect of that area shall take effect and notify
the IMO of the date so  established, at least 6 months in advance of that date. The IMO shall
then promptly notify all the Parties of that date.

 The government of each Party to MARPOL must undertake to ensure that the cargo
unloading terminals must provide arrangements to facilitate stripping of cargo tanks of ships
unloading NLS at these terminals. Cargo hoses and piping systems of the terminal,
containing NLS received from ships unloading these substances at the terminal, must not be
drained back to the ship.

 Each Party must notify the IMO, for transmission to the Parties concerned, of any case
where the facilities required under the first bullet above (i.e. under Reception Facilities and
Cargo unloading terminal arrangements) or the arrangements required under the 4th bullet
above (i.e. under Reception Facilities and Cargo unloading terminal arrangements) are
alleged to be inadequate.
 Discharge Criteria for Annex II (shown in tabular-form concisely)

Vessel/Voyage Sub-Category Discharge Conditions

type/Area

Chemical and Category X,Y and Before any prewash or discharge into the sea is carried out, the relevant tank must
Product Tankers to Z be unloaded in accordance with the ship’s Procedures and Arrangements Manual
which Annex II
applies

  Category X Tanks to be prewashed before leaving unloading port, residues to be pumped

ashore until the concentration of the substance in the effluent is 0.1% by weight or
less, as indicated by analysis of samples of the effluent taken by an AMSA marine
surveyor. When the required concentration level has been achieved, remaining
tank washings to be discharged to the reception facility until the tank is empty.
Appropriate entries to be made in the Cargo Record Book and endorsed by the
AMSA marine surveyor. Any water subsequently added may be discharged if:

 Ship is proceeding en route at a speed of at least 7 knots; and

 Discharge is below the waterline; and

 Ship is > 12 nm from nearest land and depth of water is >25m

  High-viscosity or Prewash in accordance with Appendix VI to MARPOL Annex II, residues to be

solidifying pumped ashore until tank is empty. Any water subsequently added may be
Category Y discharged if:

 Ship is proceeding en route at a speed of at least 7 knots; and

 Discharge is below the waterline; and

 Ship is > 12 nm from nearest land and depth of water is >25m

  Category Y Provided the tanks are unloaded in accordance with the Procedures and
Arrangements Manual, residues may be discharged if:
Category Z
 Ship is proceeding en route at a speed of at least 7 knots; and

 Discharge is below the waterline1; and

 Ship is > 12 nm from nearest land and depth of water is >25m

If tanks are not unloaded in accordance with the Procedures and Arrangements
Manual, a prewash is to be carried out and the resulting tank washings are to be
discharged ashore.

For ships constructed before 1 January 2007, the discharge into the sea of residues of substances
in category Z below the waterline is not mandatory.
 TABLE 6 Additional Local Requirements

Within port limits Any discharge within port limits  Comply with relevant Annexes of MARPOL AND

 Check with relevant port authority

Great Barrier Reef Permit is required for Cruise ships and  Conditions may be imposed as listed on the
Marine Park other vessels conducting specific Permit (e.g. there may be requirements imposed
operations within the Marine Park (e.g. for sewage discharges that are stricter than
dredges, pipeline laying vessels etc) MARPOL requirements)

Environmentally These sea areas have specific
Sensitive Sea Areas environmental protective measures that
(ESSAs) as marked apply for commercial tourism, fishing,
upon navigation mining, scientific and recreational
charts purposes. Permits are required for such
activities are issued by the Director of
National Parks.
 No restrictions upon shipping activities, or
commercial vessel transit undertaking voyages in
conformance with MARPOL and SOLAS
 Vessels should note the environmental
significance of the area and take extra care while
transiting through these areas

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection

proceduresMARPOL 73/78Annex III

Annex III - Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by

Harmful Substances Carried by Sea in Packaged Form
Entry into force: 1 July 1992

Contains general requirements for the issuing of detailed standards on packing, marking,
labelling, documentation, stowage, quantity limitations, exceptions and notifications.

For the purpose of this Annex, “harmful substances” are those substances which are
identified as marine pollutants in the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code
(IMDG Code) or which meet the criteria in the Appendix of Annex III.

It contains the following Regulations:

1 - Definitions

2 - Packing

3 - Marking and labelling

4 - Ducumentation
5 - Stowage

6 - Quantity limitations

7 - Exceptions

8 - Port state control on operational requirements

This Annex of MARPOL deals with “Regulations for the prevention of pollution by harmful
substances carried by sea in packaged form”. The Annex enumerates the discharge
restrictions and the measures required to be taken in monitoring / controlling this
pollution. It enunciates the general requirements on packaging, marking, labelling,
documentation, stowage, quantity limitations, exceptions and notifications. Harmful
substances are those which are identified as marine pollutants in the International
Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code or which meet the criteria in the Appendix of
this Annex.

 This Annex applies to all ships carrying harmful substances in packaged form.

1. As far as this Annex is concerned, “harmful substances” are those which are
identified as marine pollutants in the International Maritime Dangerous Goods
Code (i.e. IMDG Code). Substances meeting certain other criteria which are laid
down in the only Appendix of this Annex, are also accepted as “harmful
substances”.
2. Besides, for the purposes of this Annex, “packaged form” is defined as the forms
of containment as specified for harmful substances in the IMDG Code.

 The carriage of harmful substances is prohibited, unless the provisions of this

Annex are adhered to.
 The Administration of each Party to MARPOL, shall issue or have issued, detailed
requirements on packing, marking, labelling, documentation, stowage, quantity
limitations and exceptions for preventing or minimizing pollution of the marine
environment by harmful substances.
 For the purpose of this Annex, empty packagings which have been previously
used for the carriage of harmful substances, must also be treated as “harmful
substances” unless adequate precautions have been taken to ensure that they
contain no residue that is harmful to the marine environment.
 This Annex however, does not apply to ship’s stores and equipment.

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection

proceduresMARPOL 73/78Annex IV

Annex IV - Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by

Sewage from Ships
Entry into force: 27 September 2003. 

Contains requirements to control pollution of the sea by sewage; the discharge of

sewage into the sea is prohibited, except when the ship has in operation an approved
sewage treatment plant or when the ship is discharging comminuted and disinfected
sewage using an approved system at a distance of more than three nautical miles from
the nearest land; sewage which is not comminuted or disinfected has to be discharged at
a distance of more than 12 nautical miles from the nearest land.

It contains the following Chapters:

1 - general

2 - surveys and certification

3 - equipment and control of discharge

4 - reception facilities

5 - port state control

This Annex of MARPOL deals with “Regulations for the prevention of pollution by sewage
from ships”. This Annex details the discharge criteria and the measures required to be
taken in controlling this pollution. Such controls are based on the restrictions imposed in
discharging sewage into the sea, unless when the ship has in operation an approved
sewage treatment plant, or, when the ship discharges comminuted and disinfected
sewage using an approved system, at a distance of more than three nautical miles from
the nearest land. Sewage that is not comminuted or disinfected has to be discharged at
a distance of more than 12 nautical miles from the nearest land. All this is however
indicated in tabular form below:-

The provisions of this Annex must be applicable to the following ships engaged in
international voyages:

 New ships of 400 gross tonnage and above; and

 New ships of less than 400 gross tonnage which are certified to carry more than
15 persons; and
 Existing ships of 400 gross tonnage and above, five years after the date of entry
into force of this Annex(i.e. 27.9.2003). In other words, the requirement  is
already applicable.
 Existing ships of less than 400 gross tonnage which are certified to carry more
than 15 persons, five years after the date of entry into force of this Annex.

Annex IV deals with the prevention of pollution by sewage from ships. Annex IV came
into effect on the 27 th September, 2003. Annex IV was the second optional Annex after
Annex III.

Annex IV deals with regulations regarding the discharge of sewage into the sea,
equipment required for controlling sewage discharge, requirements of reception facilities
at ports and terminals and survey and certification requirements.
This Annex applies to new ships of 400 gross tonnage and above, engaged in
international voyages. It includes every ship certified to carry 15 persons or more.
Existing ships are required to comply with Annex IV from the 27 th of September, 2008.
Annex IV requires ships to be equipped with either a sewage treatment plant, or a
sewage comminuting and disinfecting system, or a sewage holding tank.

Unless a ship is equipped with an approved sewage treatment plant or any other
approved system, discharge of sewage into the sea is prohibited. Properly treated and
disinfected sewage can be discharged at a distance of more than three nautical miles.
Untreated and infected sewage is to be discharged at a distance of more then twelve
nautical miles from the nearest land.

The media below explains pollution by sewage.

The revised Annex applies to new ships engaged in international voyages of 400
gross tonnage and above or which are certified to carry more than 15 persons.
Existing ships are required to comply with the provisions of the revised Annex IV
five years after the date of entry into force of Annex IV, namely since 27
September 2008. The Annex requires ships to be equipped with either an
approved sewage treatment plant or an approved sewage comminuting and
disinfecting system or a sewage holding tank. 

The discharge of sewage into the sea is prohibited, except when the ship has in
operation an approved sewage treatment plant or when the ship is discharging
comminuted and disinfected sewage using an approved system at a distance of more
than three nautical miles from the nearest land. Sewage which is not comminuted or
disinfected may be discharged at a distance of more than 12 nautical miles from the
nearest land, and the rate of discharge of untreated sewage shall be approved by the
Administration.

Sewage Systems to be placed

Every ship which, which comes within the purview of the sub.-paragraph above, “To
what does this Annex apply?”, is required to comply with the provisions of this Annex IV,
must be equipped with one of the following sewage systems:

 A sewage treatment plant which shall be of a type which is approved by the

Administration, taking into account the standards and test methods as developed
by the IMO. 
 A sewage comminuting and disinfecting system as approved by the
Administration. Such a system must be fitted with facilities to the satisfaction of
the Administration, for the temporary storage of sewage when the ship is less
than 3 nautical miles from the nearest land or
  A holding tank of the capacity to the satisfaction of the Administration for the
retention of all sewage, having regard to the operation of the ship, the number of
persons on board and other relevant factors. The holding tank shall be
constructed to the satisfaction of the Administration and shall have a  means to
indicate visually the amount of its contents.

Discharge Criteria

Vessel/Voyage type/Area Sub-Category Discharge Conditions

Vessels (other than Comminuted and disinfected  Permitted as long as no less than 3 nm
passenger ships within sewage using an approved from nearest land; and
special areas) system in accordance with (* –
 Sewage originating from holding tanks,
please refer to the 2nd bullet,
or sewage originating from spaces
under “Sewage Systems to be
containing live animals is discharged at a
placed”) of MARPOL Annex IV
moderate rate while the ship is
proceeding en route at a speed not less
than 4 knots.
The rate of discharge shall be approved by the
Administration based upon standards approved
by the IMO.

Vessels (other than Sewage not comminuted or  Permitted as long as no less than 12 nm
passenger ships within disinfected from nearest land; and
special areas)
 Sewage originating from holding tanks,
or sewage originating from spaces
containing live animals is discharged at a
moderate rate while the ship is
proceeding en route at a speed of not
less than 4 knots
The rate of discharge shall be approved by the
Administration based upon the standards
approved by the IMO.

Vessels (other than Treated sewage effluent Permitted provided:

passenger ships within discharged through an
 Effluent does not produce visible floating
special areas) on approved Sewage Treatment
solids nor cause discolouration of the
International voyages Plant (STP) certified by the
surrounding water
Administration to meet the
operational requirements  Local laws may prohibit discharges in
referred to at “**” - please see ports
the sub.-paragraph on
Additionally:
“Sewage Systems to be
placed” above.  When within port limits, check with port
authority as permission may be required
 Food or biological waste removed from
filtration units of vessels on international
voyages is prohibited from discharge
 within 12 nm from land.

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection

proceduresMARPOL 73/78Annex V

Annex V - Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by

Garbage from Ships
Entry into force: 31 December 1988

Deals with different types of garbage and specifies the distances from land and the
manner in which they may be disposed of; the most important feature of the Annex is
the complete ban imposed on the disposal into the sea of all forms of plastics.

It contains the following Regulations:

1 - Definitions

2 - Application

3 - Disposal of garbage outside special areas

4 - Special requirements for disposal of garbage

5 - Disposal of garbage within special areas

6 - Exceptions

7 - Reception facilities

8 - Port state control on operational requirements

9 - Placards, garbage management plans and garbage record-keeping

This Annex of MARPOL deals with “Regulations for the prevention of pollution by
Garbage from ships”. This Annex details the discharge criteria of Garbage as
generated on board ships and lays down the distances from land and the manner
in which they may be disposed of. The most important feature of the Annex is
the complete ban imposed on the disposal into the sea of all forms of plastics. 

Annex V deals with the prevention of pollution by garbage from ships. Annex V came into
effect on the 31st of December, 1988. Annex V deals with the disposal procedure for
different types of garbage. It specifies the clear distances from land where garbage can
be safely disposed. Garbage includes all kinds of food, domestic and operational waste
generated during the normal operation of the vessel, liable to be disposed of
continuously or periodically except those substances which are defined or listed in other
annexes to Marpol 73/78 (such as oil, sewage or noxious liquid substances).
 The most important feature of Annex V is that the disposal of plastics or incinerated
ashes from plastic into the sea is strictly prohibited. Special requirements apply when
disposing other forms of garbage in coastal and special areas.

Special area means a sea area where for recognized technical reasons in relation to its
oceanographical and ecological condition and to the particular character of its traffic the
adoption of special mandatory methods for the prevention of sea pollution by garbage is
required. Special areas (Mediterranean Sea, Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Red Sea, “Gulfs
area”, North Sea, Antarctic area, Wider Caribbean region including the Gulf of Mexico
and the Caribbean Sea. The "Gulfs area" means the sea area located north-west of the
rhumb line between Ras al Hadd   and Ras al
Fasteh   shall include those listed in regulation 5 of this Annex.

Annex V defines nearest land as follows:

The term "from the nearest land" means from the baseline from which the territorial sea
of the territory in question is established in accordance with international law except
that, for the purposes of the present Convention, "from the nearest land" off the north-
eastern coast of Australia shall mean from a line drawn from a point on the coast of
Australia in latitude   longitude   to a point in latitude   
longitude 

 thence to a point latitude   longitude 

 thence to a point latitude   longitude 
 thence to a point latitude   longitude 
 thence to a point latitude   longitude 
 thence to a point latitude   longitude 
 thence to a point latitude   longitude 
 thence to a point  latitude   longitude 
 thence to a point on the coast of Australia in latitude   
longitude 

Simplified overview of the discharge provisions of the revised

MARPOL Annex V which entered into force on 1 March 2018

All ships except platforms4 Regulation 5

Offshore platforms
Regulation 4 Regulation 6 Within located more than
Outside special special areas and Arctic 12 nm from nearest
Garbage type1
areas and Arctic waters (Distances are land and ships when
waters (Distances from nearest land, alongside or within
are from the nearest nearest ice-shelf or 500 metres of such
land) nearest fast ice) platforms4

Food waste ≥3 nm, en route ≥12 nm, en route and as Discharge permitted
comminuted or ground2 and as far as far as practicable3
 practicable

≥12 nm, en route

Food waste not
and as far as Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited
comminuted or ground
practicable

Cargo residues5, 6 not

Discharge prohibited
contained in washwater

≥12 nm, en route and as

≥ 12 nm, en route
far as practicable
and as far as Discharge prohibited
Cargo residues5, (subject to conditions in
6 practicable
 contained in regulatuib 6.1.2 and
washwater paragraph 5.2.1.5 of
part II-A of the Polar
Code)

≥ 12 nm, en route and

as far as practicable
Cleaning agents and (subject to conditions in
additives6 contained in regulation 6.1.2 and
cargo hold washwater paragraph 5.2.1.5 of
part II-A of the Polar
Discharge permitted Discharge prohibited
Code)

Cleaning agents and

additives6 in deck and
Discharge permitted
external surfaces
washwater

Must be en route
Animal Carcasses and as far from the
(should be split or nearest land as
otherwise treated to possible. Should be Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited
ensure the carcasses >100 nm and
will sink immediately) maximum water
depth

All other garbage

including plastics,
synthetic ropes, fishing
gear, plastic garbage
bags, incinerator
ashes, clinkers, cooking
Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited
oil, floating dunnage,
lining and packing
materials, paper, rags,
glass, metal, bottles,
crockery and similar
refuse
1 When garbage is mixed with or contaminated by other harmful substances prohibited
from discharge or having different discharge requirements, the more stringent
requirements shall apply.
2 Comminuted or ground food wastes must be able to pass through a screen with mesh
no larger than 25 mm.

3 The discharge of introduced avian products in the Antarctic area is not permitted
unless incinerated, autoclaved or otherwise treated to be made sterile. In polar
waters, discharge shall be made as far as practicable from areas of ice
concentration exceeding 1/10; in any case food wastes shall not be
discharged onto the ice.
4 Offshore platforms located 12 nautical miles from nearest land and associated ships
include all fixed or floating platforms engaged in exploration or exploitation or
associated processing of seabed mineral resources, and all ships alongside or
within 500 m of such platforms.
5 Cargo residues means only those cargo residues that cannot be recovered using
commonly available methods for unloading.

6 These substances must not be harmful to the marine environment.

Regulation 9 adopted in 1995 requires all ships of 400 GT, ships certified to carry 15
persons or more, and fixed or floating objects engaged in exploration, to be provided
with a garbage record book. This book should have all the details of garbage disposal
and incineration operations. Garbage record books should be retained onboard the ship
for a period of 2 years from the date of the last entry.

A garbage management plan, written in English, French or Spanish, is to be carried on

every ship above 400 GT and every ship certified to carry 15 persons or more. Such
plans should include written procedures for collecting, storing, processing, and disposing
garbage. It also includes the use of approved equipment such as a comminutor and
incinerator for disposing garbage.

Ships of length 12 metres or more are required to display placards showing the disposal
requirements of the regulation in the official language of the Flag State and also in
English, French, or Spanish.

The media explains pollution by garbage.

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection

proceduresMARPOL 73/78Annex VI
Annex VI - Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution
from Ships
Entry into force: 19 May 2005

Sets limits on sulphur oxide and nitrogen oxide emissions from ship exhausts and
prohibits deliberate emissions of ozone depleting substances; designated emission
control areas set more stringent standards for SOx, NOx and particulate matter.  A
chapter adopted in 2011 covers mandatory technical and operational energy efficiency
measures aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions from ships.  

It provides guidelines and provisions for the emission of different substances and
specifies the requirements for the testing, survey and certification of marine diesel
engines to ensure they comply with the NOx limits.

It contains the following Chapters:

1 - General

2 - Survey, certification and means of control

3 - Requirements for control of emissions from ships

The adoption of MARPOL Annex VI has followed some years of debate within
organisations. At the same time the Technical code on the Control of Emissions of
Nitrogen Oxides from Marine Diesel Engines was adopted. MARPOL Annex VI and the
Technical Code have retroactive requirements for the following:

 Diesel engines of 130 KW and above installed on ships (keel laidon or after 1
January 2000)
 Diesel engines installed on ships (keel-laid between 1 January 1990 and 1
January 2000)
 Incinerators installed onboard on or after 1 January 2000.

MARPOL ANNEX VI applies to all ships, fixed and floating drilling rigs and other
platforms, but the certification requirements are depending on size of the vessel and
when it is constructed. Ships of 400 gross tons and above engaged in international
voyages involving countries that have ratified the conventions, or ships flying the flag of
those countries, are required to have an International Air Pollution Prevention Certificate
(IAPP Certificate).

The IAPP certificate will be issued following an initial survey carried out by the Flag
Administration or by a recognised organization (e.g. Det Norske Veritas) on behalf of the
Flag Administration, confirming compliance with MARPOL Annex VI.
Annex VI also requires diesel engines (as described above) to carry individual certificates
with regard to NOx emissions, named Engine International Air Pollution Prevention
(EIAPP) Certificates.

The media below details out the new SOx and NOx emission requirements for
the time period 2012 to 2020, and applicable for vessels outside and within the
ECA (Emission Control Area):

The following media is the continuation of the previous media

The media below illustrates the initiative of the IMO's Marine Environment and Protection
Committee (MEPC) in driving a framework towards controlling the greenhouse gas
emissions from ships.

Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP)

The Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP) incorporates best practices for the
fuel efficient operation of ships, such as better speed management throughout a ship's
voyage. Such efficiency measures will significantly reduce fuel consumption and CO2
emissions.  

The SEEMP recognizes that operational efficiencies will make an invaluable contribution
to reducing global carbon emissions. Its main purpose is to establish a mechanism for a
company and/or a ship to improve the energy efficiency of a ship’s operation that is
preferably linked to a broader corporate energy management policy. The SEEMP is to be
customized to characteristics and needs of individual companies and ships.

The media explains pollution by emission.

Emission Control Areas. Two sets of emission and fuel quality requirements are
defined by Annex VI: (1) global requirements, and (2) more stringent requirements
applicable to ships in Emission Control Areas (ECA). An Emission Control Area can be
designated for SOx and PM, or NOx, or all three types of emissions from ships, subject to
a proposal from a Party to Annex VI.
Existing Emission Control Areas include:

 Baltic Sea (SOx: adopted 1997 / entered into force 2005; NOx: 2016/2021)
 North Sea (SOx: 2005/2006; NOx: 2016/2021)
 North American ECA, including most of US and Canadian coast (NOx &SOx:
2010/2012).
 US Caribbean ECA, including Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands (NOx &SOx:
2011/2014).

Greenhouse Gas Emissions. 2011 Amendments to MARPOL Annex VI introduced

mandatory measures to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG). The Amendments
added a new Chapter 4 to Annex VI on “Regulations on energy efficiency for ships”.

NOx Emission Standards

NOx emission limits are set for diesel engines depending on the engine maximum
operating speed (n, rpm), as shown in Table 1 and presented graphically in Figure 1.
Tier I and Tier II limits are global, while the Tier III standards apply only in NOx
Emission Control Areas.

Table 1. MARPOL Annex VI NOx emission limits

NOx Limit, g/kWh

Tier Date
n < 130 130 ≤ n < 2000 n ≥ 2000

Tier I 2000 17 45 ∙ n-0.2 9.8

Tier II 2011 14.4 44 ∙ n-0.23 7.7

Tier III 2016 3.4 9 ∙ n-0.2 1.96

 In NOx Emission Control Areas (Tier II standards apply outside ECAs).
Sulfur Content of Fuel

Annex VI regulations include caps on sulfur content of fuel oil as a measure to control
SOx emissions and, indirectly, PM emissions (there are no explicit PM emission limits).
Special fuel quality provisions exist for SOx Emission Control Areas (SOx ECA or SECA).
The sulfur limits and implementation dates are listed in Table 2 and illustrated in Figure
2.

Table 2. MARPOL Annex VI fuel Sulphur limits

Sulphur Limit in Fuel (% m/m)

Date
SOx ECA Global

2000 1.50%
4.50%
2010.07
1.00%
2012
3.50%
2015
0.10%
2020 0.50%
MARPOL Annex VI fuel sulfur limits

Heavy fuel oil (HFO) is allowed provided it meets the applicable sulfur limit (i.e., there is
no mandate to use distillate fuels).

Alternative measures are also allowed (in the SOx ECAs and globally) to reduce sulfur
emissions, such as through the use of scrubbers. For example, in lieu of using the 1.5%
S fuel in SOx ECAs, ships can fit an exhaust gas cleaning system or use any other
technological method to limit SOx emissions to ≤ 6 g/kWh (as SO2 ).

Greenhouse Gas Emissions

MARPOL Annex VI, Chapter 4 introduces two mandatory mechanisms intended to ensure
an energy efficiency standard for ships: (1) the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI),
for new ships, and (2) the Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP) for all
ships.

 The EEDI is a performance-based mechanism that requires a certain minimum

energy efficiency in new ships. Ship designers and builders are free to choose the
technologies to satisfy the EEDI requirements in a specific ship design.
 The SEEMP establishes a mechanism for operators to improve the energy
efficiency of ships.

The regulations apply to all ships of and above 400 gross tonnage and enter into force
from 1 January 2013. Flexibilities exist in the initial period of up to six and a half years
after the entry into force, when the IMO may waive the requirement to comply with the
EEDI for certain new ships, such as those that are already under construction.
Other Provisions

Ozone Depleting Substances. Annex VI prohibits deliberate emissions of ozone

depleting substances, which include halons and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). New
installations containing ozone-depleting substances are prohibited on all ships. But new
installations containing hydro-chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are permitted until 1 January
2020.

Annex VI also prohibits the incineration on board ships of certain products, such as
contaminated packaging materials and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).

Compliance. Compliance with the provisions of Annex VI is determined by periodic

inspections and surveys. Upon passing the surveys, the ship is issued an “International
Air Pollution Prevention Certificate”, which is valid for up to 5 years. Under the “NOx
Technical Code”, the ship operator (not the engine manufacturer) is responsible for in-
use compliance.

Issue or endorsement of Certificates

International Air Pollution Prevention Certificate

1. An International  Air Pollution Prevention(IAPP) Certificate shall be issued, after

an initial or renewal survey in accordance with the provisions of the previous
paragraph (i.e.Surveys) of this Annex VI, to:
Any ship of 400 gross tonnage and above engaged in voyages to ports or offshore
terminals under the jurisdiction of other Parties; and
Platforms and drilling rigs engaged in voyages to waters under the sovereignty or
jurisdiction of other Parties.
2. A ship constructed before the date this Annex came into force, for that particular
ship’s Administration, shall be issued with an IAPP Certificate in accordance with
the aforesaid main-bullet, no later than the first schedule dry-docking after the
date of entry into force, but in no case later than 3 years of this date.
3. Such a Certificate shall be issued or endorsed either by the Administration or by
any person or organization duly authorized by it (*). In every case, the
Administration assumes full responsibility for the certificate.

International Energy Efficiency Certificate

 An International Energy Efficiency Certificate (IEEC) for the ship shall be issued
after a survey in accordance with the provisions of the fourth main bullet under
the paragraph “Surveys” above, to any ship of 400 gross tonnage and above
before that ship may engage in voyages to ports or offshore terminals under the
jurisdiction of other Parties. ( Please see contents under the heading
'Requirements' below)
 The Certificate shall be issued or endorsed either by the Administration or any
organization duly authorized by it (*). In every case, the Administration assumes
full responsibility for the certificate.
(*) -The interested reader may like to refer to the “Guidelines for the
authorization of organizations acting on behalf of the Administrations”, adopted
by the IMO by Resolution A.739(18), as amended by resolution MSC.208(81, and
 the “Specifications on the survey and certification functions of recognized
organizations acting on behalf of the Administration, adopted by the IMO by
Resolution A.789(19), as may be amended by the IMO.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

 If the emissions of VOCs from a tanker are to be regulated in a port or ports or a

terminal or terminals, under the jurisdiction of a Party, they shall be regulated in
accordance with the provisions of this regulation.
 A Party regulating tankers for VOC emissions must submit a notification to the
IMO. This notification shall include information on the size of tankers to be
controlled, the cargoes requiring vapour emission control systems and the
effective date of such control. The notification shall be submitted at least 6
months before the effective date.
 A Party that designates ports or terminals at which VOC emissions from tankers
are to be regulated shall ensure that vapour emission control systems, approved
by that Party taking into account the safety standards for such systems
developed by the IMO (##) are provided in any designated port and terminal and
are operated safely and in a manner so as to avoid undue delay to a ship.
(##) – The interested reader may refer to the MSC/Circ. 585, Standards for Vapour Emission
Control Systems.
 The IMO must circulate a list of ports and terminals designated by the Parties to
the other Parties and Member States of the IMO for their information.
 A tanker to which the 1st bullet of this paragraph, i.e. Volatile Organic Compounds
(VOCs), applies, shall be provided with a vapour emission collection system as
approved by the Administration, taking into account the safety standards for such
systems developed by the IMO, and shall use this system during the loading of
relevant cargoes. A port or terminal that has installed vapour emission control
systems in accordance with this paragraph, i.e. Volatile Organic Compounds
(VOCs) may accept tankers that are not fitted with vapour collection systems, for
a period of three years after the effective date as identified in the second bullet,
above, of this paragraph i.e. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs).
 A tanker carrying crude oil must have on board and implement a VOC
management plan as approved by the Administration. Such a plan must be
prepared taking into account the guidelines developed by the IMO. The plan shall
be specific to each ship and shall at least:

1. Provide written procedures for minimizing VOC emissions during the loading, sea
passage and discharge of cargo;
2. Give consideration to the additional VOC generated by crude oil washing;
3. Identify a person responsible for implementing the plan; and
4. For ships on international voyages, be written in the working language of the
master and officers and, if the working language of the master and officers is not
English, French or Spanish, include a translation intone of these languages.
5. The requirement of a VOC management plan applies only to a tanker carrying
crude oil.

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection proceduresMARPOL

73/78Oil Discharge Monitoring and Control System (ODMCS)
Oil Discharge Monitoring and Control System (ODMCS)
 Unless waived by the Administration, oil tankers of 150 gross tonnage and above
must be equipped with an ODMCS as approved by the Administration.
 The ODMCS must be fitted with a recording device for providing a continuous
record of the discharge in litres per nautical mile and the total quantity
discharged, or the oil content and rate of discharge.
 This record must be identifiable as to the time and date and needs to be
preserved for 3 years.
 The ODMCS must come into operation whenever there is any discharge of effluent
into the sea and, shall be able to ensure that when, the instantaneous rate of
discharge of oil exceeds the permissible limit as stipulated by the regulation on
“Control of discharge of oil”, the discharge shall be automatically stopped.
 Any failure of the ODMCS, must stop the discharge.
 Provided the Port State authority concurs, a tanker with a defective ODMCS may
be allowed to undertake one ballast voyage, before proceeding to a repair port.
 The ODMCS must be designed and installed as per the applicable Guidelines of
the IMO. For example, as for tankers built on or after 1st January, 2005, we need
to abide by the IMO Resolution MEPC. 108(49) on, “Revised Guidelines and
Specifications for Oil Discharge Monitoring and Control Systems of oil tankers” as
adopted by the IMO.

An ODMCS consists essentially of four systems:

1. An Oil content meter: The oil content meter is used to analyze the content of
oil in the water that is to be discharged overboard. This oil is expressed in parts
per million (PPM).
2. A flow meter: The flow rate of the oily water to be discharged is measured at
the discharge pipe.
3. A computing unit: A computing unit calculates the oil discharge in liters /
nautical miles and the total quantity, along with date and time identification.
4. An overboard valve control system: The auto control valve is installed at the
overboard so that it must close and stop the discharge when permissible limit has
been reached.
Working

The oily mixture is pumped out to the sea through ODMCS by a pump. A sampler probe
and a flow meter sensor is connected at the discharge pipe, before the overboard valve,
to sense the oil content and the flow of mixture.

The data provided by the two sensors are fed in a control unit wherein it is analyzed and
the discharge valve is controlled by the same.

If the control unit senses a rise in the ppm and flow comparing to the permissible value,
it will shut the overboard valve and open the recirculation valve which is connected to
slop tank of the ship.

Regulatory requirements for oil mixture discharge from cargo space

 Tanker vessel must be enroute

 The vessel should not be in special areas.
 The tanker must be 50 nautical miles away from land.
 The instantaneous rate of discharge of oil content does not exceed 30 litres per
nautical mile.
 The total quantity of discharge must not exceed 1/30000 * of the total quantity of
the residue formed cargo.
 The tanker must have operational and approved ODMCS.
As per the regulation, the following inputs must be recorded by the system:

Discharge rate of the pump which is discharging the oily water mixture overboard.

The location of the ship in latitude and longitude.

Date and time of the discharge.

The total quantity that has been discharge overboard.

Oil content of the discharged mixture in PPM.

All the records of ODMCS must be stored on board ships for not less than 3 years.

According to Annex I, the discharge of oily water mixture from cargo spaces, slop tanks
and pump rooms is permitted only when the following conditions are satisfied:

 The ship is not in a Special Area.

 The tanker is more than 50 nautical miles from the nearest land
 The tanker is proceeding en-route
 The instantaneous rate of discharge of oil content is not to exceed 30 litres per
nautical mile.
 The total quantity of oil discharged is not more than 1/30,000 of the quantity of
last cargo
 The tanker has in operation an ODMCS and slop tank arrangement.
Standard Discharge Connection (Annex I - Regulation 13)

The residues from machinery space bilges and from oil residue (sludge) tanks, need to
be offloaded to “reception facilities” ashore. Therefore, if there is a standard flange which
is available, each, at the “reception facility” end (i.e. anywhere around the world) and
the ship’s end (i.e. on board), the pipes of the reception facilities can be connected with
the ship’s discharge pipeline for residues from the machinery bilges and the oil residue
(sludge) tanks, to those of the “reception facilities” ashore.

The Standard dimensions of the flanges for discharge connections is shown below in
tabular form:

Description Dimension

Outside diameter 215 mm

Inner diameter According to the outside diameter of the pipe

Bolt circle diameter 183 mm

Slots in flange 6 holes, 22 mm in diameter equidistantly placed on

a bolt circle of the above diameter, slotted to the
flange periphery. The slot width is to be 22 mm.

Flange thickness 20 mm

Bolts and nuts: quantity, 6, each of 20 mm in diameter and of suitable

 diameter length

The flange is designed to accept pipes upto a maximum internal diameter of 125 mm
and shall be of steel or other equivalent material having a flat face. The flange,
together with a gasket of oil-proof material and shall be suitable for a service pressure
of 600 kPa.

Standard Discharge Connection (Annex IV – Regulation 10)

All ships to which this Annex IV is applicable, must be provided with a pipeline and the
relevant shore connection flange for discharging sewage to port sewage treatment
facility. This provision is irrespective of their size and of the presence of a sewage
treatment plant or sewage holding tank.

Standard Dimensions of flanges for discharge connections 

Description Dimension

Outside Diameter 210 mm

Inner diameter According to pipe outside diameter

Bolt circle diameter 170 mm

Slots in flange 4 holes, 18 mm in diameter, equidistantly placed on a bolt circle of

the above diameter, slotted to the flange periphery. The slot width
is to be 18 mm

Flange thickness 16 mm

Bolts and nuts: Quantity 4, each of 16 mm in diameter and of suitable length.

and diameter

The flange is designed to accept pipes up to a maximum internal diameter of 100 mm and
shall be of steel or other equivalent material having a flat face. The flange, together with a
suitable gasket, shall be suitable for a service pressure of 600 kPa. For ships having a moulded
depth of 5 m and less, the inner diameter of the discharge connection may be 38 mm.

Reception Facilities

 The Government of each Party to the MARPOL Convention, which requires ships
operating in waters under its jurisdiction and visiting ships while in waters  to
comply with the requirements of the relevant “Discharge Criteria” shown below,
undertakes to ensure the provision of facilities at ports and terminals, for the
reception of sewage, without causing delay to ships, adequate to meet the needs
of the ships using them.
  The Administration of each Party shall notify the IMO, for transmission to the
Contracting Governments concerned, of all cases where the facilities provided
under this regulation are alleged to be inadequate.

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection proceduresMARPOL

73/78Special Areas and PSSAs

Special Areas and PSSAs

Special Areas under MARPOL

In Annex I Prevention of pollution by oil, Annex II Control of pollution by noxious liquid

substances, Annex IV Prevention of pollution by sewage from ships and Annex V
Prevention of pollution by garbage from ships, MARPOL defines certain sea areas as
"special areas" in which, for technical reasons relating to their oceanographical and
ecological condition and to their sea traffic, the adoption of special mandatory methods
for the prevention of sea pollution is required. Under the Convention, these special areas
are provided with a higher level of protection than other areas of the sea.

Annex VI Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships establishes certain
sulphur oxide (SOx) Emission Control Areas with more stringent controls on sulphur
emissions and nitrogen oxides (NOx) Emission Control Areas for Tier III NOx emission
standards.

Special areas under MARPOL are as follows:

Adoption, entry into force & date of taking effect of Special Areas

Date of
Adopted In Effect
Special Areas Entry into
# From
Force

Annex I: Oil

2 Nov
Mediterranean Sea 2 Oct 1983 2 Oct 1983
1973

2 Nov
Baltic Sea 2 Oct 1983 2 Oct 1983
1973

2 Nov
Black Sea 2 Oct 1983 2 Oct 1983
1973

2 Nov
Red Sea 2 Oct 1983 *
1973
 2 Nov
"Gulfs" area 2 Oct 1983 1 Aug 2008
1973

1 Dec
Gulf of Aden 1 Apr 1989 *
1987

16 Nov 17 Mar
Antarctic area 17 Mar 1992
1990 1992

25 Sept
North West European Waters 1 Feb 1999 1 Aug 1999
1997

15 Oct
Oman area of the Arabian Sea 1 Jan 2007 *
2004

13 Oct
Southern South African waters 1 Mar 2008 1 Aug 2008
2006

Annex II: Noxious Liquid Substances

30 Oct
Antarctic area 1 Jul 1994 1 Jul 1994
1992

Annex IV: Sewage

15 Jul
Baltic Sea 1 Jan 2013 **
2011

Annex V: Garbage

2 Nov 31 Dec
Mediterranean Sea 1 May 2009
1973 1988

2 Nov 31 Dec
Baltic Sea 1 Oct 1989
1973 1988

2 Nov 31 Dec
Black Sea *
1973 1988

2 Nov 31 Dec
Red Sea *
1973 1988

2 Nov 31 Dec
"Gulfs" area 1 Aug 2008
1973 1988

17 Oct 18 Feb
North Sea 18 Feb 1991
1989 1991

Antarctic area (south of latitude 60 16 Nov 17 Mar

17 Mar 1992
degrees south) 1990 1992
 Wider Caribbean region including the Gulf
4 Jul 1991 4 Apr 1993 1 May 2011
of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea

Annex VI: Prevention of air pollution by ships (Emission Control Areas)

26 Sept 19 May
Baltic Sea (SOx ) 19 May 2006
1997 2005

22 Jul 22 Nov
North Sea (SOx) 22 Nov 2007
2005 2006

26 Mar
North American ECA (SOx and PM) 1 Aug 2011 1 Aug 2012
2010

26 Mar
(NOx) 1 Aug 2011 ***
2010

United States Caribbean Sea 26 Jul

1 Jan 2013 1 Jan 2014
ECA (SOx and PM) 2011

26 Jul
(NOx) 1 Jan 2013 ***
2011

# Status of multilateral conventions and instruments in respect of which the

International Maritime Organization or its Secretary-General perform depositary or other
functions as at 31 December 2002.

* The Special Area requirements for these areas have not yet taken effect because of
lack of notifications from MARPOL Parties whose coastlines border the relevant special
areas on the existence of adequate reception facilities (regulations 38.6 of MARPOL
Annex I and 5(4) of MARPOL Annex V).

** The new special area requirements, which entered into force on 1 January 2013, will
only take effect upon receipt of sufficient notifications on the existence of adequate
reception facilities from Parties to MARPOL Annex IV whose coastlines border the
relevant special area (regulation 13.2 of the revised MARPOL Annex IV, which was
adopted by resolution MEPC.200(62) and which entered into force on 1 January 2013).

*** A ship constructed on or after 1 January 2016 and is operating in these emission
control areas shall comply with NOx Tier III standards set forth in regulation 13.5 of
MARPOL Annex VI.

Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas

Paracas National Reserve, PeruA Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA) is an area that
needs special protection through action by IMO because of its significance for recognized
ecological or socio-economic or scientific reasons and which may be vulnerable to
damage by international maritime activities. The criteria for the identification of
particularly sensitive sea areas and the criteria for the designation of special areas are
not mutually exclusive. In many cases a Particularly Sensitive Sea Area may be
identified within a Special Area and vice versa.

Guidelines on designating a "particularly sensitive sea area" (PSSA) are contained in

resolution A.982(24) Revised guidelines for the identification and designation of
Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSAs). These guidelines include criteria to allow areas
to be designated a PSSA if they fulfil a number of criteria, including: ecological criteria,
such as unique or rare ecosystem, diversity of the ecosystem or vulnerability to
degradation by natural events or human activities; social, cultural and economic criteria,
such as significance of the area for recreation or tourism; and scientific and educational
criteria, such as biological research or historical value.

The provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) are
also relevant.

When an area is approved as a particularly sensitive sea area, specific measures can be
used to control the maritime activities in that area, such as routeing measures, strict
application of MARPOL discharge and equipment requirements for ships, such as oil
tankers; and installation of Vessel Traffic Services (VTS).

List of adopted PSSAs

The following PSSAS have been designated:

 The Great Barrier Reef, Australia (designated a PSSA in 1990)

 The Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago in Cuba (1997)
 Malpelo Island, Colombia (2002)
 The sea around the Florida Keys, United States (2002)
 The Wadden Sea, Denmark, Germany, Netherlands (2002)
 Paracas National Reserve, Peru (2003)
 Western European Waters (2004)
 Extension of the existing Great Barrier Reef PSSA to include the Torres Strait
(proposed by Australia and Papua New Guinea) (2005)
 Canary Islands, Spain (2005)
 The Galapagos Archipelago, Ecuador (2005)
 The Baltic Sea area, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania,
Poland and Sweden (2005)
 The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, United States (2007)
 The Strait of Bonifacio, France and Italy (2011)
 The Saba Bank, in the North-eastern Caribbean area of the Kingdom of the
Netherlands (2012)
 Extension of Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait to encompass the south-west
part of the Coral Sea (2015)
 The Jomard Entrance, Papua New Guinea (2016)
 Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park, the Sulu Sea, Philippines (2017)
A.982(24) Revised guidelines for the identification and designation of
Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSAs)

The IMO Assembly in November-December 2005 at its 24 th session adopted revised

Guidelines for the Identification and Designation of Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas
(PSSAs) (resolution A.982(24)).

A PSSA is an area that needs special protection through action by IMO because of its
significance for recognized ecological, socio-economic, or scientific attributes where such
attributes may be vulnerable to damage by international shipping activities. An
application for PSSA designation should contain a proposal for an associated protective
measure or measures aimed at preventing, reducing or eliminating the threat or
identified vulnerability. Associated protective measures for PSSAs are limited to actions
that are to be, or have been, approved and adopted by IMO, for example, a routeing
system such as an area to be avoided.

The guidelines provide advice to IMO Member Governments in the formulation and
submission of applications for the designation of PSSAs to ensure that in the process, all
interests - those of the coastal State, flag State, and the environmental and shipping
communities - are thoroughly considered on the basis of relevant scientific, technical,
economic, and environmental information regarding the area at risk of damage from
international shipping activities.

The guidelines update resolution A.927(22) Guidelines for the Designation of Special
Areas under MARPOL 73/78 and Guidelines for the Identification and Designation of
Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas.

Ships routeing measures to protect PSSAs

A PSSA can be protected by ships routing measures – such as an area to be avoided: an

area within defined limits in which either navigation is particularly hazardous or it is
exceptionally important to avoid casualties and which should be avoided by all ships, or
by certain classes of ships. The IMO Publication Ships' Routeing includes General
provisions on ships' routeing, first adopted by IMO in 1973, and subsequently amended
over the years, which are aimed at standardizing the design, development, charted
presentation and use of routeing measures adopted by IMO.

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection

proceduresMARPOL 73/78MARPOL Equipment

MARPOL Equipment
 Bilge Oil Separator
 Oil /Water Interface Detector
  Oil Content / Bilge Alarm Monitor
 Sewage Treatment Plant and 
 Incinerator
 Delivery of MARPOL waste and 
 Onboard Maintenance check list

Bilge Oil Separator

Bilge oil separators control the discharge of oil overboard when bilges are being pumped
out from the engine room, as required by Annex I. Discharge of oily water into the sea is
permitted through an oil discharge monitoring and control system together with oil
filtering equipment.

The oil filtering equipment ensures that the oil content while discharging bilge water
does not exceed 15 ppm. If the oil content exceeds 15 ppm, the bilge water is
discharged into the bilge holding tank. The oil residues are collected in a separated oil
tank and should either be incinerated or discharged into shore reception tanks in port.

Bilge oil separators control the discharge of oil overboard when bilges are being pumped
out from the engine room, as required by Annex I. Discharge of oily water into the sea is
permitted through an oil discharge monitoring and control system together with oil
filtering equipment.
Oil/Water Interface Detector

According to IMO’s resolution of Marine Environment Protection Committee 5 (XIII), oil

tankers shall be provided with effective oil/water interface detectors approved by the
administration for a rapid and accurate determination of the oil/water interface in slop
tanks and shall be available for use in other tanks where the separation of oil and water
is effected and from which it is intended to discharge effluent direct to the sea.

What are interface detectors?

Though both fixed and portable type interface detectors are an important part of cargo
operation equipment on ships, the portable ones are more widely used because of the
ease of handling and maintenance.

When at sea, the tanker ship’s dirty ballast water or oil contaminated water from tanks
in the cargo area, other than slop tanks, may be discharged by gravity below the
waterline, provided sufficient time has elapsed in order to allow proper oil/water
separation. Interface detectors are used to examine the ballast water before the
discharge to ensure that the height of the interface is safe enough to avoid traces of oil.
Interface detectors are also used in various other tanks to monitor the level of oil and
water.
How interface detector work  on ships ?

The interface detector consists of two main parts: Sensor/antenna and display/control
system.

Interface detectors works by measuring the difference in voltages according to the

conductivity of water. The interface is detected by a sensor attached to a weight, which
is lowered in the tank. By measuring the energy absorption of the fluid surrounding the
sensor, the interface detector senses the emulsion regardless of density, viscosity,
temperature, pressure or pH.
Interface detectors are basically a kind of conductive level sensor, which help in point
level detection of conductive liquids. They use a low-voltage, current and limited power
source, applied across different electrodes. A conductive liquid which contacts both
longest and shorter probe completes a conductive circuit. The change in conductivity
helps in detecting the oil/water interface. 

IN-TANK INTERFACE DETECTOR

In-Tank measurement of the hydrocarbon/water interface gives the best results for
eliminating the discharge of hydrocarbons. Usually, the probes are inserted into the tank
through a seal housing, as shown.

When the probe detects HC free water, the water discharge valve is opened. As water is
drained off the bottom of the tank, and the hydrocarbon/water interface begins to drop.
When the probe detects the hydrocarbon/water interface, the signal is sent to close the
discharge valve.

Output options to control the valve can be 4-20 mA, relay and/or pneumatic. Local
indicating lights are also fitted. If the hydrocarbon floats, the system will prevent it from
being discharged with the waste water.

Figure shows an upper probe used for control, with the lower probe used for low-level
alarm and positive shutdown of the water discharge valve.

System Control Logic

Hi Probe Water Oil Water or Oil

Low Probe Water Water Oil

Local Indicating Light Water Oil Alarm

Valve Position Open Closed Closed

Oil Content Monitor/Bilge Alarm Monitor

OWS—Monitoring and Control Unit

 
An Oil content monitor is a device for real time sampling and measuring of the oil
content inn a moving stream of water. The new IMO/MEPC 107 (49) oil content monitors
for oily water separators perform several functions including preventing illegal "over
limits" discharges that occur when the oil content is above 15 ppm, by either shutting
down the separator or by putting the separator into a recirculation or recycle mode
--------- where the oily bilge water is sent back to the oily wastes holding tanks

These newer Monitors also have the ability to alram the operator with audible and
visual alerts as well as having dry contacts out that can be wired into a ship's or oil
platforms main controls systems.

A sample of water leaving the OWS is drawn off automatically and passed through a
detector cell. A low power, light shines a beam through window in the side of the
detector. This is transmitted through the water sample and picked up by a detector on
the far side of the cell. Pure water will only have a sight attenuating effect on the beam,
whereas, oil will absorb the light, reducing the intensity reaching the detector and
causing the oil content monitor to sound the alarm.

The TD-107 Fluorescence Oil Content Monitor (OCM) is a 5 ppm or 15 ppm bilge alarm
for oily water separators based on fluorescence detection technology. The TO-107 Oil
Content Monitor is fully certified by the US Coast Guard for use under IMO MEPC
107(49). Fluorescence makes the TD-107 is immune to interference's by turbidity or
particles/sediments in the bilge which impact competing "light scatter" oil content
monitors. Because silt /algae / iron oxide / mud. junk and other particles do not
fluoresce at oils wavelength, they cannot interfere as a `false positive' high alarm that
will keep the oily water separator in re-circulation mode without ever pumping down the
oily waste holding tanks.

Sewage Treatment Plant

As per Marpol Annex IV-Regulation for the prevention of  pollution by sewage from ships
regulations the discharge of sewage into the sea is prohibited, except in cases when the
ship has in operation an approved sewage treatment plant. There are different types of
sewage treatment plants, which are used to discharge biological sewage at sea. Almost
all the sewage treatment plants work on the aeration process.

The aeration process, also known as the aerobic breakdown process, involves supplying
oxygenated air through untreated sewage waste. This oxygenation helps the bacteria to
thrive within the sewage waste and break it down into smaller particles. If oxygenated
air is not available in the sewage plant, the bacteria cannot survive and this leads to the
improper functioning of the sewage plant.

Incinerator

An incinerator onboard is used to incinerate solid and liquid wastes arising from the
operation of the ship. Solid and liquid wastes can originate from domestic waste, cargo
associated waste, cargo residue etc.

The design requirement for incinerators should be such that the maximum flue gas
temperature should not exceed 1200 degrees centigrade. The minimum flue gas
temperature should not be less than 850 degrees centigrade. The preheated
temperature of the combustible chamber should be 650 degrees centigrade. For batch
loaded incinerators, there are no pre-heating requirements.

All incinerators require an IMO type approval certificate. A complete instruction and
maintenance manual with drawings, electric diagrams and spare parts list should be
furnished with each incinerator.

The table given below explains the various measures to reduce the risk of pollution:

Equipment for Oil Spill Detection

1. Fixed Gas Detecting System (Pump Room and Double Hull Spaces adjacent Cargo
Tanks)
2. Pump Room Bilge High Level Alarm
3. Cargo Oil Pump, High Temperature Alarm & Trip System
4. (Casing / Bearing / Bulkhead of Pump Shaft) 
5. CCTV Cameras in the engine room and pollution risk areas

Equipment for Oil Pollution Mitigation

1. Deck Scupper Plugs with Higher Gutter Coaming on Main Deck

2. Manifold Spill Tank
3. Emergency Stop System of COP 
4. Emergency Shut Down System of manifold Gate Valve
5. Emergency Damper of Pump room Exhaust Fan 
 6. Absorbent Pads and spill kits.

7. Oil Record Book

8. Under MARPOL 73/78, two oil record books are to be maintained on board ship.
9. These are:
10. Oil Record Book, Part I - Machinery space operations
11. Oil Record Book, Part II – Cargo/ballast operations

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection

proceduresOil Record BookOil Record Book, Part I - Machinery space operations

Oil Record Book, Part I - Machinery space

operations
1. Every oil tanker of 150 gross tonnage and above and every ship of 400 gross
tonnage and above other than an oil tanker shall be provided with an Oil Record
Book Part I (Machinery Space Operations). The Oil Record Book, whether as a
part of the ship’s official log-book or otherwise, shall be in the Form specified.
2. The Oil Record Book Part I shall be completed on each occasion, on a tank-to-
tank basis if appropriate, whenever any of the following machinery space
operations takes place in the ship:
a) Ballasting or cleaning of oil fuel tanks;
b) Discharge of dirty ballast or cleaning water from oil fuel tanks;
c) Collection and disposal of oil residues (oil residue (sludge));
d) Discharge overboard or disposal otherwise of bilge water which has
accumulated in machinery spaces; and
e) Bunkering of fuel or bulk lubricating oil.
3. In the event of discharge of oil or oily mixture or in the event of accidental or
other exceptional discharge of oil not excepted by that regulation, a statement
shall be made in the Oil Record Book Part I of the circumstances of, and the
reasons for, the discharge.
4. Each operation described shall be fully recorded without delay in the Oil Record
Book Part I, so that all entries in the book appropriate to that operation are
completed. Each completed operation shall be signed by the officer or officers in
charge of the operations concerned and each completed page shall be signed by
the master of ship. 
5. Any failure of the oil filtering equipment shall be recorded in the Oil Record Book
Part I.
6. The Oil Record Book Part I, shall be kept in such a place as to be readily available
for inspection at all reasonable times and, except in the case of unmanned ships
under tow, shall be kept on board the ship. It shall be preserved for a period of
three years after the last entry has been made.
7. The competent authority of the Government of a Party to the present Convention
may inspect the Oil Record Book Part I on board any ship to which this Annex
applies while the ship is in its port or offshore terminals and may make a copy of
any entry in that book and may require the master of the ship to certify that the
copy is a true copy of such entry. 
A correct and accurate ORB is a legal record of proper compliance and evidence of things
done right.

 Presentation of ORB to U.S. PSC officer or other U.S. Government official where
information required by law is missing or incorrect is the same as making a false
statement which might be considered a criminal offense for the individuals
involved and the company.
 When ever checked, the ORB can either defend you against accusations of
wrongdoing or help convict you 

The oil record book is a requirement as per regulation 17 and regulation 36 of annex I of
MARPOL 73/78. Every oil tanker of 150 gross tonnage and above, and every ship other
than an oil tanker of 400 gross tonnage and above, is to be provided with an oil record
book. The Oil Record Book (PDF, 530kb) has two parts. Part I (PDF, 460kb) deals with
machinery space operations for all ships and part II (PDF, 800kb) deals with cargo and
ballast operations on tankers.
 

All entries should be made using the operational letter code and item number in the
appropriate columns. The required information shall be recorded chronologically in the
blank spaces provided. The entries regarding each operation such as oil transfer from
bunker tanks, sludge transfer, waste oil incineration and bilge transfer is recorded. This
gives the exact status of bilge water, oil quantity and sludge or waste oil onboard.

The oil record book shall be signed by the officer-in-charge after completing the entry.
The Master of the ship shall countersign each completed page. The oil record book is to
be maintained in the English language. View the sample entries (PDF, 1.05mb) to
understand the method of making entries in the oil record book.

ORB Common Errors and Best Practices

ERRORS

 Failure to make entries

 Continuity of entries
 Volumes don’t “add up” or exceed equipment capacity.
 Incorrect reference to “items to be recorded” codes
  Incorrect date

ORB Entries – What PSC Looks For

 Required entries and signatures.

 Wrong codes, dates not in order.
 Amounts of waste processed exceed rated capacity of equipment – OWS,
incinerator – as noted on IOPP Supplement.
 Tank levels noted in last entries variance from PSC inspection.
 Recorded quantities of sludge/waste oil or bilge water processed not reflective of
PSC observed conditions.
 Possible follow-up detailed analysis to determine if some quantities of waste not
accounted for.

ORB Part I Items to record

OIL RECORD BOOK

PART I - Machinery space operations

(All Ships)

Name of Ship: 

Distinctive number or letters:

Gross tonnage: 

Period from:   to: 

Note: Oil Record Book Part I shall be provided to every oil tanker of 150 gross tonnage
and above and every ship of 400 gross tonnage and above, other than oil tankers, to
record relevant machinery space operations. For oil tankers, Oil Record Book Part II shall
also be provided to record relevant cargo/ballast operations.

Introduction

The following pages of this section show a comprehensive list of items of machinery
space operations which are, when appropriate, to be recorded in the Oil Record Book
Part I. The items have been grouped into operational sections, each of which is denoted
by a letter Code.

When making entries in the Oil Record Book Part I, the date, operational Code and item
number shall be inserted in the appropriate Columns and the required particulars shall
be recorded chronologically in the blank spaces.
Each completed operation shall be signed for and dated by the officer or officers in
charge. The master of the Ship shall sign each completed page.

The Oil Record Book Part I contains many references to oil quantity. The limited accuracy
of tank Measurement devices, temperature variations and clingage will affect the
accuracy of these readings. The entries in the Oil Record Book Part I should be
considered accordingly.

In the event of accidental or other exceptional discharge of oil statement shall be made
in the Oil Record Book Part I of the circumstances of, and the reasons for, the discharge.

Any failure of the oil filtering equipment shall be noted in the Oil Record Book Part I.

The entries in the Oil Record Book Part I, for ships holding an IOPP Certificate, shall be
at least in English, French or Spanish. Where entries in official language of the State
whose flag the ship is entitled to fly are also used, this shall prevail in case of a dispute
or discrepancy.

The Oil Record Book Part I shall be kept in such a place as to be readily available for
inspection at all reasonable times and, except in the case of unmanned ships under tow,
shall be kept on board the ship. It shall be preserved for a period of three years after the
last entry has been made.

The competent authority of the Government of a Party to the Convention may inspect
the Oil Record Book Part I on board any ship to which this Annex applies while the ship is
in its port or offshore terminals and may make a copy of any entry in that book and may
require the master of the ship to certify that the copy is a true copy of such entry. Any
copy so made which has been

certified by the master of the ship as a true copy of an entry in the Oil Record Book Part
I shall be made admissible in any juridical proceedings as evidence of the facts stated in
the entry. The inspection of an Oil Record Book Part I and the taking of a certified copy
by the competent authority under this paragraph shall be performed as expeditiously as
possible without causing the ship to be unduly delayed.

LIST OF ITEMS TO BE RECORDED

(A) Ballasting or cleaning of oil fuel tanks

1. Identity of tank(s) ballasted.

2. Whether cleaned since they last contained oil and, if not, type of oil previously
carried.

3. Cleaning process:
a) Position of ship and time at the start and completion of cleaning;

b) Identify tank(s) in which one or another method has been employed (rinsing
through, steaming, cleaning with chemicals; type and quantity of chemicals used, in
m3);

c) Identity of tank(s) into which cleaning water was transferred and the quantity in
m3.

4. Ballasting:

a) Position of ship and time at start and end of ballasting;

b) Quantity of ballast if tanks are not cleaned, in m3.

(B) Discharge of dirty ballast or cleaning water from oil fuel tanks referred to
under Section (A)

5. Identity of tank(s).

6. Position of ship at start of discharge.

7. Position of ship on completion of discharge.

8. Ship’s speed(s) during discharge.

9. Method of discharge:

a) Through 15 ppm equipment;

b) To reception facilities.

10. Quantity discharged, in m3.

(C) Collection, transfer and disposal of oil residues (sludge)

11. Collection of oil residues (sludge).

Quantities of oil residues (sludge) retained on board. The quantity should be recorded
weekly: (this means that the quantity must be recorded once a week even if the voyage
lasts more than one week):

a) Identity of tank(s)

b) Capacity of tank(s) m3

c) Total quantity of retention m3

d) Quantity of residue collected by manual operationm3

(Operator initiated manual collections where oil residue (sludge) is transferred into the
oil residue (sludge) holding tank(s).)
12. Methods of transfer or disposal of oil residues (sludge).

State quantity of oil residues transferred or disposed of, the tank(s) emptied and the
quantity of contents retained in m3:

a) To reception facilities (identify port)

b) To another (other) tank(s) (indicate tank(s) and the total content of tank(s));

c) Incinerated (indicate total time of operation);

d) Other method (state which).

(D) Non-automatic starting of discharge overboard, transfer or disposal

otherwise of bilge water which has accumulated in machinery spaces

13. Quantity discharged, transferred or disposed of, in m3.

14. Time of discharge, transfer or disposal (start and stop).

15. Method of discharge, transfer, or disposal:

a) Through 15 ppm equipment (state position at start and end);

b) To reception facilities (identify port);

c) To slop tank or holding tank or other tank(s) (indicate tank(s); state quantity
retained in tank(s), in m3).

(E) Automatic starting of discharge overboard, transfer or disposal otherwise

of bilge water which has accumulated in machinery spaces

16. Time and position of ship at which the system has been put into automatic mode
of operation for discharge overboard, through 15 ppm equipment.

17. Time when the system has been put into automatic mode of operation for
transfer of bilge water to holding tank (identify tank).

18. Time when the system has been put into manual operation.

(F) Condition of the oil filtering equipment

19. Time of system failure.

20. Time when system has been made operational.

21. Reasons for failure.

(G) Accidental or other exceptional discharges of oil

22. Time of occurrence.

23. Place or position of ship at time of occurrence.

24. Approximate quantity and type of oil.

25. Circumstances of discharge or escape, the reasons therefor and general remarks.

(H) Bunkering of fuel or bulk lubricating oil

26. Bunkering:

.1  Place of bunkering.

.2 Time of bunkering.

.3 Type and quantity of fuel oil and identity of tank(s) (state quantity added, in
tonnes and total content of tank(s)).

.4 Type and quantity of lubricating oil and identity of tank(s) (state quantity added,
in tonnes and total content of tank(s)).

(I) Additional operational procedures and general remarks

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection

proceduresOil Record BookOil Record Book, Part II – Cargo/ballast operations

Oil Record Book, Part II – Cargo/ballast operations

1. Every oil tanker of 150 gross tonnage and above shall be provided with an Oil
Record Book Part II (Cargo/Ballast Operations). The Oil Record Book Part II,
whether as a part of the ship's official logbook or otherwise, shall be in the Form
specified.
2. The Oil Record Book Part II shall be completed on each occasion, on a tank-to-
tank basis if appropriate, whenever any of the following cargo/ballast operations
take place in the ship:
a) Loading of oil cargo;
b) Internal transfer of oil cargo during voyage;
c) Unloading of oil cargo;
d) Ballasting of cargo tanks and dedicated clean ballast tanks;
e) Cleaning of cargo tanks including crude oil washing;
f) Discharge of ballast except from segregated ballast tanks;
g) Discharge of water from slop tanks;
h) Closing of all applicable valves or similar devices after slop tank discharge
operations;
i) Closing of valves necessary for isolation of dedicated clean ballast tanks from
 cargo and stripping lines after slop tank discharge operations; and
j) Disposal of residues.
3. For oil tankers the total quantity of oil and water used for washing and returned
to a storage tank shall be recorded in the Oil Record Book Part II.
4. In the event of such discharge of oil or oily mixture or in the event of accidental
or other exceptional discharge of oil not excepted by regulation, a statement shall
be made in the Oil Record Book Part II of the circumstances of, and the reasons
for, the discharge.
5. Each operation described in paragraph 2 of this regulation shall be fully recorded
without delay in the Oil Record Book Part II so that all entries in the book
appropriate to that operation are completed. Each completed operation shall be
signed by the officer or officers in charge of the operations concerned and each
completed page shall be signed by the master of ship. 
6. Any failure of the oil discharge monitoring and control system shall be noted in
the Oil Record Book Part II.
7. The Oil Record Book shall be kept in such a place as to be readily available for
inspection at all reasonable times and, except in the case of unmanned ships
under tow, shall be kept on board the ship. It shall be preserved for a period of
three years after the last entry has been made.

ORB Part II Items to record

OIL RECORD BOOK

PART II – Cargo / Ballast Operations

(Oil Tankers)

Name of Ship: 

Distinctive number or letters: 

Gross tonnage:

Period from:  to:

Introduction
The following pages of this section show a comprehensive list of items of cargo and
ballast operations which are, when appropriate, to be recorded in the Oil Record Book
Part II. The items have been grouped into operational section, each of which is denoted
by a code letter.

When making entries in the Oil Record Book Part II, the date, operational code and item
number shall be inserted in the appropriate columns and the required particulars shall be
recorded chronologically in the blank spaces.

Each completed operation shall be signed for and dated by the officer or officers in
charge. Each completed page shall be countersigned by the master of the ship.

In respect of the oil tankers engaged in specific trades, appropriate entry in the Oil
Record Book Part II shall be endorsed by the competent port State authority.

The Oil Record Book Part II contains many references to oil quantity. The limited
accuracy of tank Measurement devices, temperature variations and clingage will affect
the accuracy of these readings. The entries in the Oil Record Book Part II should be
considered accordingly.

In the event of accidental or other exceptional discharge of oil a statement shall be made
in the Oil Record Book Part II of the circumstances of, and the reasons for, the
discharge.

Any failure of the oil discharge monitoring and control system shall be noted in the Oil
Record Book Part II.

The entries in the Oil Record Book Part II, for ships holding an IOPP Certificate, shall be
at least in English, French or Spanish. Where entries in an official language of the State
whose flag the ship is entitled to fly are also used, this shall prevail in case of a dispute
or discrepancy.

The Oil Record Book Part II shall be kept in such a place as to be readily available for
inspection at all reasonable times and, except in the case of unmanned Ships under tow,
shall be kept on board the Ship. It shall be preserved for a period of three years after
the last entry has been made.

The competent authority of the Government of a Party to the Convention may inspect
the Oil Record Book Part II on board any Ship to which this Annex applies while the Ship
is in its port or offshore terminals and may make a copy of any entry in that book and
may require the master of the Ship to certify that the copy is a true copy of such entry.
Any copy so made which has been certified by the master of the Ship as a true copy of
an entry in the Oil Record Book Part II shall be made admissible in any juridical
proceedings as evidence of the facts stated in the entry. The inspection of an Oil Record
Book Part II and taking of a certified copy by the competent authority under this
paragraph shall be performed as expeditiously as possible without causing the ship to be
unduly delayed.

LIST OF ITEMS TO BE RECORDED

(A) Loading of oil cargo

1 Place of loading.

2 Type of oil loaded and identity of tank(s).

3 Total quantity of oil loaded (state quantity added, in m3 at 15oC and the total
content of tank(s), in m3).

(B) Internal transfer of oil cargo during voyage

4 Identity of tank(s):

.1 from:

.2 to: (state quantity transferred and total quantity of tank(s), in m3).

5 Was (were) the tank(s) in 4.1 emptied? (If not, state quantity retained, in m3.)

(C) Unloading of oil cargo

6 Place of unloading.

7 Identity of tank(s) unloaded.

8 Was (were) the tank(s) emptied? (If not, state quantity retained, in m3.)
(D) Crude oil washing (COW tankers only)

(To be completed for each tank being crude oil washed)

9 Port where crude oil washing was carried out or ship's position if carried out
between two discharge ports.

10 Identity of tank(s) washed.

11 Number of machines in use.

12 Time of start of washing.

13 Washing pattern employed.

14 Washing line pressure.

15 Time washing was completed or stopped.

16 State method of establishing that tank(s) was (were) dry.

17 Remarks.

(E) Ballasting of cargo tanks

18 Position of ship at start and end of ballasting.

19 Ballasting process:

.1 identity of tank(s) ballasted;

.2 time of start and end; and

.3 quantity of ballast received. Indicate total quantity of ballast for each tank
involved in operation, in m3.

(F) Ballasting of dedicated clean ballast tanks (CBT tankers only)

20 Identity of tank(s) ballasted.

21 Position of ship when water intended for flushing, or port ballast was taken to
dedicated clean ballast tank(s).

22 Position of ship when pump(s) and lines were flushed to slop tank.

23 Quantity of the oily water which, after line flushing, is transferred to the slop
tank(s) or cargo tank(s) in which slop is preliminarily stored (identify tank(s)).

State total quantity, in m3.

24 Position of ship when additional ballast water was taken to dedicated clean ballast
tank(s).

25 Time and position of ship when valves separating the dedicated clean ballast
tanks from cargo and stripping lines were closed.

26 Quantity of clean ballast taken on board, in m3.

(G) Cleaning of cargo tanks

27 Identity of tank(s) cleaned.

28 Port or ship's position.

29 Duration of cleaning.

30 Method of cleaning.

31 Tank washings transferred to:

.1 reception facilities (state port and quantity, in m3); and

.2 sloptank(s) or cargo tank(s) designated as sloptank(s) (identify tank(s); state

quantity transferred and total quantity, in m3).

(H) Discharge of dirty ballast

32 Identity of tank(s).

33 Time and position of ship at start of discharge into the sea.

34 Time and position of ship on completion of discharge into the sea.

35 Quantity discharged into the sea, in m3.

36 Ship's speed(s) during discharge.

37 Was the discharge monitoring and control system in operation during the
discharge?

38 Was a regular check kept on the effluent and the surface of the water in the
locality of the discharge?

39 Quantity of oily water transferred to slop tank(s) (identify slop tank(s). State total
quantity in m3.

40 Discharged to shore reception facilities (identify port and quantity involved, in

m3).
(I) Discharge of water from slop tanks into the sea

41 Identity of slop tanks.

42 Time of settling from last entry of residues, or

43 Time of settling from last discharge.

44 Time and position of ship at start of discharge.

45 Ullage of total contents at start of discharge.

46 Ullage of oil/water interface at start of discharge.

47 Bulk quantity discharged, in m3 and rate of discharge, in m3 /hour.

48 Final quantity discharged, in m3 and rate of discharge, in m3/hour.

49 Time and position of ship on completion of discharge.

50 Was the discharge monitoring and control system in operation during the
discharge?

51 Ullage of oil/ water interface on completion of discharge, in metres.

52 Ship's speed(s) during discharge.

53 Was regular check kept on the effluent and the surface of water in the locality of
the discharge?

54 Confirm that all applicable valves in the ship's piping system have been closed on
completion of discharge from the slop tanks.

(J) Disposal of residues and oily mixtures not otherwise dealt with

55 Identity of tanks.

56 Quantity transferred or disposed of from each tank. (State the quantity retained,
in m3.)

57 Method of transfer or disposal:

.1 disposal to reception facilities (identify port and quantity involved);

.2 mixed with cargo (state quantity);

.3 transferred to or from (an)other tank(s) including transfer from machinery space

oil residue (sludge) and oily bilge water tanks (identify tank(s); state quantity
transferred and total quantity in tank(s), in m3); and

.4 other method (state which); state quantity disposed of in m3.

(K) Discharge of clean ballast contained in cargo tanks

58 Position of ship at start of clean ballast.

59 Identity of tank(s) discharged.

60 Was (were) the tank(s) empty on completion?

61 Position of ship on completion if different from 58.

62 Was a regular check kept on the effluent and the surface of the water in the
locality of the discharge?

(L) Discharge of ballast from dedicated clean ballast tanks (CBT tankers
only)

63 Identity of tank(s) discharged.

64 Time and position of ship at start of discharge of clean ballast into the sea.

65 Time and position of ship on completion of discharge into the sea.

66 Quantity discharged, in m3:

.1 into the sea; or

.2 to reception facility (identify port).

67 Was there any indication of oil contamination of the ballast water before or during
discharge into the sea?

68 Was the discharge monitored by an oil content meter?

69 Time and position of ship when valves separating dedicated clean ballast tanks
from the cargo and stripping lines were closed on completion of deballasting.

(M) Condition of oil discharge monitoring and control system

70 Time of system failure.

71 Time when system has been made operational.

72 Reasons for failure.

(N) Accidental or other exceptional discharges of oil

73 Time of occurrence.

74 Port or ship's position at time of occurrence.

75 Approximate quantity, in m3, and type of oil.

76 Circumstances of discharge or escape, the reasons therefore and general

remarks.

(O) Additional operational procedures and general remarks

TANKERS ENGAGED IN SPECIFIC TRADES

(P) Loading of ballast water

77 Identity of tank(s) ballasted.

78 Position of ship when ballasted.

79 Total quantity of ballast loaded in cubic metres.

80 Remarks.

(Q) Re-allocation of ballast water within the ship

81 Reason for re-allocation.

(R) Ballast water discharge to reception facility

82 Port(s) where ballast water was discharged.

83 Name or designation of reception facility.

84 Total quantity of ballast water discharged in cubic metres.

85 Date, signature and stamp of port authority official.

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection

proceduresBallast Water Management Convention

Ballast Water Management Convention

International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast
Water and Sediments (BWM)

Adoption: 13 February 2004

Entry into force: 8 September 2017

Invasive aquatic species present a major threat to the marine ecosystems, and shipping
has been identified as a major pathway for introducing species to new environments.
The problem increased as trade and traffic volume expanded over the last few decades,
and in particular with the introduction of steel hulls, allowing vessels to use water
instead of solid materials as ballast. The effects of the introduction of new species have
in many areas of the world been devastating. Quantitative data show the rate of bio-
invasions is continuing to increase at an alarming rate. As the volumes of seaborne trade
continue overall to increase, the problem may not yet have reached its peak.

However, the Ballast Water Management Convention, adopted in 2004, aims to prevent
the spread of harmful aquatic organisms from one region to another, by establishing
standards and procedures for the management and control of ships' ballast water and
sediments

Under the Convention, all ships in international traffic are required to manage their
ballast water and sediments to a certain standard, according to a ship-specific ballast
water management plan. All ships will also have to carry a ballast water record book and
an international ballast water management certificate. The ballast water management
standards will be phased in over a period of time. As an intermediate solution, ships
should exchange ballast water mid-ocean. However, eventually most ships will need to
install an on-board ballast water treatment system.

A number of guidelines have been developed to facilitate the implementation of the

Convention.

The Convention will require all ships to implement a Ballast Water and Sediments
Management Plan. All ships will have to carry a Ballast Water Record Book and will be
required to carry out ballast water management procedures to a given standard. Existing
ships will be required to do the same, but after a phase-in period.

Parties to the Convention are given the option to take additional measures which are
subject to criteria set out in the Convention and to IMO guidelines

The Convention is divided into Articles; and an Annex which includes technical standards
and requirements in the Regulations for the control and management of ships' ballast
water and sediments.

General Obligations

Under Article 2 General Obligations Parties undertake to give full and complete effect to
the provisions of the Convention and the Annex in order to prevent, minimize and
ultimately eliminate the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens through
the control and management of ships' ballast water and sediments.

Parties are given the right to take, individually or jointly with other Parties, more
stringent measures with respect to the prevention, reduction or elimination of the
transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens through the control and
management of ships' ballast water and sediments, consistent with international law.
Parties should ensure that ballast water management practices do not cause greater
harm than they prevent to their environment, human health, property or resources, or
those of other States.

Reception facilities

Under Article 5 Sediment Reception Facilities Parties undertake to ensure that ports and
terminals where cleaning or repair of ballast tanks occurs, have adequate reception
facilities for the reception of sediments.

Research and monitoring

Article 6 Scientific and Technical Research and Monitoring calls for Parties individually or
jointly to promote and facilitate scientific and technical research on ballast water
management; and monitor the effects of ballast water management in waters under
their jurisdiction.
 

Survey, certification and inspection

Ships are required to be surveyed and certified (Article 7 Survey and certification) and
may be inspected by port State control officers (Article 9 Inspection of Ships) who can
verify that the ship has a valid certificate; inspect the Ballast Water Record Book; and/or
sample the ballast water. If there are concerns, then a detailed inspection may be
carried out and "the Party carrying out the inspection shall take such steps as will ensure
that the ship shall not discharge Ballast Water until it can do so without presenting a
threat of harm to the environment, human health, property or resources."

All possible efforts shall be made to avoid a ship being unduly detained or delayed
(Article 12 Undue Delay to Ships).

Technical assistance

Under Article 13 Technical Assistance, Co-operation and Regional Co-operation, Parties

undertake, directly or through the Organization and other international bodies, as
appropriate, in respect of the control and management of ships' ballast water and
sediments, to provide support for those Parties which request technical assistance to
train personnel; to ensure the availability of relevant technology, equipment and
facilities; to initiate joint research and development programmes; and to undertake
other action aimed at the effective implementation of this Convention and of guidance
developed by the Organization related thereto.

Annex - Section A General Provisions

This includes definitions, application and exemptions. Under Regulation A-2 General
Applicability: "Except where expressly provided otherwise, the discharge of Ballast Water
shall only be conducted through Ballast Water Management, in accordance with the
provisions of this Annex."

Annex - Section B Management and Control Requirements for Ships

Ships are required to have on board and implement a Ballast Water Management Plan
approved by the Administration (Regulation B-1). The Ballast Water Management Plan is
specific to each ship and includes a detailed description of the actions to be taken to
implement the Ballast Water Management requirements and supplemental Ballast Water
Management practices.

Ships must have a Ballast Water Record Book (Regulation B-2) to record when ballast
water is taken on board; circulated or treated for Ballast Water Management purposes;
and discharged into the sea. It should also record when Ballast Water is discharged to a
reception facility and accidental or other exceptional discharges of Ballast Water

 
The specific requirements for ballast water management are contained in regulation B-3
Ballast Water Management for Ships.

Other methods of ballast water management may also be accepted as alternatives to the
ballast water exchange standard and ballast water performance standard, provided that
such methods ensure at least the same level of protection to the environment, human
health, property or resources, and are approved in principle by IMO's Marine
Environment Protection Committee (MEPC).

Under Regulation B-4 Ballast Water Exchange, all ships using ballast water exchange
should:

whenever possible, conduct ballast water exchange at least 200 nautical miles from the
nearest land and in water at least 200 metres in depth, taking into account Guidelines
developed by IMO;

in cases where the ship is unable to conduct ballast water exchange as above, this
should be as far from the nearest land as possible, and in all cases at least 50 nautical
miles from the nearest land and in water at least 200 metres in depth.

When these requirements cannot be met areas may be designated where ships can
conduct ballast water exchange. All ships shall remove and dispose of sediments from
spaces designated to carry ballast water in accordance with the provisions of the ships'
ballast water management plan (Regulation B-4).

Annex - Section C Additional measures

A Party, individually or jointly with other Parties, may impose on ships additional
measures to prevent, reduce, or eliminate the transfer of Harmful Aquatic Organisms
and Pathogens through ships' Ballast Water and Sediments. 

In these cases, the Party or Parties should consult with adjoining or nearby States that
may be affected by such standards or requirements and should communicate their
intention to establish additional measure(s) to the Organization at least 6 months,
except in emergency or epidemic situations, prior to the projected date of
implementation of the measure(s). When appropriate, Parties will have to obtain the
approval of IMO.

Annex - Section D Standards for Ballast Water Management 

There is a ballast water exchange standard and a ballast water performance standard.
Ballast water exchange could be used to meet the performance standard:

Regulation D-1 Ballast Water Exchange Standard - Ships performing Ballast Water
exchange shall do so with an efficiency of 95 per cent volumetric exchange of Ballast
Water. For ships exchanging ballast water by the pumping-through method, pumping
through three times the volume of each ballast water tank shall be considered to meet
the standard described. Pumping through less than three times the volume may be
accepted provided the ship can demonstrate that at least 95 percent volumetric
exchange is met.

Regulation D-2 Ballast Water Performance Standard - Ships conducting ballast water
management shall discharge less than 10 viable organisms per cubic metre greater than
or equal to 50 micrometres in minimum dimension and less than 10 viable organisms per
milliliter less than 50 micrometres in minimum dimension and greater than or equal to
10 micrometres in minimum dimension; and discharge of the indicator microbes shall not
exceed the specified concentrations.

The indicator microbes, as a human health standard, include, but are not be limited to:

 Toxicogenic Vibrio cholerae (O1 and O139) with less than 1 colony forming unit
(cfu) per 100 milliliters or less than 1 cfu per 1 gram (wet weight) zooplankton
samples;
 Escherichia coli less than 250 cfu per 100 milliliters;
 Intestinal Enterococci less than 100 cfu per 100 milliliters.

Ballast Water Management systems must be approved by the Administration in

accordance with IMO Guidelines (Regulation D-3 Approval requirements for
Ballast Water Management systems). These include systems which make use of
chemicals or biocides; make use of organisms or biological mechanisms; or
which alter the chemical or physical characteristics of the Ballast Water.
 

Prototype technologies

Regulation D-4 covers Prototype Ballast Water Treatment Technologies. It allows for
ships participating in a programme approved by the Administration to test and evaluate
promising Ballast Water treatment technologies to have a leeway of five years before
having to comply with the requirements.

Review of standards

Under regulation D-5 Review of Standards by the Organization, IMO is required to review
the Ballast Water Performance Standard, taking into account a number of criteria
including safety considerations; environmental acceptability, i.e., not causing more or
greater environmental impacts than it solves; practicability, i.e., compatibility with ship
design and operations; cost effectiveness; and biological effectiveness in terms of
removing, or otherwise rendering inactive harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens in
ballast water. The review should include a determination of whether appropriate
technologies are available to achieve the standard, an assessment of the above
mentioned criteria, and an assessment of the socio-economic effect(s) specifically in
relation to the developmental needs of developing countries, particularly small island
developing States.

 
Annex- Section E Survey and Certification Requirements for Ballast Water
Management

Gives requirements for initial renewal, annual, intermediate and renewal surveys and
certification requirements. Appendices give form of Ballast Water Management
Certificate and Form of Ballast Water Record Book.

Ballast Water Management Plans

All ships of 400 gt and above will be required to have on board an
approved ship-specific Ballast Water Management Plan and a Ballast
Water Record Book to comply with the BWM Convention. The Ballast
Water Management Plan is required to assist the ship in complying with
international regulations to minimise the risk of the transfer of harmful
aquatic organisms and pathogens in ships’ ballast water and associated
sediments.

 identify the ship’s Ballast Water Management Officer

 consider ship safety elements, provide information to PSC officers
on the ship’s ballast handling system and confirm that ballast water
management can be effectively planned 
 include training on BWM operational practices
 be written in the working language of the ship. If this language is
not English, French or Spanish a translation into one of these
languages must be included.

Procedures and Arrangement Manual 

Procedures and Arrangement Manual:  is

required by MARPOL 73/78
Appendix 4 of Annex II and is concerned with the marine environmental
aspects of the cleaning of cargo tanks and the discharge of residues and
mixtures from these operations

The Manual is not a safety guide and reference shall be made to other publications
specifically to evaluate safety hazards
The purpose of the Manual is to identify the arrangements and equipment required to
enable compliance with Annex II and to identify for the ship's officers all operational
procedures with respect to cargo handling, tank cleaning, slops handling, residue
discharging, ballasting and de-ballasting, which must be followed in order to comply with
the requirements of Annex II

In addition, this Manual, together with the ship's Cargo Record Book and the
International Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk will
be used by Administrations for control purposes in order to ensure full compliance with
the requirements of Annex II by the ship.
This program offers an alternative for an Owner, Operator, Master, Agent, Person-in-
Charge or Charterer of a vessel to submit required Ballast Water Management (BWM)
Reports in a single batch report on a monthly basis, instead of on a port-to-port, pre-
arrival schedule as required.

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection proceduresBallast

Water Management ConventionTreatment Methods

Treatment Methods
Introduction: Ballast Water carries the Bacteria such as Escherichia coli or Vibrio
cholerae, microbes, small invertebrates, eggs, cysts, and larvae of various species from
one place and these are transferred from their native environment to a new geographic
area. Once in the new geographic area, they can reproduce and become invasive, out-
compete native species, and multiply into pest proportions. These species can seriously
harm indigenous species in ports and coastal waters. The effects can be devastating.
Invasive Aquatic Species in ship’s ballast water is one of the biggest problems posing a
great threat to the marine ecosystem, these aquatic species has led to an increase in
bio-invasion at an alarming rate.

The BWMC (Ballast Water Management Convention) 2004 protects the sea environment
through regulations regarding the ballast water treatment. Regulations and standards
established by the IMO (International Maritime Organization) require treatment limits to
be met independently and calls for vessels to carry out monitoring themselves. Under
IMO’s “International Convention for the Control and Management of Ship’s Ballast Water
and Sediments”, implementation of ballast water management plan and ballast water
treatment system on board ships has thus become important and mandatory. In order to
ensure their ships comply with the rules and regulations set by IMO regarding Ballast
Water Management, several shipping operators have started implementing ballast water
treatment systems on their ships. 

Possible Treatment Methods: Normally the Ballast Water Treatment on board

follows three different ways

1. Filtration: Filter the oganisms and do not allow these to escape with the Ballast
Water discharge. Keep the filtered Organisms in the Ballast tank only and
treatment can be done while cleaning the Tank. These organisms have a very
small size measured in microns, hence filtering effectively is a challenge 
2. Kill: Kill the Organisms by adding chemicals/ deoxygenation or by using ultra
sound waves or ultra violet rays. Be aware of the handling risks in the chemicals
on board
 3. Deactivate: Deactivate the Organisms- Make these infertile so that they can not
reproduce

To meet with the discharge standards of the Regulations, the equipment for ballast water
treatment use more than one method mentioned above.

Please Note: If your ship decides to give the ballast water for treatment outside
through a receiving facility, then the discharge regulations D1 will apply

If your ship decides to use the FW made by you using your evaporator onboard or use
the fresh water from ashore as Ballast Water, even then Treatment is necessary and the
discharge regulation D2 will apply 

Ballast Water Treatment Technologies

Generic ballast water treatment technology process options

A general ballast water treatment plant comprises of two stages with one stage
using physical separation while the second stage employing some disinfectant
technology. The choice of treatment system used in combination depends on a
variety of factors such as type of ship, space available on the ship, and cost
limitations as mentioned before. A typical ballast water treatment system on
board ships use two or more technologies together to ensure that the treated
ballast water is of IMO standards.
The most common methods so far obtained approval are given below

 2 times filtration + peracetic acid.
 Filtration + electrolysis + UV generator.
 Filtration + electrolysis + electrochlorination + waste control.
 Electrolysis + oxidant.
 Deoxygenation.

Most of the ballast water treatment system use 2-3 disinfectant methods
together, divided into different stages.
The 2 time filtration + peracetic acid system utilises the method of passing the ballast
water through the filters and adding peracetic acid.

The filtration + electrolysis + ultraviolet light system provides the method of killing

plants, bacteria and animals passing the ballast water through the filter and exposing
them to electrolysis and ultraviolet light.

The electrolysis system conducts sterilisation passing the ballast water through the filter
with electrolysis.

The filtration with electrolysis, electrochlorination and waste control system uses the
electrolysis method, injecting chlorine to induct a electrochemical reaction and removing
the waste depending on the water quality. For this system, current density is an
important parameter effecting the production of total residual chlorine in ballast or
brackish water. Low current densities can avoid the production of harmful chlorine
species 

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection

proceduresBallast Water Management ConventionBallast Water Treatment Technologies

Ballast Water Treatment Technologies

Overview

Ballast water treatment can either be done while the ballast water is in the tank, during
the ship’s voyage (In Tank method) else adopt an Inline method, where in the ballast
water is pumped from the sea to the ballast tanks routed through a processing system
which Filters/Kills/ or makes the organisms in fertile before they reach the ballast tank.
In-tank systems may be considered as a batch process where mostly the treatment is to
kill the organisms after the ballast tanks are filled with seawater from the port. 

The technologies used for treating ballast water are generally derived from shore based
applications. However, their use is constrained by key factors such as space, cost and
efficacy (with respect to the IMO discharged ballast water standards).

There are two generic types of process technology used in ballast water
treatment:

 solid-liquid separation and

 disinfection-- Making the organisms inactive or kill

Solid-liquid separation is simply the separation of suspended solid material, including the
larger suspended micro-organisms, from the ballast water, either by sedimentation
(allowing the solids to settle out by virtue of their own weight) or by surface filtration
(removal by straining; i.e. by virtue of the pores in the filtering material being smaller
than the size of the particle or organism). All solid-liquid separation processes produce a
waste stream containing the suspended solids. This waste stream comprises the
backwash water from filtering operations or the underflow from hydrocyclone separation.
These waste streams require appropriate management and during ballasting they can be
safely discharged at the point where they were taken up.

On deballasting, the solid-liquid separation operation is generally bypassed.

Typical Plants using different methods

Disinfection removes and/or inactivates micro- organisms using one or more of
the following methods:

 chemical inactivation of the micro-organisms through either:

1. oxidising biocides – general disinfectants which act by destroying organic

structures, such as cell membranes, or nucleic acids; or
2. non-oxidising biocides – these interfere with reproductive, neural, or metabolic
functions of the organisms.

 physicochemical inactivation of the micro-organisms through processes such as

UV light, heat or cavitation
 asphyxiation of the micro-organisms through deoxygenation.
All of these disinfection methods have been applied to ballast water treatment, with
different products employing different unit processes.

Most commercial systems comprise two or more stages of treatment with a solid-liquid
separation stage being followed by disinfection, though some disinfection technologies
are used in isolation. One ballast water treatment technology also employs chemical
enhancement (i.e., coagulation/ flocculation) upstream of solid-liquid separation;
another uses titanium dioxide (TiO2) to intensify ultraviolet irradiation.

While disinfection by-products are an issue, and central to the approval of ballast water
management systems that make use of active substances, suppliers are confident that
the levels generated are unlikely to be problematic. There is a large amount of scientific
and technical information on the formation of disinfection by-products that is likely to
support this. Where chemicals are used as part of the treatment process, they are
typically provided as concentrated solids or liquids, so that they may be easily stored on
board a ship.

Ballast water treatment system processes 

The range of system processes employed for ballast water  treatment  is  shown   with
examples of filtration and UV systems. Systems which employ active substances will
treat on uptake only (with the exception of neutralisation prior to discharge) whereas
other mechanical methods tend to treat on both uptake and discharge. A typical
treatment process is below.
A variety of technologies are available in the market for treating ballast water on ships.
However, constraints such as availability of space, cost of implementation, and level of
environmental friendliness play an important role in usage of a particular type of ballast
water treatment system. A number of factors are taken into account for choosing a
ballast water treatment system for a ship. Some of the main factors taken into
consideration are  –

 Effectiveness on ballast water organisms

 Environment-friendliness
 Safety of the crew
 Cost effectiveness
 Ease of installation and operation
 Space availability on board

Technologies

The key technical features of the systems with respect to available ballast water
treatment technologies are summarized in in the previous topic. The table lists the
general processes each system employs, but does not compare their specific details. 

In general, consideration should be given to the following aspects when selecting a

system:

 flow capacity
  effect on ballast tank coatings
 costs (capex and opex).

Flow capacity
Most systems are largely modular in design (other than the gas injection type) so there
is no technical limit to the upper flow rate other than that imposed by size and/or cost.
In some cases there are   examples of systems already installed for flows above 5,000
m3/hr. 

Costs

The biggest operating cost for most systems is power, and for large power consumers
(electrolytic and advanced oxidation processes) availability of shipboard power will be a
factor. For chemical dosing systems, required power is very low and chemical costs are
the major factor.

In general (except for the few technologies that use stored chemicals and the gas
injection units that use fossil fuel) opex should be based on the power required to
operate the process (e.g., UV irradiation, electrolysis or ozonation).

The quality of Ballast water pumped out after the treatment, include based on
the type of equipment and the process used

 Flow rate/back flush frequency;

 Active substance dosage rate;
 Neutralizer dosage rate;
 Power consumption;
 TRO (Total Residual Oxidant); and
 pH (acidity/alkalinity).

Effective instrumentation and control systems have been developed and being deployed
to have an automatic control system, for shutting down the ballast water discharge and
adding chemicals to bring the TRO to the desired level
Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection proceduresAnti-
Fouling Systems

Anti-Fouling Systems
How Anti-fouling paint acts

The main properties are that it should control Micro and Macro fouling, be smooth and
comply with the AFS Convention. Severity of fouling follows the worlds temperature
zones with the maximum being in Tropical and minimum in Polar zones.
Anti fouling paints do this by leaching Biocides into the water around the vessels
underwater hull. With the AFS Convention the chemicals which are leached should not be
harmful to the environment and contain either Organotins or TBT's.

TBT free paints use a seawater soluble binder called Rosin and the biocide is cuprous
oxide. Hydrolyzing polymers are replacing Rosins in modern paint systems. The
smoothness of an antifouling coat was obtained by self polishing high build coatings
where the outer layer would erode as the water washed past the hull with the ships
movement. With the banning of Organo tins and TBT's and the introduction of Rosin
binders, the self polishing trait of paints took a hit, however with hydrolyzing polymers
the selfpolishing properties rival the old TBT based paints.

Silicon and fluoropolymer biocide free paints have also been introduced which have a
very slippery surface due to which fouling is unable to attach themselves to the coating.
Another property of a Antifouling coating is that it should last the 5 year dry docking
cycle.

1. Wetted surface area and Spread rate.

It is important to the ships officer or operator to know how much paint will be
required for maintenance/ dry docking budgets. For this it is essential that we
know how much area is to be coated. There are various methods to calculate the
area eg Denny-Mumford, Holtrop-Mennen and Komsi.

Antifouling Paint
Types of Anti-fouling Paints

Following the ban on TBT, a wide variety of new TBT-free products has been introduced.
The two main generic routes that have been followed are:

 A biocidal route: use of copper and boosting biocides

 A non-biocidal route: use of foul-release technology

The biocidal route

Two main technology routes have been followed for the copper-based antifoulings:

 Controlled Depletion Polymer (CDP)

 TBT-free Self Polishing Co-polymer (SPC)

The antifouling effectiveness is achieved by including boosting biocides

along with the copper compounds. These boosting biocides have shorter
half-lives in seawater than TBT.

Controlled Depletion Polymer (CDP) antifoulings

In the market and relies on the physical dissolution of the paint film to provide the
polishing action. A CDP antifouling is also referred to as ablative or eroding antifouling.
They rely on the presence of resin in the coating to provide the physical dissolution at
the surface. For additional film toughness and durability, reinforcing resins are also used.

The price is similar to that of traditional paints and the coating is reliable for up to three
years. The dissolution is slow, similar to the way soap dissolves in water due to the resin
content, which is slightly soluble in water. The dissolution gradually slows down due to a
leached layer formed by insoluble materials at the surface. The roughness of the surface
and hence the fuel consumption will increase with time. CDP coating has the highest
release of biocides.

Although it is based on copper, it also contains some very strong boosting biocides that
are much more toxic than those found in SPC coatings. Some examples of the
substances found in CDP are irgarol, diuron and zineb.

Disadvantages

 The biocide release is usually considerable initially and then dampens because of
the bleached layer, lasting for a maximum of 36 months
 The surface preparation needed for applying CDP is expensive since the leached
layer needs to be removed and for effective removal, a high pressure wash at
400 bars is necessary
 It cannot prevent seawater penetration into the coating
 Limited service life of CDP paint makes the life cycle cost higher than other
alternatives
TBT-free Self Polishing Co-polymer (SPC)
SPC is a self-polishing paint which matches the performance of traditional TBT-based
coatings. The self-polishing function is based on a chemical reaction (hydrolysis)
between water and the coating, and occurs at the surface of the coating. The rate of
hydrolysis depends on seawater conditions with salinity and temperature being the two
most important factors. If the hydrolysis rate is too fast, then the paint polishes away
too quickly and if the rate is too slow, then sufficient biocides are not released to prevent
fouling. The service life of SPC is up to five years.

Twice as expensive as CDP, it contains smaller amounts of biocides is also

less toxic.  The base is copper, as in CDP, but only two thirds of the
amount is needed. The most commonly used boosting biocides in this
system are zinc pyrithione or copper pyrithione. SPC paint has low solids
content which makes several coatings necessary, thus leading to higher
application costs.

Advantages

 SPC has a more controlled leakage of biocides over time, which reduces the risk
of fouling
 Self-smoothing
 Surface preparation is easy, due to the thin leached layer that SPC forms, and
high pressure washing at 200 bar is sufficient
 Good mechanical properties that make it suitable for over-coating with most paint
systems in the market
 Gives a wide range of choice, including the possibility of using Fouling Release
paint in the future

The non- biocidal route

Fouling release is a silicone-based antifouling paint. It does not rely on the release of
biocides. The system works on a "non-stick" principle and is smooth, and has low surface
energy. Fouling organisms have difficulty adhering to the smooth surfaces. The system
leaves a non-stick surface and the efficacy is dependent on the speed of the vessel.
When the vessel increases speed, the organisms fall off. Acorn barnacle is removed at a
speed of over 7 knots, algae above 18 knots and slime above 30 knots.

This non-stick foul release coating system is designed for high speed vessels between 15
and 30 knots. The technology provides an ultra smooth, slippery, easy clean surface with
the potential for reductions in average hull roughness through careful application. If the
fouling release coating is intact, no re-coating is needed for several years, which in turn
reduces costs. This paint is one of the best choices in the market when it comes to
environmental impact as it contains no biocides.

Disadvantages

 Sensitive to abrasion, it is easily damaged when the vessel sails through ice or
touches the quay side.
 About 5 times more expensive than the CDP system.
 Based on silicones and cannot be re-coated with any other type of paint.
 The initial cost of surface preparation and coating is high.
 This type of paint does not last very long
ake precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection
proceduresOperational procedures

Operational procedures
Safe Operation and Safety Management Systems

 All ships must have ISM Code Safety Management Certificates (International
Safety Management Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and Pollution
Prevention) issued as part of the SOLAS Convention.
 Safety management certificates include emergency pollution control plans
detailing how the ship will manage a pollution event. An example is a Shipboard
Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP) which is mandatory for all ships.
 Emergency plans must detail the shipboard organisation to deal with pollution,
including deployment of equipment, structure of the response team, official
reports, duties of the officers and crew and shipboard drills. 

Ships Standing Orders for Pollution

Every ship should have standard operating procedures (SOP) and detailed plans to deal
with operational and emergency discharges of pollution. These include:

 Oil and chemical discharges

 Garbage Management Plans
 Sewage treatment and discharges
 Packaging, labeling and storage of hazardous goods
 Air pollution measures.

Most of these measures will be supervised by the ship's crew and as distributed based on
their individual shipboard ranks.Ships are operational in average 200 days at sea during
the year or more; it is the ship's crew who must operate the vessel without any harmful
emissions, be it oil, bilge, garbage, sewage, harmful chemicals and must control the
exhaust emissions within limits specified for open ocean and ECAs.

The procedures also compels the shipboard crew to log all emission events; e.g.,
pumping out bilges using Oily Water Separator, Cargo operations and any event of
accidental pollution including near misses. The Port State Control Agencies such as the
USCG inspects all the shipboard records (e.g., oil record book, cargo operations book,
Garbage Record Book etc) and the competency and certification validity of shipboard
crew ensuring that the ship is equipped to prevent and combat ship-borne pollution.
USCG also inspects the pollution prevention equipment on board.

If you see an oil leak, disposal of garbage or discharge of sewage that does not seem to
be right (especially any discharges in harbors or coastal waters) you should report the
incident to your supervisor.
Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection
proceduresOperational proceduresDuring bunkering

During  bunkering
Bunkering or Refuelling operation is one of the critical operations onboard. Ships
and bunker barge personnel are required to exercise extreme care when
carrying out bunkering operations. Failure to comply with correct bunkering
procedures may lead to bunker spills. Bunker spills can have adverse effects on
shipowners on account of pollution claims, fines and probable arrests. To avoid
spills, every ship is required to have correct bunkering procedures laid out within
the safety management system.

"Procedures for Bunkering" (PDF, 280kb) are to be followed before, during and after
bunkering. Bunkering procedures are to be followed in accordance with the "bunkering
checklist" (PDF, 550kb)

The media below explains the bunkering system and procedure.

Internal oil transfer on board may also cause overflow of tanks and
subsequent pollution. Extreme care should be exercised while transferring
oil and an "oil transfer checklist" (PDF, 290 kb) should follow.

With respect to heavy fuel oil system on board a ship the following arrangements should
be in place to prevent an accident

 Weighted cock: It acts as a self closing device for all the sounding
pipes servicing bunker tanks
 Flame trap: Wire mesh or wire gauze which is fitted on the air pipes
connecting bunker tanks. This mesh prevents the passage of flame
inside the tanks.
 Sight glass: The sight glass in the bunker overflow pipe warns the
operator that a bunker overflow is taking place.
 Overflow alarm: Bunker tanks have floats fitted on the upper part of
the tank to warn personnel if the oil has reached at a higher level
 than what is actually permissible inside the tank. The alarm is
triggered when the oil level rises beyond safety limits.
 Dumping valve: The dumping valve is fitted on settling tanks so
that oil can be immediately transferred from this tank to double
bottom tanks, which are at a much lower level in the event of a fire.

Remote shut off arrangements, also known as quick closing valves, are provided to shut
off the fuel oil supply in the event of a pollution or fire. The remote shut off valves are
located either at the entrance to the engine room or in remote fire control stations.
   

Take precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection

proceduresOperational proceduresDuring loading/discharging Oil Cargo

During loading/discharging Oil Cargo

Tanker loading, transportation and discharging operations involve risks due to pollution,
fire and explosion. Oil carried in tanks have risks associated with it and one risk could
lead to another. These hazards can be avoided by the application of simple but effective
rules. Oil cargo is highly flammable and toxic. It is not the liquid which is susceptible to
ignite but the vapour given off by the liquid. For this vapour to ignite and burn as a
visible flame, it needs to mix with the right proportions of air.

The vapour cannot ignite if there is too little or too much petroleum gas concentration.
This limitation is expressed as a percentage by volume of petroleum gas in air, also
known as upper and lower flammable limits. When the temperature of a liquid reaches
the lower flammable limit, it is known as the flash point of the liquid.

LEL, LFL ,UEL  & FLASH POINT

Lower explosive limit (LEL): The lowest concentration (percentage) of a gas or a
vapor in air capable of producing a flash of fire in presence of an ignition source (arc,
flame, heat) is termed as LEL. The term is considered by many safety professionals to be
the same as the lower flammable limit (LFL). 

The LFL usually expressed in volume percent is the lower end of the concentration range
over which a flammable mixture of gas or vapour in air can be ignited at a given
temperature and pressure.

The maximum concentration of a gas or vapor that will burn in air is defined as the
Upper Explosive Limit (UEL). Above this level, the mixture is too “rich” to burn. The
range between the LEL and UEL is known as the flammable range for that gas or vapor.

The flash point of an oil is that temperature at which it will form an inflammable vapor.
Example the flash point of kerosene may be between 70 and 150 degrees Fahrenheit,
depending upon the grade. 
The graphical illustration below shows the lower and upper range of flammable
limits for a particular petroleum oil.

Tankers should follow certain safe procedures, which minimise the chances of an
accident. Such procedures include a restriction on smoking, the use of a naked flame,
restrictions for conducting hot work, the operation of fixed and portable lamps, the use
of hand tools for carrying out maintenance, the use of anodes in cargo tanks, entry into
enclosed spaces and pump rooms etc.

Oil tankers calling ports for either loading or discharging operations should exchange
information with the terminal. This information exchange benefits both parties and
removes doubts and ambiguity. The tanker should be aware of berthing and mooring
details. Similarly, the terminal should know the condition of the ship's tanks, the ship’s
draft and trim before and after the operations, the ship's manifold details, the location of
fire wires (emergency towing off wires) etc.

Spontaneous combustion
Certain types of petroleum cargo are susceptible to spontaneous combustion and auto
ignition. Spontaneous combustion is the phenomenon where materials soaked with oil
ignite without any external application of heat. Auto ignition is caused when petroleum
liquids ignite when heated, without the application of a naked flame.

General Precautions
All tankers while alongside a petroleum berth should comply with procedures and
precautions that enhance tanker safety. Tanker and terminal personnel contact should
be clearly identified before the operations begin.

Other precautions include:

 Adequate man power and fire fighting equipment on board

 Means of communication between the ship and shore
 Safe access to the ship
 Access control
 Display of warning posters

Schematic Diagram of inert gas plant

 "General Precautions" (PDF, 195kb) are to be observed for cargo and

ballast operations.

Specific Precautions
Exchange of information between the tanker and the terminal has to be clear and
concise. Information regarding loading, discharging or even bunkering should be clearly
understood by all concerned parties. Some of the points discussed between the tanker
and terminal are as follows:

 Approved loading / discharging plan and maximum loading or discharging rates,

number and size of loading arms, manifold connections available for different
grades etc.
  Quantity of cargo to be loaded or discharged and the location of tanks

 Characteristics of cargo including the toxicity, flash point and estimated loading /
discharging temperatures

 Type of venting procedure and method of handling ballast during cargo

operations

Continuous lines of communication between the tanker and the terminal is

of paramount importance for safe and smooth cargo operations. All
concerned parties should be fully aware of the various signals used to
indicate the starting and stopping of loading and discharging, slowing
down and emergency stops. Remote shut off arrangements, also known
as quick closing valves, are provided to shut off the fuel oil supply in the
event of a fire. The remote shut off valves are located either at the
entrance to the engine room or in remote fire control stations.

"Specific precautions" (PDF, 370kb) are to be observed for cargo and

ballast operations.

The Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) of the petroleum cargo to be loaded is provided
by the loading terminal, gives the chemical, physical and flammable properties of the
Cargo.

ake precautions to prevent pollution of the marine environmentEnvironmental protection proceduresOperational

proceduresDuring Tank Cleaning and Pumping out Bilges

During tank Cleaning and Pumping out Bilges

When pumping out Bilges

In general, lighter refined petroleum products such as diesel oil and gasoline are more
likely to mix in the water column and are more toxic to marine life, but tend to
evaporate more quickly and do not persist long in the environment. Heavier crude or fuel
oil, while of less immediate toxicity, can remain on the water surface or stranded on the
shoreline for much longer. Bilge water is expected to have a mix of pollutants from
running engines. Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP) gives comprehensive
advice on actions to be taken in event of an oil pollution accident.

Oil Pollution Prevention on board is achieved through:

  Use of Oil Filtering Equipment such as the Oily water Separator(OWS) and
filter combination in machinery space of all ships
 Use of ODMCS (Oil Discharge Monitoring & Control System) 
 Incineration of Oily waste and Sludge 
 Shore Disposal of sludge [ When Oily sludge / oily water from E / R is
disposed off to shore reception facilities as necessary, receipt is to be
obtained and filed in the Oil Record Book. Oily sludge may also be
incinerated on board, at sea.]

Other precautions to prevent oil pollution:

 Structural safeguards, for example double hull, bunker tank swash

bulkheads on certain ships etc
 Loading, carriage and discharge of oil cargo as per Ship's operation
Manual
 Handling of F.O. and D.O as per Ship's operating Manual 
 Keeping deck scuppers plugged in port at all times 
 Regular inspection of oil piping and associated equipment / structures
 Extreme care in handling and disposal of any kind of oil, like incineration
of used cooking oil from galley 
 Regular training of crew in oil pollution drills and in keeping machinery
and other equipment free of any oil leakage

Notes on Oily Water Separators / Oil Record Books

Port State Control (PSC) inspectors are focusing their attention on Oil Record Book
entries and on OWS equipment. They can also become suspicious when they see what
they believe may be evidence of tampering with the OWS and associated equipment.
This includes pipeline and flanges that show signs of being opened, removed or even
freshly painted. While such signs maybe totally innocent, it is up to those onboard to
prove that this is indeed the case.

All pipework associated with the OWS, the oily bilge system, emergency bilge suction
line, bilge shore discharge connections, overboard connections for the GS system and
boiler blow-down overboard connection are to be correctly identified and labelled. For
the sake of good order, please check that the following has been carried out on board
your vessel.

 Firstly a drawing showing the layout of the above should be available. This
drawing should be attached to the Oil Record Book (ORB).
 All numbered flanges identified in the drawing should have had a small
hole (about 5mm) drilled through in order to accommodate the fitting of a
security seal. Each seal has a unique number and a form should be
available to identify the flange number against the seal number. The date
and time of fitting the seal should also be recorded as well as the date and
time of the seal being broken including the reason for same. 
 No seal should be broken without the joint permission of the Master and
Chief Engineer. This form should also be attached to the ORB. Meanwhile
 you are reminded that any maintenance or repair to the OWS must be
recorded in the ORB.

Other initiatives that should be adopted are as follows:

 An interlock should be fitted in order to prevent the improper use of

flushing water diluting the oily water mixture running through the
measuring cell. In other words when flushing water is used to clean the
measuring cell, the interlock stops any oily water mixture from being
discharged overboard.
 A spare set of OWS filter elements must be available onboard at all times.

Duty Engineer Officer as well as the Chief Engineer should sign off each entry in
the ORB. Good record keeping and sound procedures will help protect
yourselves, the Owners and the Company from potential problems (and even
legal action) that may arise from a Port State Control inspection. 

When Tank Cleaning

Before international regulations were introduced to prevent oil pollution from ships, the
normal practice for oil tankers was to wash out the cargo tanks with water and then
pump the resulting mixture of oil and water into the sea. Also, oil cargo or fuel tanks
were used for ballast water and, consequently, oil was discharged into the sea when
tankers flushed out the oil-contaminated ballast water to replace it with new oil.

An operational oil spill can also happen after the crew of an oil tanker has cleaned the
cargo tanks before loading a new cargo of crude oil. 

After a cargo oil tank has been cleaned with water and chemicals the oil residue will float
on the wash water in the bottom of the cargo tank. This water can be siphoned off and
put through an oily water separator leaving only cargo oil residue in the bottom of the
cargo tank. The new crude oil cargo can be loaded on top of the remaining old cargo oil.
However, sometimes the crew did the wrong thing and illegally pumped the oily waste
overboard. 

The above used to be the situation earlier. It has now been completely stopped.

On crude oil tankers, oily bilge water is routinely transferred to the cargo slops system,
which includes an oily water separator system where most of the oil is settled out
and returned for use on the tanker. Periodically the water collected through this system
must be discharged overboard through an oil discharge monitoring system set to alarm
and shut down at 15 ppm. Product tankers are not able to recycle as much oil but, in any
case, oil content of all overboard discharge is restricted to 15 ppm.
Thus the precautions related to tank cleaning operations can be limited to the following:

 The left-behind water at the bottom of the oil tank needs be discharged to
a slop tank and then settled out before discharged overboard;
 The discharge of water must go via the OWS using ballast or GS pumps;
 The ODME must be in good order to indicate any pollution breach;
 All records to be entered on ORB.

Equipment for Oil Spill Detection 

1. Fixed Gas Detecting System (Pump Room and Double Hull Spaces
adjacent Cargo Tanks)
2. Pump Room Bilge High Level Alarm
3. Cargo Oil Pump, High Temperature Alarm & Trip System
4. (Casing / Bearing / Bulkhead of Pump Shaft) 
5. CCTV Cameras in the engine room and pollution risk areas

Equipment for Oil Pollution Mitigation

1. Deck Scupper Plugs with Higher Gutter Coaming on Main Deck

2. Manifold Spill Tank
3. Emergency Stop System of COP 
4. Emergency Shut Down System of manifold Gate Valve
5. Emergency Damper of Pump room Exhaust Fan 
6. Absorbent Pads and spill kits.

Social responsibilities

Social responsibilities
Maritime Labour Convention 2006
Adoption: Feb 2006 Entry into Force: Undecided
The Maritime Labour Convention sets the minimum standards to ensure satisfactory
conditions of employment for seafarers. It brings together and updates over 65 other
ILO maritime labour instruments, while introducing a system of certification and
inspection to enforce it. It aims to overcome the lack of uniformity, misinterpretations,
poor ratification and implementation rates of the existing conventions.
This Convention has to be ratified by a minimum number of ILO member states to come
into effect. Once ratified, ships of all countries will be subject to inspection in the ports of
any country that has ratified. Ships could be detained if they are deemed not to have
met the standards.
Ships will need to comply with the Convention through holding a Maritime Labour
Certificate and Declaration of Maritime Labour Compliance issued by the flag state, which
must be available on board for any port state inspection.
The MLC 2006 applies to ships of:

 500 gross tonnage or over, engaged in international voyages; and

 500 gross gross tonnage or over, flying the flag of a Member and operating from
a port, or between ports, in another country

Ships below 500 grt, or ships operating on a domestic trade still need to be inspected
against the requirements of the Convention but do not need to be certified.

The MLC 2006 code comprises of two parts:

Part A: Sets the mandatory standards
Part B: Contains the guidelines supporting the implementation of Part A 

The Maritime Labour Convention covers: 

 An employment agreement, guaranteeing decent on-board working and living

conditions, to be signed by both the seafarer and the shipowner, or a
representative of the shipowner.
 Monthly pay, in full and in accordance with the employment agreement and any
applicable collective agreement.
 14-hour work limit in any 24-hour period, 72 hours in any seven-day period.
 The shipowner must pay to repatriate a seafarer in case of illness, injury,
shipwreck, insolvency, sale of ship and so on.
 Specific requirements for living accommodation and recreational facilities –
including minimum room sizes, and satisfactory heating, ventilation, sanitary
facilities, lighting and hospital accommodation.
 Access to prompt medical care when on board and in port

Objectives of the MLC 2006

The convention aims at improving the safety and standards on ships by
addressing issues shown as follows:
These objectives could be achieved by setting minimum standards in areas
illustrated below:
   

Social responsibilitiesRights and obligations of crew

Rights and obligations of crew

Box 1
MLC, 2006, Article IV: Seafarers’ Employment and Social Rights
1. Every seafarer has the right to a safe and secure workplace that complies with safety
standards.
2. Every seafarer has a right to fair terms of employment.
3. Every seafarer has a right to decent working and living conditions on board ship.
4. Every seafarer has a right to health protection, medical care, welfare measures and
other forms of social protection.
5. Each Member shall ensure, within the limits of its jurisdiction, that the seafarers’
employment and social rights set out in the preceding paragraphs of this Article are fully
implemented in accordance with the requirements of this Convention. Unless specified
otherwise in the Convention, such implementation may be achieved through national laws
or regulations, through applicable collective bargaining agreements or through other
measures or in practice.
In brief, you have a right to a safe and secure workplace, where safety standards are
complied with, where you have fair terms of employment, decent living and working
conditions, including social protection such as access to medical care, health protection
and welfare.

The MLC requires governments to make sure that their laws and regulations respect
certain fundamental rights relating to work.

These are:

 The right to freedom of association – your right to join a trade union of your
choice
 Effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining – the right of your union
to negotiate a CBA (Collective Bargaining Agreement) on your behalf
 Elimination of all forms of forced/compulsory labour – your right to work of  your
free will and to be paid for that work
 Effective abolition of child labour
 Elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation – your
right to be treated in the same way as your fellow seafarers doing the same work
regardless of race, religion, national origin, gender, or political views

Seafarers’ rights

The rights referred to above are expanded in the requirements of the MLC under four
headings:

 Minimum requirements for seafarers to work on a ship

 Conditions of employment
 Accommodation, recreational facilities, food and catering
 Health protection, medical care, welfare and social security protection

Seafarers' Obligations

 You must have completed the training necessary to carry out your duties on
board (as per IMO STCW). In addition you must have completed training for
personal safety on board.
 Carry all your relevant competency certificates and identifications necessary as a
seafarer for any Port state Inspections
 A fair employment agreement or contract setting out the terms and conditions of
your employment must be signed by you and your employer, be easy to
understand and legally enforceable.
 Maximum hours of work that you have the obligation to fulfill with adequate rest:

1. You must not work more than 14 hours in any 24-hour period; You must
not work more than 72 hours in any 7day period

 Minimum hours of rest

1. You must have at least 10 hours of rest in any 24-hour period; You must
have at least 77 hours rest in any 7-day period
  Seafarers have an obligation to comply with standards set for occupational safety
and health on board, these must be clearly specified along with the duties of the
Captain or the person made responsible by the Captain for safety and health on
board. Your attention must be drawn to any safety regulation or procedures to be
followed on board and information should be clearly posted. There should also be
ongoing publicity campaigns advising on health protection and accident
prevention.

On-board complaint procedures

To start with, you should try to resolve problems at the lowest possible level, but you do
have the right to go directly to the master, or to external authorities such as a
representative of the flag State. At all times you have the right to be accompanied by a
representative or a fellow seafarer and under no circumstances can you be victimised for
making a complaint. 

If the complaint cannot be resolved on board you should refer the matter ashore, either
to the shipowner or to the authorities of the flag State, the port State visited by your
ship or those in your own country.

When you join the ship you will get a copy of the on-board complaints procedure. This
will give you contact details of the responsible person from the flag State and from your
country’s administration (if different). It will also identify the person or people on board
to whom you can go for advice and assistance in making a complaint.
Social responsibilitiesEmployment conditions
Employment conditions
This has been hugely affected worldwide under the MLC 2006 Convention spearheaded
by the International Labour Organization (ILO).

The International Labour Organization  (ILO) is a specialized agency of the United

Nations, responsible for setting international labor standards. ILO is a tripartite body that
brings together governments, employers and workers in common action to promote
decent work throughout the world. It is based in Geneva.

ILO's conventions and recommendations deal with basic labor rights such as freedom of
association, the right to organize, collective bargaining, abolition of forced labor, equality
of opportunity and treatment, and working conditions. It promotes the development of
independent employers' and workers' organizations, and provides training and advisory
services to those organizations.

ILO's Work

Declaration of Fundamental Rights at Work (1998) establishes the right of workers to

organize and bargain effectively, as well as freedom from discrimination and other basic
employment rights. Eight core ILO Conventions cover the fundamental rights expressed
in the Declaration. These Conventions cover:

 Forced labor
 Freedom of association and protection of the right to organize
 Right to organize and collective bargaining
 Equal remuneration
 Abolition of forced labor
 Discrimination (employment and occupation)
 Minimum age
 Elimination of the worst forms of child labor.

Seafarers Employment Conditions

Vessels 500 GT or more engaged on International Voyages, may be “certified” as having
demonstrated compliance with measures conforming to the MLC.

Vessels less than 500 GT engaged on International Voyages, may also be required  to
demonstrate compliance with measures conforming to the requirements of the MLC.

The MLC specifies 14 areas that are subject to a mandatory compliance for certification
and the issuance of compliance certificates.

1. Minimum age (Regulation 1.1)

2. Medical certification (Regulation 1.2)
3. Qualifications of seafarers (Regulation 1.3)
 4. Use of any licensed/certified/regulated private recruitment and placement
services (Regulation 1.4)
5. Seafarers’ employment agreements (Regulation 2.1)
6. Payment of wages (Regulation 2.2)
7. Hours of work and rest (Regulation 2.3)
8. Manning levels for the ship (Regulation 2.7)
9. Accommodation (Regulation 3.1)
10. Onboard recreation facilities (Regulation 3.1)
11. Food and catering (Regulation 3.2)
12. Onboard medical care (Regulation 4.1)
13. Health and safety and accident prevention (Regulation 4.3)
14. Onboard complaint procedures (Regulation 5.1.5)

Payment of wages (MLC Regulation 2.2): Seafarers must be paid at no greater

than monthly intervals and in full for their work in accordance with their
employment agreements. They are entitled to a statement each month indicating
their monthly wage and any authorized deductions such as allotments. There shall be no
unauthorized deductions, such as payment for travel to or from the vessel.

Hours of work and hours of rest (MLC Regulation 2.3): The minimum hours of
rest shall not be less than ten hours in any 24-hour period; and 77 hours in any
seven day period. Hours of rest may be divided into no more than two periods, one of
which shall be at least six hours in length, and the interval between consecutive periods
of rest shall not exceed 14 hours. Shipboard drills shall be conducted in a manner that
minimizes the disturbance of rest periods and does not induce fatigue.

Accommodations (MLC Regulation 3.1): The requirements of the Code in Title 3 

that relate to construction or equipment will not apply to vessels constructed before the
MLC 2006 enters into force for the flag state concerned. Instead, the provisions relating
to construction and equipment that are contained in ILO Conventions 92 and 133 will
continue to apply to those vessels, to the extent that they were already applicable in the
flag state concerned, particularly because one or both conventions had been ratified by
that state or had become applicable by that state’s ratification of ILO Convention 147.

Recreational facilities (MLC Regulation 3.1): As with the requirements for

accommodations, vessels must be in compliance with the minimum standards by
providing and maintaining sufficient recreational facilities, to include mess
rooms and laundry facilities, for seafarers. Inspections of recreational facility should
also be carried out and recorded by the vessel’s master. Records of these inspections
should be made available for review.

Food and catering (MLC Regulation 3.2): Food and drinking water must be of
appropriate quality, nutritional value, and quantity to adequately cover the
requirements of a vessel’s crew and takes into account their differing cultures
and religious backgrounds. Food is to be provided free of charge to seafarers during
the period of engagement. Vessels with a prescribed manning of less than 10 are not
required to carry a qualified cook. A seafarer employed as a vessel’s cook with
responsibility for preparing food must be trained and qualified for the position. The
master is responsible for conducting frequent and documented inspections of food,
water, and catering facilities.

Medical care on board vessel and ashore (MLC Regulation 4.1): Seafarers must
be covered by adequate measures for the protection of their health and have
access to prompt and adequate medical care, including dental care, while
working on board the vessel. Health protection and care are to be provided at no cost
to the seafarer. Vessel owners/operators are to allow seafarers the right to visit a
qualified medical doctor or dentist without delay in port calls, where practicable.
Members shall adopt regulations establishing requirements for onboard hospital and
medical care facilities and equipment.

Health and safety protection and accident prevention (MLC Regulation 4.3): The
working, living, and training environments on vessels must be safe and
hygienic to ensure that the seafarers’ work environment promotes occupational
safety and health. Vessels must have an occupational safety and health program to
prevent diseases and accidental injuries.

Onboard complaint procedures (MLC Regulation 5.1.5): Vessels must have

procedures on board for the fair, effective, and expeditious handling of seafarer
complaints alleging breaches of the requirements of the MLC. All seafarers must be
provided with a copy of the onboard complaint procedures applicable to the
vessel. Retaliation against seafarers for filing complaints under the MLC is prohibited.

Social responsibilitiesEmployment conditionsImplementing MLC 2006

Implementing Maritime Labour Convention 2006

MLC 2006 expects all countries with a maritime interest to prepare for, and implement,
their inspection obligations under the Convention. National authorities have the
obligation to train inspectors to ensure better quality and consistency in ship inspection.
Title 5 addresses the Flag and Port state responsibilities.

Flag State responsibilities are

 to define the national Flag State requirements

 to inspection and certify vessels against the new Convention and national
requirements
 to develop and implement procedures for handling seafarers’ complaints.

Port State responsibilities are

 To inspect its own national flagged vessels in port

 To enforce the new Convention standards on foreign flagged ships under the ‘no
more favourable treatment’ requirement of the Convention
 For having procedures for handling seafarers’ complaints made on shore.
Certification

A vessel will be issued an MLC, if the Flag state is satisfied that it meets the
requirements of the convention and related national laws and regulations. The inspection
would cover at least the following issues:

 Minimum age
 Medical certification
 Qualifications of seafarers
 Seafarers’ employment agreements
 Use of any licensed or certified or regulated private recruitment and placement
service
 Hours of work or rest
 Manning levels for the ship
 On-board recreational facilities
 Health and safety and accident prevention
 On-board medical care
 On-board complaint procedures
 Payment of wages.

Important points covered by MLC 2006 are:

 An employment agreement, guaranteeing decent on-board working and living

conditions, to be signed by both the seafarer and the shipowner, or a
representative of the shipowner
 Monthly pay, in full and in accordance with the employment agreement and any
applicable collective agreement
 14-hour work limit in any 24-hour period, 72 hours in any seven-day period
 The shipowner must pay to repatriate a seafarer in case of illness, injury,
shipwreck, insolvency, sale of ship and so on
 Specific requirements for living accommodation and recreational facilities –
including minimum room sizes, and satisfactory heating, ventilation, sanitary
facilities, lighting and hospital accommodation
 Access to prompt medical care when on board and in port.

General Guideline – Provisions on occupational accidents, injuries and diseases

1. The provisions required under Standard A4.3 should take into account the ILO
code of practice entitled Accident prevention on board ship at sea and in port,
1996, and subsequent versions and other related ILO and other international
standards and guidelines and codes of practice regarding occupational safety and
health protection, including any exposure levels that they may identify.

2. The competent authority should ensure that the national guidelines for the
management of occupational safety and health address the following matters, in
particular:
(a) general and basic provisions;
(b) structural features of the ship, including means of access and asbestos-
related risks;
(c) machinery;
(d) the effects of the extremely low or high temperature of any surfaces with
 which seafarers may be in contact;
(e) the effects of noise in the workplace and in shipboard accommodation;
(f) the effects of vibration in the workplace and in shipboard accommodation;
(g) the effects of ambient factors, other than those referred to in sub-paragraphs
(e) and (f), in the workplace and in shipboard accommodation, including tobacco
smoke;
(h) special safety measures on and below deck;
(i) loading and unloading equipment;
(j) fire prevention and fire-fighting;
(k) anchors, chains and lines;
(l) dangerous cargo and ballast;
(m) personal protective equipment for seafarers;
(n) work in enclosed spaces;
(o) physical and mental effects of fatigue;
(p) the effects of drug and alcohol dependency;
(q) HIV/AIDS protection and prevention; 
(r) emergency and accident response;
(s) Drug and alcohol abuse and dependence;
(t) Particular categories of personnel- Seafarers under the age of 18;Women
seafarers etc,.

3. The assessment of risks and reduction of exposure should take account of the
physical occupational health effects, including manual handling of loads, noise
and vibration, the chemical and biological occupational health effects, the mental
occupational health effects, the physical and mental health effects of fatigue, and
occupational accidents. 

4. In addition, the competent authority should ensure that the implications for
health and safety are taken into account, particularly in the following areas:
(a) emergency and accident response;
(b) the effects of drug and alcohol dependency; and
(c) HIV/AIDS protection and prevention.

Guideline for– Exposure to noise

1. The competent authority, in conjunction with the competent international bodies

and with representatives of shipowners’ and seafarers’ organizations concerned,
should review on an ongoing basis the problem of noise on board ships with the
objective of improving the protection of seafarers, in so far as practicable, from
the adverse effects of exposure to noise.
2. The review referred to in paragraph 1 of this Guideline should take account of the
adverse effects of exposure to excessive noise on the hearing, health and comfort
of seafarers and the measures to be prescribed or recommended to reduce
shipboard noise to protect seafarers. The measures to be considered should
include the following:
(a) instruction of seafarers in the dangers to hearing and health of prolonged
exposure to high noise levels and in the proper use of noise protection devices
and equipment;
(b) provision of approved hearing protection equipment to seafarers where
necessary; and
(c) assessment of risk and reduction of exposure levels to noise in all
accommodation and recreational and catering facilities, as well as engine rooms
and other machinery spaces.
Guideline for – Exposure to vibration

1. The competent authority, in conjunction with the competent international bodies

and with representatives of shipowners’ and seafarers’ organizations concerned,
and taking into account, as appropriate, relevant international standards, should
review on an ongoing basis the problem of vibration on board ships with the
objective of improving the protection of seafarers, in so far as practicable, from
the adverse effects of vibration.
2. The review referred to in paragraph 1 of this Guideline should cover the effect of
exposure to excessive vibration on the health and comfort of seafarers and the
measures to be prescribed or recommended to reduce shipboard vibration to
protect seafarers. The measures to be considered should include the following:
(a) instruction of seafarers in the dangers to their health of prolonged exposure
to vibration;
(b) provision of approved personal protective equipment to seafarers where
necessary; and
(c) assessment of risks and reduction of exposure to vibration in all
accommodation and recreational and catering facilities by adopting measures in
accordance with the guidance provided by the ILO code of practice entitled
Ambient factors in the workplace, 2001, and any subsequent revisions, taking
account of the difference between exposure in those areas and in the workplace.

Social responsibilities  Dangers of Drug and Alcohol

Dangers of Drug and Alcohol

The over usage or abuse of alcohol or other drugs is known as substance abuse. It is
very common and costly too. Substance abuse is a pattern of repeated use of alcohol,
drugs or both even though it cause distressing events in the users life. Alcohol, drugs, or
both have been used repeatedly can lead to dangerous situations such as accidents while
driving and operating machinery, this include personal as well as social problems. It is
very difficult to stop drinking or using a drug without outside help, Medical treatment is
very much needed for substance abuse.

Drug and Alcohol Policy

There is not much point in eating a sensible, balanced diet, keeping your weight in check
and taking regular exercise if you abuse your body. The most common abuses are use of
tobacco and excessive use of alcohol. Tobacco in the form of cigarettes kills. It causes
lung cancer, bronchitis and coronary artery diseases. In moderation alcohol is okay. But
becomes a problem when too much of it is taken too regularly. Drugs like heroin, opium
and cocaine are taken for pleasure by some, but they are highly addictive and dangerous
to health. It is essential to avoid indulging in these harmful abuses which sometimes are
related to life styles of individuals or families.

The Drug & Alcohol Policy for ships is a mandatory regulation and Code of Conduct. It is
compulsory for seafarers to follow the “Drug & Alcohol Policy” of the shipping companies.
Also the consumption and possession of drugs and other abused substances is strictly
prohibited on all ships. However, permission to consume alcohol on ships depends on the
shipping companies. Most of the companies have totally banned possession and
consumption of alcohol on board their ships.

There are strict restrictions on the amount and time of alcohol consumed on ships. It is
the duty of the captain to ensure that all crew members are aware of the regulations
mentioned in the “Drug and Alcohol Policy” followed on the ship.

Overview of shipping company's model  Drug & Alcohol policy

Drug and alcohol policy of shipping companies is indicated in the ISM manual for the
ships. It is based on the guides provided by IMO, the International Chamber of Shipping
(ICS) and Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF) recommends a maximum
of 0.08% blood alcohol level (BAC).

 Ships Officers, crew members, family members, and visitors from shore are not
allowed to bring alcohol or drugs on board ships
 The company policy, may require seafarers to be screened for alcohol and drug
abuse during medical checkups prior to joining a ship
 Consumption of any kind of alcoholic beverages during working hours, over time,
or within 4 hours prior starting work or watch is strictly prohibited
 officers and crew members who are returning from shore leave, must observe a
period of total abstinence from all kind of alcoholic beverages prior to their
scheduled watch keeping duties
 Some company policies might allow “controlled” consumption of alcohol on ships.
However, they would set and enforce limits on consumption of alcohol 4 hours
prior to working hours
 The amount of BAC allowed differs from company to company, where some allow
maximum of 0.04% (During off hours) whereas others prefer 0% BAC.
 Random alcohol and drugs testing of officers can also be done on board ships to
ensure that there is no breach in the policy
 The shipping companies provide Alcohol test meters (Intoximeter) on board so
that ship’s captain or senior officers can check any crew member suspected of
having high level of alcohol in his system and is incapable of carrying out his
duties
 Seafarers who fail to follow the “Drug and Alcohol Policy” of the company is
bound to face disciplinary actions.

Safety of ships and cargoes, along with the well-being of the seafarers is the main
motive of this policy and it is therefore necessary that all officers and crew take this
regulation with utmost seriousness.

Social responsibilities  Dangers of Drug and AlcoholDrug Abuse and treatment

Drug Abuse and Treatment
Drugs can be consumed for goodness as well as for badness. Drug abuse is a serious
problem to the community and for the family too. The problems such as child abuse,
drugged driving, stress and violence. Drug abuse can lead to less concentration power,
absenteeism in work, homelessness, finally destroys the families pleasant environment.
Some of the common abused drugs are Amphetamines, Anabolic steroids, Cocaine,
Heroin, Inhalants, Marijuana, Morphine, Narcotic and Methamphetamine.

Social responsibilities  Dangers of Drug and AlcoholDrug Abuse and treatmentAmphetamine

Amphetamine
Amphetamine is a stimulant and an appetite suppressant. It stimulates the central
nervous system, by increasing the amount of certain chemicals in the body. This drug is
used to treat narcolepsy and attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. This habit
forming medicine can cause more withdrawal effects when stop taking suddenly after
several weeks of continuous use.

An amphetamine drug may available as amphetamine salt, or

amphetamine sulfate, in 5 mg and 10 mg tablets. 

The effects of the drug is increases heart rate and blood pressure and decreases
appetite, and may cause dizziness, blurred vision, or restlessness.

Who will avoid amphetamine Drug

Do not take amphetamine if you

 Have heart disease or high blood pressure

 Have arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries)
 Have hyperthyroidism
 Have glaucoma
 Have a history of drug or alcohol abuse
 Pregnancy and lactating women, because this drug passes into breast milk and
may affect a nursing baby

Symptoms of an amphetamine overdose

Symptoms of an amphetamine overdose include restlessness, tremor, rapid breathing,
confusion, hallucinations, panic, aggressiveness, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, an irregular
heartbeat, and seizures.
Amphetamine side effects
The side effects of amphetamine are:

 An allergic reaction like difficulty breathing; closing of the throat;

swelling of the lips, tongue, or face; or hives.
 An irregular heartbeat or very high blood pressure or
 Hallucinations, abnormal behavior, or confusion

Some of the less side effects are

 Restlessness or tremor
 Insomnia
 Headache or dizziness
 Anxiety or nervousness
 Dry mouth or an unpleasant taste in the mouth
 Diarrhea or constipation or
 Impotence or changes in sex drive

Treatments
Addiction:

 Bromocriptine may help craving

 psychotherapy
 Meditation
 Environmental support

Overdose:

 Maintain airway
 Mechanical ventilation if necessary
 Treat coma, heart attacks, or Seizures as they occur
 Diazepam or Midazolam for agitation or psychosis
 If overdose by mouth, gastric lavage and charcoal
 Phentolamine, nifedipine, or labetalol for elevated blood pressure
 Esmolol for rapid heart race/rapid heart arrhythmias

Social responsibilities  Dangers of Drug and AlcoholDrug Abuse and treatmentAnabolic steroids
Anabolic steroids
Anabolic steroids or more precisely, anabolic androgenic steroids [AAS] are synthetically
produced variants of the naturally occurring male sex hormone testosterone. Both
anabolic and androgenic have origins from the Greek: “Anabolic” refers to muscle-
building, and “androgenic” refers to increased male sexual characteristics. “Steroids”
refers to the class of drugs. These drugs can be legally prescribed to treat conditions
resulting from steroid hormone deficiency, such as delayed puberty, as well as diseases
that result in loss of lean muscle mass, such as cancer and AIDS

Steroid Abuse
Mainly sports persons are abuse AAS in an attempt to enhance performance and/or
improve physical appearance. AAS are taken orally or injected, typically in cycles rather
than continuously.

How Do steroid Affect the Brain?

The immediate effects of AAS in the brain are mediated by their binding to androgen
(male sex hormone) and estrogen (female sex hormone) receptors on the surface of a
cell. This AAS – receptor complex can then shuttle into the cell nucleus to influence
patterns of gene expression. Because of this, the acute effects of AAS in the brain are
substantially different from those of other drugs of abuse. The most important difference
is that AAS are not euphorigenic, meaning they do not trigger rapid increases in the
neurotransmitter dopamine, which is responsible for the “high” that often drives
substance abuse behaviors. However, long-term use of AAS can eventually have an
impact on some of the same brain pathways and chemicals - such as dopamine,
serotonin, and opioid systems - that are affected by other drugs of abuse. Considering
the combined effect of their complex direct and indirect actions, it is not surprising that
AAS can affect mood and behavior in significant ways.

Mental Health
Research shows that steroids can cause psychiatric dysfunction. Abuse of anabolic
steroids may lead to aggression, extreme mood swings, paranoid jealousy, extreme
irritability, delusions, and impaired judgment stemming from feelings of invincibility.

Adverse Effects of AAS

Men - Although anabolic steroids are derived from a male sex hormone, men who take
them may actually experience a "feminization" effect along with a decrease in normal
male sexual function. Some possible effects include:

 Reduced sperm count

 Impotence
 Development of breasts
 Shrinking of the testicles
 Difficulty or pain while urinating

Women - On the other hand, women often experience a "masculinization" effect from
anabolic steroids, including the following:
  Facial hair growth
 Deepened voice
 Breast reduction
 Menstrual cycle changes

With continued use of anabolic steroids, both sexes can experience the following effects,
which range from the merely unsightly to the life endangering. They include:

 Acne
 Bloated appearance
 Rapid weight gain
 Clotting disorders
 Liver damage
 Premature heart attacks and strokes
 Elevated cholesterol levels
 Weakened tendons

Adolescents
Anabolic steroids can halt growth prematurely in adolescents.

Behavioral side effects

Anabolic steroids can cause severe mood swings and aggression.
In addition, people who inject AAS run the added risk of contracting or transmitting
HIV/AIDS or hepatitis, which causes serious damage to the liver.

Treatment
There has been very little research on treatment for AAS abuse. Current knowledge
derives largely from the experiences of a small number of physicians who have worked
with patients undergoing steroid withdrawal. They have learned that, in general,
supportive therapy combined with education about possible withdrawal symptoms is
sufficient in some cases. Sometimes, medications can be used to restore the balance of
the hormonal system after its disruption by steroid abuse. If symptoms are severe or
prolonged, symptomatic medications or hospitalization may be needed.

Social responsibilities  Dangers of Drug and AlcoholDrug Abuse and treatmentCocaine

Cocaine
Cocaine is an addictive stimulant drug which can be smoked, inhaled, insuffalated and
injected. Acute cocaine intoxication may present with agitation, paranoia, tachycardia,
tachypnea, hypertension, and diaphoresis. Complications of acute and chronic use can
include myocardial is chemia or infarction, stroke, pulmonary edema, and
rhabdomyolysis. Crack is the street name given to cocaine that has been processed to
make a rock crystal, which, when heated, produces vapors that are smoked. The term
“crack” refers to the crackling sound produced by the rock as it is heated.
Forms of cocaine
Salts
Cocaine or benzoylmethylecgonine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid which is obtained
from coca leaves. Like many alkaloids, cocaine can also form different salts such as
hydrochloride ans sulphate. It is soluble in water, different salts have different solvency
in solvents.

Basic
Smoking cocaine has the additional effect of releasing methylecgonidine into the user's
system due to the pyrolysis of the substance. Pure cocaine is prepared by neutralizing its
compounding salt with an alkaline solution which will precipitate to non-polar basic
cocaine. It is further refined through aqueous-solvent liquid to liquid extraction.

Crack cocaine
Crack is a lower purity form of free-base cocaine and contains sodium bicarbonate as
impurity. Freebase and crack are often administered by smoking. The term “crack” refers
to the crackling sound produced by the rock as it is heated.

Coca leaf infusion

Coca is also referred to as coca tea and it is a herbal infusion. The effect of this coca tea
are stimulation and mood lift. It does not produce any significant numbing of the mouth
nor does it give a rush like snorting cocaine. In order to prevent the demonization of this
product, its promoters publicize the unproven concept that much of the effect of the
ingestion of coca leaf infusion would come from the secondary alkaloids, as being not
only quantitatively different from pure cocaine but also qualitatively different.

How is cocaine abused?

Three routes of administration of cocaine

Snorting: Snorting is the process of inhaling cocaine powder through the

nose, where it is absorbed into the bloodstream through the nasal tissues

Injecting: Injecting is the use of a needle to insert the drug directly into

the bloodstream.

Smoking: Smoking involves inhaling cocaine vapor or smoke into the

lungs, where absorption into the bloodstream is as rapid as it is by
injection. All the above mentioned methods cocaine abuse can lead to
addiction which may lead to severe health problem, increasing the risk of
HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases.

Effects of cocaine
Cocaine usually makes the user feel euphoric and energetic (increased energy), reduced
fatigue, and mental alertness. Excess intake of cocaine may also lead to adverse effect
on the body such as increased body temperature, dilates pupils, constricts blood vessels,
blood pressure, and increased heart rate. Continuous usage of cocaine may lead to
headaches and gastrointestinal complications such as abdominal pain and nausea.

If the cocaine is snorted it may lead to loss of the sense of smell; nosebleeds; problems
with swallowing; hoarseness; and a chronically runny nose. Injecting cocaine may lead
to severe allergic reactions and increased risk for contracting HIV/AIDS and other blood-
borne diseases. If the cocaine is ingested it may lead to severe bowel gangrene as a
result of reduced blood flow.

Treatment for cocaine

Cocaine abuse and addiction is a complex problem involving biological changes in the
brain as well as a myriad of social, familial, and environmental factors. Psychological
counselling, Pharmacological approaches, behavioral interventions especially cognitive
behavioral therapy which shows effective reduction of cocaine usage and preventing
relapse.

Social responsibilities  Dangers of Drug and AlcoholDrug Abuse and treatmentHeroin

Heroin
Heroin is a white to dark brown powder or tar-like substance, this highly addictive drug
derived from morphine, which is obtained from the opium poppy. It is a “downer” or
depressant that affects the brain’s pleasure systems and interferes with the brain’s
ability to perceive pain.

Route of drug administration

Heroin can be taken by variety of ways, depending on user preference and the purity of
the drug. It can be injected into a vein, injected into a muscle, smoked in a water pipe
or standard pipe, mixed in a marijuana joint or regular cigarette, inhaled as smoke
through a straw, known as “chasing the dragon,” snorted as powder via the nose.

Short-term effects
The short-term effects of heroin abuse appear soon after a single dose and disappear in
a few hours, The effects are:
  Surge of euphoria
 Dry mouth
 Depression
 Slowed and slurred speech
 Slow gait
 Constricted pupils
 Droopy eyelids
 Impaired night vision
 Vomiting
 Constipation

Long-term effects
Long-term effects of heroin appear after repeated use for some period of time, the
effects are:

 Collapsed veins
 Infection of the heart lining and valves
 Abscesses
 Cellulites
 Liver disease
 Pneumonia
 Clogging the blood vessels

Withdrawal effect
Major withdrawal symptoms are appear between 48 and 72 hours after the last does of
drug, the symptoms are:

 Drug craving
 Restlessness
 Muscle and bone pain
 Insomnia
 Diarrhea and vomiting
 Cold flashes with goose bumps
 Kicking movements

Treatment
There are several type of treatment available for heroin addicts. Time period for the
treatment of heroin is dependence upon the type of users. Psychosocial treatments are
effective parts of a total treatment plan of patients with opiate disorders. Cognitive
behavioral therapy, behavioral therapy, psychodynamic therapy, group therapy and
family therapy can be effective with heroin dependence. The choice for a certain
treatment should be made after it is obvious what the patient wants, what problems
should be solved, whether there are any other psychological problems and what have
been the results of earlier treatments.
A patient with mild or moderate withdrawal symptoms can sometimes deal with these
problems at home. The treatment of a heroin withdrawal syndrome is usually focused on
relief of the critical symptoms and the motivation to take part in a long-term treatment
of heroin addiction. Methadone can be prescribed temporarily and also Clonidine can be
used to suppress the withdrawal symptoms. The use of other narcotics can interfere with
or complicate the attempt to kick the habit.
The success of the treatment depends on various things:

 The quantity and the kind of substances used

 The severity of the disorder and the consequences
 Simultaneous physical and/or psychological disorders
 The strong and weak characteristics of the patient
 The patient's motivation
 The social surroundings of the patient (friends, acquaintances, colleagues, family,
etc.)

Social responsibilities  Dangers of Drug and AlcoholDrug Abuse and treatmentInhalants

Inhalants
The term "inhalants" refers to all household and commercial products that can be abused
by inhaling them. These products are composed of solvents and substances commonly
found in commercial adhesives, lighter fluids, cleaning solvents and paint products. Since
inhalants are easily accessible and affordable, they have become the drug of choice for
many young people. Inhalants are typically inhaled directly from a container or placed in
a bag or another container of choice and "huffed," or inhaled, to achieve a "high."

Type of Inhalants abused

Inhalants generally fall into the following categories:

Volatile solvents: Liquids that vaporize at room temperature

 Industrial or household products, including paint thinners or removers,

degreasers, dry-cleaning fluids, gasoline, and lighter fluid
 Art or office supply solvents, including correction fluids, felt-tip marker fluid,
electronic contact cleaners, and glue

Aerosols: sprays that contain propellants and solvents

 Household aerosol propellants in items such as spray paints, hair or deodorant

sprays, fabric protector sprays, aerosol computer cleaning products, and
vegetable oil sprays

Gases: Found in household or commercial products and used as medical

anesthetics

 Household or commercial products, including butane lighters and propane tanks,

whipped cream aerosols or dispensers, and refrigerant gases
 Medical anesthetics, such as ether, chloroform, halothane, and nitrous oxide.
Nitrites: A special class of inhalants that are used primarily as sexual
enhancers

 Organic nitrites are volatiles that include cyclohexyl, butyl, and amyl nitrites,
commonly known as “poppers.” Amyl nitrite is still used in certain diagnostic
medical procedures.

These various products contain a wide range of chemicals such as

 Toluene (spray paints, rubber cement, gasoline)

 Chlorinated hydrocarbons (dry-cleaning chemicals, correction fluids)
 Hexane (glues, gasoline)
 Benzene (gasoline)
 Methylene chloride (varnish removers, paint thinners)
 Butane (cigarette lighter refills, air fresheners), and
 Nitrous oxide (whipped cream dispensers, gas cylinders)

Adolescent tend to abuse different products at different ages, At the age of 12-15 people
start to abuse inhalants. The commonly used inhalants are glue, shoe polish, spray
paints, gasoline, and lighter fluid. And 16-17 age group peoples abused drug are nitrous
oxide or whippets.

Effects of Inhalant Abuse

The effects of inhalant abuse can resemble alcoholism. Upon inhalation, the body
becomes starved of oxygen. This can often cause:

 Rapid heart beat

 Brain stimulation
 Distorted perception
 Sensory depression
 Lethargy
 Nausea and vomiting
 Slurred speech
 Headaches
 Loss of coordination
 Wheezing

Users of inhalants can become intoxicated several times over a few hours because of the
chemical's short-acting, rapid-onset effect.

Withdrawal Effects 
Heavy or sustained inhalant abuse can result in a tolerance on the substance which can
cause physical withdrawal symptoms that can last for several hours to a few days after
use. Withdrawal symptoms may include:

 Sweating
 Rapid pulse
 Insomnia
 Nausea and vomiting
 Hand tremors
 Agitation
 Anxiety
 Hallucinations
 Seizures

Warning Signs of Inhalant Abuse

 Paint or stains on the body or clothing

 Spots or sores around the mouth
 Red or runny eyes and nose
 Chemical odor on the breath
 A drunken or dazed appearance
 Loss of appetite
 Excitability and/or irritability

Medical Complications Associated with Inhalant Abuse

Common Sources of Inhalant Abuse

 Adhesives: Model airplane glue, rubber cement, household glue

 Anesthetics: Nitrous oxide, ether, chloroform
 Cleaning: Dry cleaning fluid, spot remover.
 Food: Vegetable cooking spray, "whippets" (nitrous oxide)
 Gases: Nitrous oxide, butane, propane, helium
 Solvents: Nail polish remover, paint thinner, typing correction fluid and thinner,
toxic markers, pure toluene, cigar lighter fluid, gasoline
 Aerosols: Spray paint, hair spray, air freshener, deodorant, fabric protector

Treatment for Inhalant Abuse

There are many type of inhalant abuse treatments are available. with the use of
medications to avoid seizures or convulsions and to manage mood swings and feelings
such as anxiety, agitation, irritability or depression. In many cases, a psychiatric
evaluation may be ordered to rule out or allow a psychiatrist to treat a presenting
disorder.
Social responsibilities  Dangers of Drug and AlcoholDrug Abuse and treatmentMarijuana

Marijuana
Marijuana is the most commonly abused illicit drug by adolescents. This crude drug
made from the plant Cannabis sativa. The main mind altering components in marijuana
is THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol), but more than 400 other chemicals also are in
the plant. Marijuana is usually smoked as a cigarette (joint) or in a pipe, blunts
(replacement of marijuana in cigars) and also used as hash.
Marijuana cigarettes is made from the dried particle of the plant. The effect of the
marijuana cigarettes is directly propositional to the THC amount of the marijuana. It
increases physical and mental effects and the possibility of health problems for the user.
Hashish, or hash, is made by taking the resin from the leaves and flowers of the
marijuana plant and pressing it into cakes or slabs. Hash is usually stronger than crude
marijuana and may contain five to ten times as much THC.

Adverse effect of marijuana

 Increased heart rate

 Emphysema
 Lung cancer
 Acute panic
 Anxiety
 Loss of fertility
 Depression
 Suicidal ideation and
 Schizophrenia

Long term effect of marijuana

Long-term regular users of marijuana may become psychologically dependent. They may
have a hard time limiting their use, they may need more of the drug to get the same
effect, and they may develop problems with their jobs and personal relationships. The
drug can become the most important aspect of their lives.

The time duration of marijuana stay in the body after the drug is smoked
When marijuana is smoked, THC, its active ingredient, is absorbed by most tissues and
organs in the body; however, it is primarily found in fat tissues. The body, in its attempt
to rid itself of the foreign chemical, chemically transforms the THC into metabolites.
Urine tests can detect THC metabolites for up to a week after people have smoked
marijuana. Tests involving radioactively labeled THC have traced these metabolites in
animals for up to a month.

Immediate effects of smoking marijuana

Immediate physical effects of marijuana are include:

 A faster heartbeat and pulse rate

 Bloodshot eyes
 A dry mouth and throat
  Some studies are shown that the drug can impair or reduce short-term memory
 Reduce ability to do things which require concentration
 And coordination, such as driving a car or operating machinery

Dangers of marijuana for young people

 Lose of interest to do schoolwork

 Lose of impairing thinking
 Difficulty in reading comprehension
 Lose of knowledge in verbal and mathematical skills

Treatment
Behavioural interventions, including cognitive behavioural therapy and motivational
incentives have shown efficacy in treating marijuana dependence. Although no
medications are currently available, recent discoveries about the workings of the
cannabinoid system offer promise for the development of medications to ease
withdrawal, block the intoxicating effects of marijuana, and prevent relapse.

Social responsibilities  Dangers of Drug and AlcoholDrug Abuse and treatmentMorphine

Morphine
Morphine is a narcotic pain reliever drugs. It is obtained from opium, the juice secreted
by the seeds of the poppy. It works on several types of receptors, widely found in
nervous tissue. "Opioids" is a term used for all drugs that act on these receptors. The
most important of these are relief of pain and respiratory depression. In anesthesia
morphine is used to relieve pain. This is an effect of its action on the spinal cord to
decrease the transmission of painful stimuli from body to brain, and its action within the
brain itself.

Side Effects

 Respiratory depression
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Sedation
 Constipation
 Urinary retention.
 Itching of the skin and nose
 Increase heart or blood pressure
 Emptying of the stomach
 Hypotension
 Hypovolaemia
Withdrawal effects

 Restlessness
 Lacrimation
 Rhinorrhea
 Yawning
 Perspiration
 Goose flesh
 Restless sleep
 Mydriasis
 Twitching and spasms of muscles
 Kicking movements
 Severe aches in the back, abdomen, and legs
 Abdominal and muscle cramps
 Hot and cold flashes
 Insomnia
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Diarrhea
 Coryza
 Severe sneezing
 Increases in body temperature, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and heart rate

Reason for avoiding morphine

FDA pregnancy category C. Morphine may be harmful to an unborn baby, and could
cause addiction or withdrawal symptoms in a newborn. And do not use morphine if you
have ever had allergic with some other narcotic medicine or following diseases.

 Asthma, COPD, sleep apnea, or other breathing disorders

 Liver or kidney disease
 Under active thyroid
 Curvature of the spine
 A history of head injury or brain tumor
 Epilepsy or other seizure disorder
 Low blood pressure
 Gallbladder disease
 Addison's disease or other adrenal gland disorders
 Enlarged prostate, urination problems
 Mental illness
 A history of drug or alcohol addiction

Important information about morphine

 Don't take morphine, if you are already taken any other opioid pain
medicine.
 Morphine is a habit forming drug so, avoid to take the drug if you are
already addicted or abused of any other drugs.
 Dangerous side effects or death can occur when alcohol is combined with
morphine.
 Never take more than your prescribed dose of morphine.
 Do not stop taking morphine suddenly, or you could have unpleasant
withdrawal symptoms.
Treatment
Morphine abuse and addiction is a complex problem involving biological changes in the
brain as well as a myriad of familial, social or environmental factors. Psycho biological
counseling, Pharmacological approaches, behavioral interventions especially cognitive
behavioral therapy which shows effective reduction of cocaine usage and preventing
relapse.

Social responsibilities  Dangers of Drug and AlcoholAlcoholism

Alcoholism
Introduction
Alcoholism is a condition in which an individual gets addicted to and starts
craving for regular consumption of alcohol. Alcohol becomes a part of his
daily life. He has the urge to take increasing levels of alcohol to satisfy his
needs.

Social responsibilities  Dangers of Drug and AlcoholAlcoholismAcute and Chronic Alcoholism

Acute and Chronic Alcoholism

Acute Alcoholism

 When the Ethanol concentration in the blood is less than 500, then
the person becomes talkative and possesses a sense of well-being
(Euphoria).
 When this level ranges from 500-1000, there will be features of
emotional instability, in-coordination of activities and slurred speech
seen in the individual.
 With further increase in the levels in the range of 1000-3000, the
person may loose his sensory perception (loss of touch with reality),
muscular in-coordination, ataxia, blurred vision, slurred speech and
the reaction level also becomes slow.
 At the range of 3000 to 4000, it is a severe and alarming level
leading to severe ataxia (inability to coordinate movements), double
or blurred vision and also coma and convulsions.
 If the level of alcohol reaches more than 5000, then it affects the
alcoholic person in the form of coma, hypo-reflexes (reduces the
reaction time), hypothermia (low body temperature), respiratory
depression (suppression of the respiratory centre), etc.

Chronic alcoholism
Consumption of excessive amounts of alcohol at regular intervals is the feature seen in a
chronic alcoholic person. This is a severe condition which maybe hereditary for some
individuals. However, the harmful effects of chronic alcoholism are severe and can be life
threatening.

Social responsibilities  Dangers of Drug and AlcoholAlcoholismCauses of Alcoholism

Causes of Alcoholism
A chronic alcoholic ranges from a person who gets addicted rapidly or takes years
together to become one. A weak-minded person or a person who cannot cope up with
the reality of life tries to escape from a challenging situation by consoling himself with
alcohol.
An alcoholic uses various ways to justify himself and his need for alcohol consumption
for e.g. to overcome anxiety, induce sleep, to enliven social life and de-stress.
Causes of Chronic Alcoholism
Every person who takes to drinking does'nt become an alcoholic. Many people drink
alcohol throughout their lives, yet live without a problem. Then why do some people  get
addicted to alcohol and become dependent on it, while others don't?
There are certain things which make alcohol a problem. They are called risk factors.
These are:

1. Genes: People with alcohol problems often have a previous family

history of alcohol abuse and dependence or it can be related to their
family and personal surroundings.
2. Gender: A male is three times more prone to problems with alcohol
than a female.
3. Early use: The age of first use of alcohol determines the period of
alcohol intake with the dependence rate.

The risk factors you can change include:

1. Mental health: Chronic alcoholism has a direct relationship with your mental

health, such as depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, or anxiety disorders.
You are more likely to use alcohol when these problems co-exist. It's common to
use alcohol to ease the pain and stress related to these conditions.

2. Use of other substances: Use of tobacco, illegal drugs, or prescription

medicines is known to be a predominant feature with chronic alcoholics.

3. Environment: You are more likely to take drinking as a habit when living in an

area where alcohol is easy to get, people drink a lot, or heavy drinking is
accepted as part of life,.

4. Friends: Your friends can be a direct influence on you by encouraging you to

drink by directly urging you or by drinking when you're with them.

5. Problems with others: Whenever you have personal problems which tend to

cause severe depression you have a tendency to drink to forget your worries.

6. Not having purpose or satisfaction in your life: People not satisfied with life
and seeming to live without a sense of purpose, are more likely to drink. A
satisfying job or schoolwork or voluntary activities can give your life direction with
a sense of purpose and meaning.

All the above problems may not be a pre-requisite for alcoholic diseases, they are the
factors which contribute to the problem. A person with many risk factors may not always
develop alcoholism, and a person with no risk factors could become dependent on
alcohol.

Social responsibilities  Dangers of Drug and AlcoholAlcoholismEffects of Chronic Alcoholism

Effects of Chronic Alcoholism

Various systems of the body can get affected due to chronic alcoholism.
Nausea and retching/vomiting (particularly early in the morning), anorexia and inability
to eat along with intermittent episodes of diarrhea with episodes of faecal incontinance.
Parotitis (swelling of the parotid gland), pharyngeal cancer, heartburn, bleeding from
esophagus, ruptured varices and mucosal tears (Mallory Weiss syndrome, Boerhaave
syndrome) following retching.
Mallory-Weiss syndrome or gastro-esophageal laceration syndrome refers to bleeding
from tears (a Mallory-Weiss tear) in the mucosa at the junction of
the stomach and esophagus, usually caused by severe retching, coughing, or vomiting.
Boerhaave syndrome or esophageal perforation, is rupture of the esophageal wall due to
vomiting. 90% of esophageal perforation is iatrogenic, usually due to medical
instrumentation such as an endoscopy or Para esophageal surgery. In contrast, the term
Boerhaave's syndrome is reserved for the 10% of esophageal perforations which occur
due to vomiting.
Acute hemorrhagic gastritis due to chronic vomiting leading to vomiting of blood.
Bacterial colonization of the large intestine and mal-absorption.
Irritable bowel syndrome and rectal cancer along with symptoms of malena stools (black
colored stools) more common in heavy drinkers.

Hepatobiliary (liver) and pancreatic

 Fatty liver, alcoholic hepatitis and fibrosis of the liver cells further leading to
cirrhosis of the liver.
 Cirrhosis of liver and hepatocellular cancer of liver.
 Acute and chronic pancreatitis with episodes of recurrent pancreatitis.
 Zieve’s syndrome - hemolytic anemia, hyperlipoproteinaemia (excessive blood
levels of lipoproteins or triglycerides), jaundice, and abdominal pain. 
Muscle and Skeletal Disorders

These include symptoms of impaired bone formation, enhanced bone degradation (loss
and destruction of bone) and of nutritional deficiencies (e.g. calcium, magnesium,
phosphate, vitamin D). They also include generalized proximal muscle weakness with or
without wasting in chronic alcoholics, gout, avascular necrosis of bones (e.g. fracture
head of the Femur) and fractures.

Endocrine system

Alcohol-induced Pseudo-Cushing syndrome / Pseudo-thyrotoxicosis

Excessive consumption of alcohol can result in symptoms similar to a condition called

Cushing's syndrome.

Features of full-blown cushing syndrome are:

 Truncal obesity
 Plethoric moon face
 Buffalo hump
 Supraclavicular fat pads
 Hirsutism in women
 Thin skin with easy bruising and wide purplish striae
 Hypertension

Other patients have only a few symptoms or no physical evidence of glucocorticoid

excess. The reason why some alcoholic patients develop the problem and others do not
is unknown. Once alcohol consumption is stopped, symptoms regress.

Pseudo-thyrotoxicosis with thyrotoxicosis, increased metabolism causes weight loss.

Other characteristic signs and symptoms include nervousness, heat intolerance,
diarrhea, increased appetite, palpitations, tachycardia, diaphoresis, fine tremor, and
possibly an enlarged thyroid and exophthalmos. A ventricular or atrial gallop may be
heard.

Metabolic

 Alcohol induced hypoglycemia (low blood sugar levels), essential reactive

hypoglycemia following a rich carbohydrate meal.
 Hyperglycemia (high blood sugar levels) - long continued heavy drinking can
precipitate symptomatic diabetes mellitus which remits on abstaining from
alcohol.
 Ketoacidosis (increased urinary ketones), hyper-uremia (increased uric acid
levels), lactic acidosis (increased lactic acid levels) and hyperlipoproteinaemia
(increased triglyceride levels).

Hematological
Anemia is seen as a result of blood loss, folic acid deficiency (secondary to nutritional
deficiency) and mal-absorption, reduction in the number of white blood cells and
platelets.

Cardiovascular Disease

Dysarhythmias (disorders of cardiac rhythm) like atrial fibrillation and other rhythm
disturbances. Hypertension and disorders of coagulation and clotting abnormalities, and
also features of myocardial infarction and Reno vascular disease.

Respiratory Disorders

Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disorders. Respiratory tract malignancy,

post-operative infections and inhalation of vomit (Mendelson’s syndrome) may follow a
drinking binge. Mendelson's syndrome is characterized by a bronchopulmonary reaction
following aspiration of gastric contents during general anesthesia due to abolition of the
laryngeal reflexes. The main clinical features, which may become evident within two to
five hours after anesthesia, consist of cyanosis, dyspnea, pulmonary wheeze, crepitus
rales, rhonchi, decreased arterial oxygen tension, and tachycardia, associated with a
high BP. Pulmonary edema can cause sudden death or death may occur later from
pulmonary complications

Skin Disorders

 Skin disorders in alcoholism can be classified into three types based on the
causes such as:Complications of alcoholism - Acne rosacea, spider naevi, palmar
erythema and finger clubbing are caused by systemic complications of alcoholism.
 Personal hygiene - Skin infectionslike bacterial, fungal and viral are mainly caused
by poor personal hygiene.
 Nutritional deficiencies - Psoriasis, discoid eczema and nutritional deficiencies
including pellagra are caused by nutritional deficiencies.

Reproductive Disorders

 In Men – impotence due to testicular atrophy along with liver damage due to
accumulation of estrogen metabolites and autonomic neuropathy.
 In Women – ovarian dysfunction and uterine damage commonly associated with
amenorrhea, sub-fertility or infertility, recurrent abortion and fetal damage
including fetal alcohol syndrome.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

It is a effect of alcohol on growing baby inside the mothers womb.

Social responsibilities  Dangers of Drug and AlcoholAlcoholismTreatment of Alcoholism

Treatment of Alcoholism
 Abstinence from alcohol, immediately after making a resolve.
 A juice fast for at least 10 days, with orange/vegetable juices from 8 a.m. to 8
p.m. after every 2 hours (Take plenty of liquids).
 Dilute juice with warm water.
 Clean bowels regularly with warm water enema or diet rich in fiber.
 Switch to a diet comprising of fresh fruits and vegetables, cereals, nuts, whole
grains, seeds and sprouts after 10 days.
 Use stimulant fresh fruit juice sweetened with honey/or candies (increased
amount of sweets) to relieve craving for alcohol.
 Eat several small meals a day and abstain from smoking.
 Apple and raw celery juice are particularly beneficial.
 Plenty of rest and outdoor exercise like yoga, including meditation, walking are
also necessary for a backup.
 Generous water consumption and hot fomentation on the stomach and abdomen
with a wet pack between applications are effective water treatments to reduce
craving for alcohol.
Abstinence

The treatment for alcoholism is abstinence. Among alcoholics for those with otherwise
good health, social support, and motivation, the likelihood of recovery is good.
Approximately 50% to 60% remain abstinent at the end of a year's treatment and a
majority of those stay dry permanently. Those with poor social support, poor motivation,
or psychiatric disorders tend to relapse within a few years of treatment. For these
people, success is measured by longer periods of abstinence, reduced use of alcohol,
better health, and improved social functioning.

Medication

Treatment for alcoholism can begin only when the alcoholic accepts that the problem
exists and agrees to stop drinking. He or she must understand that alcoholism is curable
and must be motivated to change. The treatment has two stages: discontinuing alcohol
using methods of detoxification of the system of alcohol or detox and favor faster
recovery.
Since detoxification does not stop the craving for alcohol, recovery is often difficult to
maintain. For a person in an early stage of alcoholism, discontinuing alcohol use may
result in some withdrawal symptoms, including anxiety and poor sleep. Withdrawal from
long-term dependence may bring the uncontrollable shaking, spasms, panic, and
hallucinations of delirium tremens (DT). If not treated professionally, people with DT
have a mortality rate of more than 10%, so detoxification from late-stage alcoholism
should be attempted under the care of an experienced provider and may require a brief
inpatient stay at a hospital or treatment center.
Treatment may involve one or more medications. Benzodiazepines are anti anxiety drugs
used to treat withdrawal symptoms such as anxiety and poor sleep and to prevent
seizures and delirium. These are the most frequently used medications during the detox
phase, at which time they are usually tapered and then discontinued. They must be used
with care, since they may be addictive. Disulfiram may be used once the detox phase is
complete and the person is abstinent. It interferes with alcohol metabolism so that
drinking a small amount will cause nausea, vomiting, confusion, and breathing difficulty.
There are three drugs approved by the FDA for the treatment of alcoholism; a fourth
drug has shown promise in recent clinical trials. The following is a summary of the drugs
and how they work.
Antabuse
Antabuse was approved for the treatment of alcoholism more than 50 years ago, making
it the oldest such drug in the market. It works by interfering with the body's ability to
absorb alcohol and also acts specifically by inhibiting production of an enzyme that would
otherwise allow the body to absorb an alcohol breakdown product called acetaldehyde.
With no enzyme to break it down, acetaldehyde builds up in the body after even a small
amount of alcohol is ingested, resulting in extremely unpleasant side effects that can
include flushing, nausea, and palpitations. Antabuse is most effective when its use is
monitored, say in an alcoholism clinic or at home by a spouse or family member.
Naltrexone

Naltrexone helps to reduce the pleasure that alcoholics receive from drinking and the
cravings that compel them to seek out more alcohol. It does so by blocking receptors
(docking sites) in the brain for endorphins, proteins produced by the body that help to
elevate mood. The same receptors also accept narcotics such as morphine and heroin.
The drug can be taken as a once-daily pill or in a recently approved once-monthly
injectable form.
Addiction is a condition in which when you do something, you want to do more and more
of it. So when people have one or two drinks, instead of stopping after a few drinks they
want to have three, four, five, 10 drinks. Naltrexone breaks that positive feedback loop,
so that people can have one or two drinks and they don't feel like having any more.

In clinical trials, oral Naltrexone was shown to reduce the amount of relapses to heavy
drinking (defined as four or more drinks per day for women, five or more for men).
Compared with patients who took a placebo (dummy pill), alcoholics who took
Naltrexone had 36% fewer heavy drinking episodes over a three-month period.
Naltrexone was found to be as effective as up to 20 sessions of alcohol counseling by a
behavioral specialist, when either was administered under a doctor's close supervision.
Naltrexone is available in a once-monthly injectable form called Vivitrol. The advantage
of this formulation is convenience, as patients are more likely to stick with a drug they
only need to take once a month.

Campral
Campral, when taken by mouth three times daily, acts on chemical messenger systems
in the brain. It appears to reduce the symptoms that alcoholics may experience when
they abstain from alcoholic drinks over long periods. These symptoms can include
insomnia, anxiety, restlessness, and unpleasant changes in mood that could lead to
relapse. Campral helps alcoholics to refrain from drinking for several weeks or months.

Topamax
Topamax is approved by the FDA for the treatment of seizures but not for alcoholism. It
has a mechanism of action similar to that of Campral and may similarly help patients
avoid or reduce the symptoms associated with long-term abstinence.

Nutrition and Diet

Poor nutrition goes in hand with heavy drinking and alcoholism. Since an ounce of
alcohol has more than 200 calories but no nutritional value, ingesting large amounts of
alcohol tells the body that it doesn't need more food. Alcoholics are often deficient in
vitamins A, B complex, and C; folic acid; carnitine; magnesium, selenium, and zinc; as
well as essential fatty acids and antioxidants. Restoring such nutrients and also by
providing thiamine (vitamin B-1) and a multivitamin to balance the nutritional
deficiencies can aid recovery and are an important part of all detox programs.

The following animation tells about therapeutic diet given when the alcoholic
patient is ill.
Balanced diet should also be included because they are very much poor in the diet
intake. The following animation gives about the balanced to be taken to enrich the
nutritional status.

Home Remedies

Abstinence is the most crucial and plays a vital role in the rehabilitation and probably the
most difficult of the steps in the road to recovery from alcoholism. To learn to live
without alcohol, you must:

 Avoid people and places that make drinking the norm, and find new, non-drinking
friends
 Join a self-help group
 Enlist the help of family and friends
 Replace your negative dependence on alcohol with positive dependencies such as
a new hobby or voluntary work with civic groups
 Start exercising. Exercise releases chemicals in the brain that provide a "natural
high." Even a walk after dinner can be tranquilizing
There is no magic pill or a fool proof method of treatment that can banish an alcoholic's
need or desire to drink. But a handful of FDA - approved medications, when used in
combination with psychological and social interventions can help a significant number of
alcohol-dependent patients reduce their insatiable cravings and cut back substantially on
the number of heavy drinking days.

Medications are not substitutes for drinking, but can help make the difference between
an alcoholic's successful recovery or relapse. Medications can sometimes reduce the
desire to drink. They can weaken the desire and urge in people for alcohol and help
reduce protracted, longer-term withdrawal distress.

Psychotherapy

Medication works best in the context of psychosocial treatment. Just giving somebody
pills without the psychological commitment is not as effective. There are three steps to
be followed in this regard:

 Cognitive behavioral therapy - a form of psychotherapy focusing on identifying

and modifying negative thoughts and thought patterns.
 12-step facilitation - in which patients are encouraged to enter 12-step programs
such Alcoholics Anonymous.
 Motivational enhancement therapy - a patient centric approach in which
counselors try to get patients to think about and express their motivations for
change and to develop a personal plan that can help them make the necessary
changes.

Social responsibilities  Dangers of Drug and AlcoholAlcoholismTreatment of Alcoholism

Treatment of Alcoholism
 Abstinence from alcohol, immediately after making a resolve.
 A juice fast for at least 10 days, with orange/vegetable juices from 8 a.m. to 8
p.m. after every 2 hours (Take plenty of liquids).
 Dilute juice with warm water.
 Clean bowels regularly with warm water enema or diet rich in fiber.
 Switch to a diet comprising of fresh fruits and vegetables, cereals, nuts, whole
grains, seeds and sprouts after 10 days.
 Use stimulant fresh fruit juice sweetened with honey/or candies (increased
amount of sweets) to relieve craving for alcohol.
 Eat several small meals a day and abstain from smoking.
 Apple and raw celery juice are particularly beneficial.
 Plenty of rest and outdoor exercise like yoga, including meditation, walking are
also necessary for a backup.
  Generous water consumption and hot fomentation on the stomach and abdomen
with a wet pack between applications are effective water treatments to reduce
craving for alcohol.

Abstinence

The treatment for alcoholism is abstinence. Among alcoholics for those with otherwise
good health, social support, and motivation, the likelihood of recovery is good.
Approximately 50% to 60% remain abstinent at the end of a year's treatment and a
majority of those stay dry permanently. Those with poor social support, poor motivation,
or psychiatric disorders tend to relapse within a few years of treatment. For these
people, success is measured by longer periods of abstinence, reduced use of alcohol,
better health, and improved social functioning.

Medication

Treatment for alcoholism can begin only when the alcoholic accepts that the problem
exists and agrees to stop drinking. He or she must understand that alcoholism is curable
and must be motivated to change. The treatment has two stages: discontinuing alcohol
using methods of detoxification of the system of alcohol or detox and favor faster
recovery.
Since detoxification does not stop the craving for alcohol, recovery is often difficult to
maintain. For a person in an early stage of alcoholism, discontinuing alcohol use may
result in some withdrawal symptoms, including anxiety and poor sleep. Withdrawal from
long-term dependence may bring the uncontrollable shaking, spasms, panic, and
hallucinations of delirium tremens (DT). If not treated professionally, people with DT
have a mortality rate of more than 10%, so detoxification from late-stage alcoholism
should be attempted under the care of an experienced provider and may require a brief
inpatient stay at a hospital or treatment center.
Treatment may involve one or more medications. Benzodiazepines are anti anxiety drugs
used to treat withdrawal symptoms such as anxiety and poor sleep and to prevent
seizures and delirium. These are the most frequently used medications during the detox
phase, at which time they are usually tapered and then discontinued. They must be used
with care, since they may be addictive. Disulfiram may be used once the detox phase is
complete and the person is abstinent. It interferes with alcohol metabolism so that
drinking a small amount will cause nausea, vomiting, confusion, and breathing difficulty.
There are three drugs approved by the FDA for the treatment of alcoholism; a fourth
drug has shown promise in recent clinical trials. The following is a summary of the drugs
and how they work.
Antabuse
Antabuse was approved for the treatment of alcoholism more than 50 years ago, making
it the oldest such drug in the market. It works by interfering with the body's ability to
absorb alcohol and also acts specifically by inhibiting production of an enzyme that would
otherwise allow the body to absorb an alcohol breakdown product called acetaldehyde.
With no enzyme to break it down, acetaldehyde builds up in the body after even a small
amount of alcohol is ingested, resulting in extremely unpleasant side effects that can
include flushing, nausea, and palpitations. Antabuse is most effective when its use is
monitored, say in an alcoholism clinic or at home by a spouse or family member.
Naltrexone

Naltrexone helps to reduce the pleasure that alcoholics receive from drinking and the
cravings that compel them to seek out more alcohol. It does so by blocking receptors
(docking sites) in the brain for endorphins, proteins produced by the body that help to
elevate mood. The same receptors also accept narcotics such as morphine and heroin.
The drug can be taken as a once-daily pill or in a recently approved once-monthly
injectable form.

Addiction is a condition in which when you do something, you want to do more and more
of it. So when people have one or two drinks, instead of stopping after a few drinks they
want to have three, four, five, 10 drinks. Naltrexone breaks that positive feedback loop,
so that people can have one or two drinks and they don't feel like having any more.

In clinical trials, oral Naltrexone was shown to reduce the amount of relapses to heavy
drinking (defined as four or more drinks per day for women, five or more for men).
Compared with patients who took a placebo (dummy pill), alcoholics who took
Naltrexone had 36% fewer heavy drinking episodes over a three-month period.
Naltrexone was found to be as effective as up to 20 sessions of alcohol counseling by a
behavioral specialist, when either was administered under a doctor's close supervision.
Naltrexone is available in a once-monthly injectable form called Vivitrol. The advantage
of this formulation is convenience, as patients are more likely to stick with a drug they
only need to take once a month.

Campral
Campral, when taken by mouth three times daily, acts on chemical messenger systems
in the brain. It appears to reduce the symptoms that alcoholics may experience when
they abstain from alcoholic drinks over long periods. These symptoms can include
insomnia, anxiety, restlessness, and unpleasant changes in mood that could lead to
relapse. Campral helps alcoholics to refrain from drinking for several weeks or months.

Topamax
Topamax is approved by the FDA for the treatment of seizures but not for alcoholism. It
has a mechanism of action similar to that of Campral and may similarly help patients
avoid or reduce the symptoms associated with long-term abstinence.

Nutrition and Diet

Poor nutrition goes in hand with heavy drinking and alcoholism. Since an ounce of
alcohol has more than 200 calories but no nutritional value, ingesting large amounts of
alcohol tells the body that it doesn't need more food. Alcoholics are often deficient in
vitamins A, B complex, and C; folic acid; carnitine; magnesium, selenium, and zinc; as
well as essential fatty acids and antioxidants. Restoring such nutrients and also by
providing thiamine (vitamin B-1) and a multivitamin to balance the nutritional
deficiencies can aid recovery and are an important part of all detox programs.

The following animation tells about therapeutic diet given when the alcoholic
patient is ill.
Balanced diet should also be included because they are very much poor in the diet
intake. The following animation gives about the balanced to be taken to enrich the
nutritional status.

Home Remedies

Abstinence is the most crucial and plays a vital role in the rehabilitation and probably the
most difficult of the steps in the road to recovery from alcoholism. To learn to live
without alcohol, you must:

 Avoid people and places that make drinking the norm, and find new, non-drinking
friends
 Join a self-help group
 Enlist the help of family and friends
 Replace your negative dependence on alcohol with positive dependencies such as
a new hobby or voluntary work with civic groups
 Start exercising. Exercise releases chemicals in the brain that provide a "natural
high." Even a walk after dinner can be tranquilizing
There is no magic pill or a fool proof method of treatment that can banish an alcoholic's
need or desire to drink. But a handful of FDA - approved medications, when used in
combination with psychological and social interventions can help a significant number of
alcohol-dependent patients reduce their insatiable cravings and cut back substantially on
the number of heavy drinking days.

Medications are not substitutes for drinking, but can help make the difference between
an alcoholic's successful recovery or relapse. Medications can sometimes reduce the
desire to drink. They can weaken the desire and urge in people for alcohol and help
reduce protracted, longer-term withdrawal distress.

Psychotherapy

Medication works best in the context of psychosocial treatment. Just giving somebody
pills without the psychological commitment is not as effective. There are three steps to
be followed in this regard:

 Cognitive behavioral therapy - a form of psychotherapy focusing on identifying

and modifying negative thoughts and thought patterns.
 12-step facilitation - in which patients are encouraged to enter 12-step programs
such Alcoholics Anonymous.
 Motivational enhancement therapy - a patient centric approach in which
counselors try to get patients to think about and express their motivations for
change and to develop a personal plan that can help them make the necessary
changes.

Social responsibilitiesHealth and hygiene on board

Health and hygiene on board

According to World health Organization (WHO), 1948, Health is a state of complete
physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity. There is not a single precious thing in this world without a good health. Health
is the most important thing for a best life but neglected by most people, most of the
time in their lives. People rather prefer to run after money and other material things
than their own health and that too at the cost of their health. Health is a metabolic
efficiency. Sickness is a metabolic inefficiency. Nobody is totally healthy or totally sick.
Each of us is a unique combination of health and sickness. And each of us has a unique
combination of abilities and disabilities, both emotional and physical and spiritual.

Healthy habits and healthy thinking are secrets to a healthy mind and body. Along with
maintaining cleant habits, health and hygiene, healthy thinking does a great deal of good
for good health.

Am I fat? Am I too skinny? I'd be happy if I were taller, shorter, had curly hair, straight
hair, a smaller nose, bigger muscles, longer legs - are thoughts that are detrimental to
being healthy. Self-esteem is all about how much people value themselves, the pride
they feel in themselves, and how worthwhile and healthy they feel. Body image is how
someone feels about his or her own physical appearance.
The following media explains Personal Hygiene and Health

The following media is the continuation of the previous media

Staying Healthy at Sea

It is very essential to maintain healthy and hygienic living and working conditions on
board merchant ships due to the following reasons:

 Lack of immediate specialized medical facilities such as hospitals and qualified

speacialist Doctors on board.
 Non-availability of immediate medical help out at sea.
 Limited man power and non-availability of replacements/substitutes for injured
/sick persons.
 Risk of spread of infections and contagious diseases within confined and limited
accomodation areas.
 International regulations for health and hygiene.
 Commercial pressures for minimizing delays in ship's operations and business life-
cycle.

However, a ship is equipped with medicines and equipment as stipulated by WHO

regulations and medical help could be sought through Radio Medical Advice at any given
time with the advanced communication system and technology available on board. First
aid and further medicare can be provided to the injured/sick persons as per the advice
from shore based medical facilities, until hospitalization/further treatment of the person
can be arranged for ILO and WHO regulations require all ships plying the high seas to
comply with the requirements and regulations governing health and hygiene of
seafarers.

Due to the nature of the living conditions, the job on board and exposure to varying
atmospheric conditions, seafarers are prone to get affected by certain illnesses. Care
should be execrised to mitigate the chances of such occurances.

General advice for Seafarers

 Carry whatever medication you are required to take and your Doctors prescription
including those medicines which you generally use for minor problems such as
headache, upset stomach, insect bites, etc. The ship’s medicine chest and the
ports may not have what works best for you. The prescription will help to
convince any suspicious customs officials to let you keep your necessary drugs. If
misadventure happens and your medicines are lost, stolen, or confiscated, the
prescription will also help you to obtain replacements.
 Keep yourself, your work area and your living quarters clean at all times. Wash
your hands thoroughly before eating. Use cutlery to eat, not your hands. Be extra
careful and maintain hygiene when you are in common areas as diseases may
spread from the infected to the non-infected in such areas.
 Be moderate with liquor, food, and sunshine. If you can avoid too much
consumption of alcohol, a lot of rich food, and baking in the sun, you are more
likely to stay healthy.
“Four C’s” of stress management:

1. Control. With a friend, discuss whatever is stressing you out and look for ways to
control, or at least minimize, its impact on you. This may mean learning to accept
that some situations are beyond your control and are simply not worth worrying
about.
2. Challenge your thoughts. Learn to change the way you think about a difficult
situation by viewing it as an opportunity or a challenge to overcome rather than a
crisis.
3. Commitment. Identify your priorities and live by them. If family and friends are
the most important part of your life, for instance, don’t over commit to work or
volunteer activities and shortchange loved ones. If you do, you will feel conflict,
guilt, and frustration.
4. Community. Turn to your family and friends for emotional support, as well as for
concrete help. For example, perhaps they can babysit your kids so you can have
an hour to yourself to blow off steam on the jogging path.

Social responsibilitiesHealth and hygiene on boardStay healthy

Stay healthy
Your doctor might do any of the following to help you stay healthy:

 Determine your risk for certain problems.

 Measure your height, weight, cholesterol levels and blood pressure.

Obesity can be assessed by the following procedures.

 Body weight

It is a common method used to determine the degree of obesity.

The following table will speak about the degree of obesity.

% body weight excess of normal Degree of obesity
25 Mild
50 Moderate
75 Severe
100 Very severe

 Body mass Index

It does not require any standard tables. It is also called Quetlet index. 

BMI = weight (kg)/ height2 (m) 

Have a look at the following table to get a brief idea about grading of obesity. 
 Body Mass Index Grading of Obesity

>40 Grade III

30 - 40 Grade II

25 - 29.9 Grade I

<25 Not obese

Grades of obesity is given in the following animation

Calculate your BMI, by entering your weight and height in the respective boxes, in the
following animation. It will tell you whether you are obese or normal.

 Waist circumference

An inch tape is used measure the waist circumference. This is the most commonly used
tool by clinicians to evaluate obesity. Men are termed as obese, if their waist
circumference is greater than 40 inches (>102 cm) and for women it is greater than 35
inches (>88 cm).

 Waist to hip ratio

Waist measurement (in cm) / hip measurement (in cm)

Gender Waist to Hip Ratio Condition

Male >1.0 Obese

Female >0.85 Obese

Normal waist to hip ratio is 0.7

Simple habits and precautions can help you remain healthy and minimize the
risks of ill-health:

 Avoid using any type of tobacco product.

 Do not breathe cigarette smoke.
 Exercise regularly.
 Eat a healthy diet.
 While driving use seat belts.
  Don't drink and drive. Don't get into a car with a driver who has been drinking
alcohol or using drugs.
 Wear protective headgear when riding a motorcycle.
 Wear appropriate gear when playing sports.
 Never swim alone.
 Talk to your parents or your doctor if you're feeling really sad or if you're thinking
about harming yourself.
 Avoid situations where violence or fighting may cause you to be physically
injured.
 If you have sex, use condoms to avoid pregnancy and sexually transmitted
diseases.
 See your doctor regularly.

The following animation tells you about the various healthy habits to be followed.

Social responsibilitiesHealth and hygiene on boardEating Disorders

Eating Disorders

 Eating disorders are more than just going on a diet to lose weight or trying to
make sure you exercise every day. They're extremes in eating behavior — the
diet that never ends and gradually gets more restrictive, for example. Or the
person who can't go out with friends because he or she thinks it's more important
to go running to work off a piece of candy.
 The most common types of eating disorder are anorexia nervosa and bulimia
nervosa (usually called simply "anorexia" and "bulimia"). But other food-related
disorders, like binge eating disorders, body image disorders, and food phobias,
are showing up more frequently than they used to.

The following media explains Eating Disorder:

Binge Eating Disorder

 This eating disorder is similar to anorexia and bulimia because a person binges
regularly on food (more than three times a week). But, unlike the other eating
disorders, a person with binge eating disorder does not try to compensate for the
excessive intake by purging the food.
 Anorexia, bulimia, and binge eating disorder all involve unhealthy eating patterns
that begin gradually and build to the point where a person feels unable to control
them.

Please find out the correct choice for anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa

Anorexia Nervosa
People with anorexia have an extreme fear of weight gain and a distorted view of their
body size and shape. As a result, they can't maintain a normal body weight. Some
people with anorexia restrict their food intake by dieting, fasting, or excessive exercise.
They hardly eat at all — and the small amount of food they do eat becomes an
obsession. Other people with anorexia do something called binge eating and purging,
where they eat a lot of food and then try to get rid of the calories by forcing themselves
to vomit using laxatives, or exercising excessively. Some signs in a person with Anorexia

 Becomes very thin, frail, or emaciated

 Obsessed with eating, food, and weight control
 Weighs herself or himself repeatedly
 Counts or portions food carefully
 Only eats certain foods, avoiding foods like dairy, meat, wheat, etc. 
 Exercises excessively
 Feels fat
 Withdraws from social activities, especially meals and celebrations involving food
 May be depressed, lethargic, and feels cold a lot

 It is related to low self esteem condition

 This type of condition is very much popular among adolescent
 It is a mental condition
 It is not characterized by binge eating
 The sufferer goes on drastic diet.
 The sufferer may exercise intensively

With anorexia, the body goes into starvation mode, and the lack of nutrition can affect
the body in many ways such as:

 A drop in blood pressure, pulse, and breathing rate

 Hair loss and fingernail breakage
 Loss of menstrual periods in women
 Lanugo hair — a soft hair that can grow all over the skin
 Lightheadedness and inability to concentrate
 Anemia
 Swollen joints
 Brittle bones

Bulimia Nervosa

Bulimia is similar to anorexia. With bulimia, a person binge eats (eats a lot of food) and
then tries to compensate in extreme ways, such as forced vomiting or excessive
exercise, to prevent weight gain. Over a period of time, these steps can be
dangerous.Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterised by repeated episodes of
binge eating usually followed by self induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives of diuretics,
fasting or excessive exercise.

To be diagnosed with bulimia, a person must be binging and purging regularly, at least
twice a week for a couple of months. Binge eating is different from going to a party and
"pigging out" on pizza, then deciding to go to the gym the next day and eat more
healthily. People with bulimia eat a large amount of food (often junk food) at once,
usually in secret. The person typically feels powerless to stop the eating and can only
stop once he or she is too full to eat any more. Most people with bulimia then purge by
vomiting, but may also use laxatives or exercise excessively.

The following media explains the Bulimia:

Although anorexia and bulimia are very similar, people with anorexia are usually very
thin and underweight but those with bulimia may be a normal weight or even
overweight. Some signs in a person with Bulimia are:

 Fears weight gain

 Intensely unhappy with body size, shape, and weight
 Makes excuses to go to the bathroom immediately after meals
 May only eat diet or low-fat foods (except during binges)
 Regularly buys laxatives, diuretics, or enemas
 Spends most of his or her time working out or trying to work off calories
 Withdraws from social activities, especially meals and celebrations involving food

With bulimia, constant vomiting and lack of nutrients can cause these problems:

 Constant stomach pain

 Damage to a person's stomach and kidneys
 Tooth decay (from exposure to stomach acids)
 "Chipmunk cheeks," when the salivary glands permanently expand from throwing
up so often
 Loss of menstrual periods in women
 Loss of the mineral potassium (this can contribute to heart problems and even
death).

Norovirus

What is Norovirus?

Norovirus is a type of gastrointestinal illness which is spread by eating food or touching a

surface that is contaminated with the virus. It's also spread when people come in direct
contact with someone with the virus. Most commonly known as the stomach flu,
norovirus is not usually serious but can last one to two days. Because norovirus is
contagious, there is a higher risk of spreading the illness when people are in close
contact with each other, such as on a ship.

How to Prevent Illness?

Although gastrointestinal illnesses like norovirus are contagious, there are ways that
seafarers on board ships can prevent it or contain it.

On board ships, there are some simple steps to take that could help prevent contracting
an illness. They are:
  Washing hands before and after eating and smoking.
 Using hand sanitizer often.
 Washing hands properly after using the bathroom.
 Isolating the sick person.
 Drinking plenty of water.
 Resting and maintaining a strong immune system.
 Avoiding close contact when there is an outbreak of a contagious/infectious
disease.
 Removing and cleaning clothing and linens that have been contaminated during
illness.

What to Do if You Contract Norovirus?

 The symptoms of Norovirus include nausea, vomiting and stomach cramping and
may be accompanied by a low-grade fever, muscle aches and a headache.
 Unfortunately, there is no anti-viral medication that can fight off the illness. If
you have fallen ill, make sure to drink plenty of fluids since the illness can cause
dehydration (from vomiting and diarrhea). Juice and water are the best options.

The following animation briefs about the oral rehydration given commercially and home
made.

The following media explains the Oral rehydration solution:

Social responsibilitiesPrevention of AIDS

Prevention of AIDS
HIV infection and AIDS

Gaining and understanding HIV information is the most important way to stop the spread
of AIDS and minimise risks. HIV is a complex and very confusing disease. Myths and
misconceptions make it difficult for those living with HIV. There is so much HIV
information and AIDS information on the Internet it's hard to decide which is accurate.
We can help. Learn a bit about HIV/AIDS.

Since 1981, when HIV/AIDS was first recognised as a new illness, scientists have learned
much about how a person becomes infected with HIV. The virus is spread through
contact with an infected person's body fluids, especially through blood, semen and
vaginal fluids. The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) weakens the body's immune
defences by destroying CD4 (T-cell) lymphocytes, which are a group of white blood cells
that normally help guard the body against attacks by bacteria, viruses and other germs.
When HIV destroys CD4 lymphocytes, the body becomes vulnerable to many different
types of infections. These infections are called opportunistic because they have an
opportunity to invade the body when the immune defences are weak.
HIV infection also increases the risk of certain cancers, illnesses of the brain
(neurological) and nerves, body wasting and death. The entire spectrum of symptoms
and illnesses that can happen when HIV infection significantly depletes the body's
immune defences, is called acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or AIDS.

Social responsibilitiesPrevention of AIDSAbout the Virus

About the Virus

There are two species of HIV known to exist: HIV-1 and HIV-2.

HIV-1 is the virus that was initially discovered and termed LAV. It is more virulent, more
infective, and is the cause of the majority of HIV infections globally. The lower infectivity
of HIV-2 compared to HIV-1 implies that fewer of those exposed to HIV-2 will be infected
per exposure. Because of its relatively poor capacity for transmission, HIV-2 is largely
confined to West Aftrica.

This highly mutable virus belongs to Retroviridae family. It is a spherical, enveloped

virus having nucleocapsid and contains two identical single stranded RNA. It consists of a
number of structural genes (gag, pol, env), and non-structural genes (tat, Nef, Rev,
Vif, LTR) each structural genes responsible for producing particular proteins, each
proteins code for particular functions.

GAG: It is responsible for producing Nuleocapside proteins like:

 p17 (forms outer core-protein layer)

 p24 (forms inner core-protein layer)
 p9 (is component of nucleoid core)
 p7 (binds directly to genomic RNA)
ENV: It is responsible for producing Envelope glycoproteins like:

 gp41 (is transmembrane protein associated with gp 120 and required for fusion)
 gp120 (protrudes from envelope and binds CD4 )

POL: It is responsible for producing Enzymes like:

 p64 (has reverse transcriptase and Rnase activity)

 p51 (has reverse transcriptase activity)
 P10 (is protease that cleaves gag precursor)
 P32 (is integrase)

Social responsibilitiesPrevention of AIDSHIV Life Cycle

HIV Life Cycle

Entry

HIV can only replicate (make new copies of itself) inside human cells. The process
typically begins when a virus particle bumps into a cell that carries on its surface a
special protein called CD4. The spikes on the surface of the virus particle stick to the
CD4 and allow the viral envelope to fuse with the cell membrane. The contents of the
HIV particle are then released into the cell, leaving the envelope behind.
Reverse Transcription and Integration

Once inside the cell, the HIV enzyme reverse transcriptase converts the viral RNA into
DNA, which is compatible with human genetic material. This DNA is transported to the
cell's nucleus, where it is spliced into the human DNA by the HIV enzyme integrase.
Once integrated, the HIV DNA is known as provirus.

Transcription and Translation

HIV provirus may lie dormant within a cell for a long time. But when the cell becomes
activated, it treats HIV genes in much the same way as human genes. First it converts
them into messenger RNA (using human enzymes). Then the messenger RNA is
transported outside the nucleus, and is used as a blueprint for producing new HIV
proteins and enzymes.

Assembly, Budding and Maturation

Among the strands of messenger RNA produced by the cell are complete copies of HIV
genetic material. These gather together with newly made HIV proteins and enzymes to
form new viral particles, which are then released from the cell. The enzyme protease
plays a vital role at this stage of the HIV life cycle by chopping up long strands of protein
into smaller pieces, which are used to construct mature viral cores.

The newly matured HIV particles are ready to infect another cell and begin the
replication process all over again.

The following media (HIV replication) explains about the HIV replication:

Social responsibilitiesPrevention of AIDSHIV Transmission

HIV Transmission
Paths of Infection
HIV can be transmitted through:

 Unprotected vaginal, anal and oral sex.

 Direct blood contact, which may occur through needle sharing, transfusions,
accidents in health care settings, or certain blood products.
 Mother to baby; before or during birth or through breast milk.

HIV Transmission Routes

HIV can enter the body through open cuts or sores and by directly infecting cells in the
mucous membranes. Transmission can happen in the mouth, the eyes, vagina, penis
(through the urethra), in the anus and rectum. HIV cannot cross healthy, unbroken skin.
Sexual Transmission - HIV can be transmitted through sexual intercourse, both
vaginal and anal. HIV can easily pass through the mucus membranes in the genitals and
the rectum, or may pass through cuts and sores. HIV can also be transmitted through
oral sex. Conditions such as bleeding gums and poor oral health increase the risk of
transmission through oral sex.

Non-sexual Transmission - HIV can be transmitted by contact between infectious

fluids and bleeding cuts or open sores in the skin. However, healthy, intact skin does not
allow HIV to enter the body, and provides an excellent barrier against the virus.

Sharing Needles - Sharing syringes to inject medicines, hormones, steroids

or illegal drugs can pass blood directly from one person's blood stream to
another's. It is a very efficient way to transmit HIV.

Blood Transfusion - HIV

can occur when the blood transfusion occurs
between HIV infected person and the uninfected person.

Other Blood Products - Besides whole blood, platelets, red blood cells also
transmitted HIV.

Organ Donation - HIV can occur when an HIV infected person donates the
organs or tissue to an uninfected HIV person for transplant purposes.
Mother to Infant Transmission - Itis possible for a mother who has HIV to
pass the virus to her fetus, by exposure to blood and vaginal fluids during
birth, or through breast milk during feeding.

Infectious Fluids

HIV can be transmitted from an infected person to another through:

 Blood
 Semen (including pre-seminal fluid)
 Vaginal secretions
 HIV can also be transmitted through breast milk-expressed through feeding, in
limited circumstances where there is exposure to large quantities.

Non-Infectious Fluids

 Saliva
 Urine
 Tears
 Sweat
 Feces
 Vomit

Social responsibilitiesPrevention of AIDSSigns and Symptoms

Signs and Symptoms

HIV Signs and symptoms vary with the duration of infection. Based on the duration the
infection can be classified as:

 Acute Infection
 Latent Reservoir
 Onset of Disease - AIDS

Acute Infection (Acute Retroviral Syndrome)

 This period lasts for 6 to 12 weeks after initial infection until anti-HIV antibodies
are detectable.
 If acquired by sexual activity, the virus enters the body in infected macrophages
in semen or vaginal secretions. Dendritic cells in the mucosal linings bind the
virus shed by macrophages and carry it to the lymph nodes where CD4+ and T4
cells become infected. During the course of the disease, the virus migrates to
other cell types.
 Initially, HIV infection produces a mild disease that is self-limiting. This is not
seen in all patients and about 30% remain asymptomatic during the initial period
of infection. In the period immediately after infection, virus titer rises (about 4 to
11 days after infection) and continues at a high level over a period of a few weeks
. The patient often experiences some mononucleosis-like symptoms fever, rash,
swollen lymph glands, but none of these is life-threatening. There is an initial fall
 in the number of CD4+ cells and a rise in CD8+ cells but they quickly return to
near normal. At this stage virus titers are very high with as many as one hundred
million virus particles per milliliter of plasma.
 During the first two weeks of infection, CD4+ cells in the lymphoid tissue of the
alimentary tract decline. This has two results: Local immunodeficiency and
chronic immune activation. Immune activation results from translocation of
bacteria across the damaged mucosa of the alimentary tract.
 There is a "window period" of seronegativity during which an infected person does
not give a positive western blot HIV test or ELISA, even though the viral load is
high and the patient may exhibit some symptoms. This seronegative period can
last for six months before seroconversion although the latter usually occurs
between one and four weeks after infection.

Latent Reservoir

As a result of the strong immune defense, the number of viral particles in the blood
stream declines and the patient enters clinical latency. Little virus can now be found in
the bloodstream or in peripheral blood lymphocytes and, initially, the number of blood
CD4+ cells is only slightly decreased. Nevertheless, the virus persists elsewhere,
particularly in lymph nodes and here viral replication continues as follicular dendritic cells
interact with more CD4+ cells that become infected. The virus is also replicated by
macrophages.

Although the number of HIV particles in the bloodstream is much reduced during clinical
latency, the virus is detectable. After the initial peak of virus, the virus reaches a "set
point" during latency. This set point predicts the time of onset of clinical disease. With
less than 1000 copies/ml of blood, disease will probably occur with a latency period of
more than 10 years. With less than 200 copies/ml, disease does not appear to occur at
all. Most patients with more than 100,000 copies per ml, lose their CD4+ cells more
rapidly and progress to AIDS before 10 years. Most untreated patients have between
10,000 and 100,000 copies per ml in the clinical latency phase.

Loss of CD4+ Cells and Collapse of the Immune Response

The immune system fails to control HIV infection as the CD4+ T helper cells are the
target of the virus. Also follicular dendritic cells can be infected with HIV and these also
diminish in number over time. Moreover, dendritic cells present antigen to CD4+ cells
and may bring the virus into contact with these cells at the time that they are stimulated
to proliferate by antigen.

During the course of infection, there is a profound loss of the specific immune response
to HIV because:

 Responding CD4+ cells become infected. Thus, there is clonal deletion leading to
tolerance. The cells that proliferate to respond to the virus are infected and killed
by it
 Epitope variation can lead to escape of HIV from the immune response
 Activated CD4+ T cells are susceptible to apoptosis. Spontaneous apoptosis of
uninfected CD4+ and CD8+ T cells occurs in HIV-infected patients. Also there
appears to be selective apoptosis of HIV-specific CD8+ cells
 The number of follicular dendritic cells falls over time, resulting in diminished
capacity to stimulate CD4+ cells
There is thus a relentless decline of CD4+ cells with especially a loss of those specific to
HIV. This occurs from the very beginning of infection and is permanent
when chemotherapy is not taken. The period of clinical latency varies in length from as
little as 1 to 2 years to more than 15 years.

Onset of Disease – AIDS

Over the next few years after the infection, as CD4 cells continue to die, skin problems
and mouth ulcers develop more often. Recurring herpes and varicella-zoster infections
(shingles) can occur. Many people develop diarrhea, fever, unexplained weight loss, joint
and muscle pain, and fatigue. Old tuberculosis infections may reactivate even before
AIDS develops. Tuberculosis is one of the most common AIDS-related infections in the
developing world.

Diagnosis

The specimen required for various laboratory tests and diagnosis to determine infection
includes:

 Plasma
 Serum
 Saliva

Serology

The diagnosis of HIV infection is usually based on serological tests.

Antibody Tests

HIV antibody can be detected in HIV infected people because antibodies will raise when
antigen enters into the body.

ELISA

ELISA test is to screen for HIV antibodies. In this test the patient's blood samples are
added to microplate wells coated with HIV antigen, incubated, and then washed. The
wells are incubated with enzyme conjugate, washed, and coated with substrate that
changes to green if patient's serum is positive for HIV antibody.

The following media (ELISA) explains about the ELISA:

Immunofluorescence

Immunofluorescence assay is a technique that is used to detect the presence of an

infection. Immunofluorescence employs antibodies to which fluorochromes are covalently
attached. The fluorochrome is attached to the Fc portion of the antibody rather than the
antigen-binding end. Thus the antibody is still able to bind to its epitome.
Western blots

Western blot is a confirmatory and not a screening test that uses electrophoresis to
separate specific viral proteins. For results to be considered positive, reaction of antibody
to 3 proteins must occur.

Reverse transcriptase assay

Reverse transcriptase assay, which measures the enzyme activity of released HIV
particles

Cell fusion assay

Human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV)-induced cell fusion is a critical pathway of HIV

spread from infected cells to uninfected cells. A rapid and simple assay was established
to measure HIV-induce cell fusion useful to rapid screen for HIV inhibitors that block HIV
cell-to-cell transmission. The coculture of HIV-infected cells with uninfected cells at 37
degree C for 2 hours resulted in the highest cell fusion rate. Using this cell fusion assay,
it was identified that several potent HIV inhibitors targeted the HIV gp41 core. These
antiviral agents can be potentially developed as antiviral drugs for chemotherapy and
prophylaxis of HIV infection and AIDS.

Antigen Tests
 1. Antigens are the substances found on a foreign body or germ that trigger the
production of antibodies in the body. The antigen on HIV that most commonly
provokes an antibody response is the protein P24. Early in HIV infection, P24 is
produced in excess and can be detected in the blood serum.
2. P24 antigen tests are not usually used for general HIV diagnostic purposes, as
they have a very low sensitivity and they only work before antibodies are
produced in the period immediately after HIV infection. They are most often used
as a component of 'fourth generation' tests.

Virus Isolation

 HIV can be cultured from lymphocytes in peripheral blood. The number of

circulating infected cells varies with the stage of diseases.
 Higher titers of virus are found in the plasma and in peripheral blood cells of
patients with AIDS.
 HIV can be grown in lymphocyte cultures containing abundant CD4-reactive
larger cells. Primary isolates of HIV grow very slowly compared with laboratory-
adapted strains and is successful in only 70 to 90% of cases. Therefore virus
isolation is mainly used for the characterization of the virus.

Viral Nucleic Acid Test

This is accomplished by probes or by PCR techniques.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

A PCR test (Polymerase Chain Reaction test) can detect the genetic material of HIV
rather than the antibodies to the virus, and thus can identify HIV in the blood within two
or three weeks of infection. The test is also known as a viral load test and HIV NAAT
(nucleic acid amplification testing).

The following media (Polymerase Chain Reaction) explains about the

Polymerase Chain Reaction:

Application of PCR:

 HIV detection in newborn

 Window period
 Resolution of indeterminate ELISA/WB
 Characterization of isolates
 Measurement of virus load.

Advantages of PCR over other techniques:

1. Highly sensitive can detect 10 ng of DNA

2. PCR requires less sample material

Prognostic Test

The following may be useful as prognostic tests:-

 HIV antigen
 Serial CD4 counts
 Neopterin
 B2-microglobulin
 Viral load

Of these tests, only serial CD4 counts and HIV viral load are still routinely used.

CD4 Counts

Despite the increasing use of HIV-RNA assays, measurement of CD4 still has important
value in monitoring disease progression and response to antiviral chemotherapy. Where
CD4 count gives an indication of the stage of disease, the measurement of HIV viral load
tells us where the disease is going.

Antiviral Susceptibility Assays

Due to the increasing range of anti-HIV agents available, there is increasing pressure on
the provision of antiviral susceptibility assays. There are two types of antiviral
susceptibility assays: phenotypic and genotypic assays.

Treatments
"Prevention is better than cure" - more so in the case of HIV / AIDS. Though drug
treatment is evolving there is no permanent treatment as yet for the HIV infection.
Study and research is constantly in progress for vaccines and permanent medical
remedies. Presently the known treatment and medical practices are:

 Antiretroviral Drug Treatment

 Combination Therapy
 Modes of Drug Actions

Antiretroviral Drug Treatment

This is the main type of treatment for HIV or AIDS. It is not a cure, but it can stop
people from becoming ill for many years. The treatment consists of drugs that have to
be taken every day for the rest of a person’s life.

The aim of antiretroviral treatment is to keep the amount of HIV in the body at a low
level. This stops any weakening of the immune system and allows it to recover from any
damage that HIV might have caused already. The drugs are often referred to as:

 Antiretroviral
 Anti-HIV or anti-AIDS drugs
 HIV antiviral drugs
 ARV’s

Combination Therapy

 Taking two or more antiretroviral drugs at a time is called combination therapy.

Taking a combination of three or more anti-HIV drugs is sometimes referred to as
Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART).
 If only one drug was taken, HIV would quickly become resistant to it and the drug
would stop working. Taking two or more antiretroviral’s at the same time vastly
reduces the rate at which resistance would develop, making treatment more
effective in the long term.
 The most common drug combination given to those beginning treatment consists
of two NRTIs combined with either an NNRTI or a "boosted" protease inhibitor.
Ritonavir is most commonly used as the booster. It enhances the effects of other
protease inhibitors so they can be given in lower doses. An example of a common
antiretroviral combination is the two NRTIs - Zidovudine and Lamivudine,
combined with the NNRTI - Efavirenz.
 Some antiretroviral drugs have been combined into one pill, which is known as a
‘fixed dose combination’. This reduces the number of pills to be taken each day.
 The choice of drugs to take can depend on a number of factors, including the
availability and price of drugs, the number of pills, the side effects of the drugs,
the laboratory monitoring requirements and whether there are co-blister packs or
fixed dose combinations available. Most people living with HIV in the developing
world still have very limited access to antiretroviral treatment and often only
receive treatment for the diseases that occur as a result of a weakened immune
system. Such treatment has only short-term benefits because it does not address
the underlying immune deficiency itself.

Modes of Drug Actions

 First
Antiretroviral drug
Abbreviations approved to How they attack HIV
class
treat HIV

NRTIs interfere with the action of

NRTIs,
Nucleoside/Nucleotide an HIV protein called reverse
nucleoside
Reverse Transcriptase 1987 transcriptase, which the virus
analogues,
Inhibitors needs to make new copies of
nukes
itself.

NNRTIs, NNRTIs also stop HIV from

Non-Nucleoside
non- replicating within cells by
Reverse Transcriptase 1997
nucleosides, inhibiting the reverse
Inhibitors
non-nukes transcriptase protein.

PIs inhibit protease, which is

Protease Inhibitors PIs 1995 another protein involved in the
HIV replication process.

Fusion or entry inhibitors prevent

Fusion or Entry
2003 HIV from binding to or entering
Inhibitors
human immune cells.

Integrase inhibitors interfere with

the integrase enzyme, which HIV
Integrase Inhibitors 2007
needs to insert its genetic material
into human cells.

NRTIs and NNRTIs are available in most countries. Fusion/entry inhibitors and integrase
inhibitors are usually only available in resource-rich countries.

Protease inhibitors are generally less suitable for starting treatment in resource-limited
settings due to the cost, number of pills which need to be taken, and the particular side
effects caused by protease drugs.

The following media (HIV Treatment) explains about the HIV Treatment:

First and Second Line Therapy

 At the beginning of treatment, the combination of drugs that a person is given is

called first line therapy. If after a while HIV becomes resistant to this
combination, or if side effects are particularly bad, then a change to second line
therapy is usually recommended.
 Second line therapy will ideally include a minimum of three new drugs, with at
least one from a new class, in order to increase the likelihood of treatment
success.
 Choosing when to start antiretroviral treatment is a very important decision. Once
treatment has begun it must be adhered to, in spite of side effects and other
 challenges. Many factors must be weighed up when deciding whether to begin
treatment, including the results of various clinical tests.

Understand and take necessary actions to control fatigue

Understand and take necessary actions to control fatigue

Fatigue is defined as “A reduction in physical and/or mental capability as the result of

physical, mental or emotional exertion which may impair nearly all physical abilities
including: strength; speed; reaction time; coordination; decision making; or balance.”

For many years, fatigue was discounted as a potential cause of or contributor to human
error. One reason for this misunderstanding was the old myth that fatigue could be
prevented by various characteristics: personality, intelligence, education, training, skills,
compensation, motivation, physical size, strength, attractiveness, or professionalism.
However, recent accident data and research point to fatigue as a cause of and/or
contributor to human error precisely because of its impact on performance. Human error
resulting from fatigue is now widely perceived as the cause of numerous marine
casualties, including one of the the worst maritime environmental disasters in the last
century, the Exxon Valdez.

The negative effects of fatigue present a disastrous risk to the safety of human life,
damage to the environment, and property. Because shipping is a very technical and
specialized industry, these negative effects are exponentially increased, thereby
requiring seafarers’ constant alertness and intense concentration.

This module provides a general overview of fatigue, its causes, and its potential effects
on maritime personnel. The key issue addressed within this module is that fatigue is a
fundamental problem for the maritime industry as it detrimentally affects performance at
work.

Fatigue and life on a seagoing ship

Fatigue is a problem for all 24-hour a day transportation modes and industries, the
marine industry included. However, there are unique aspects of seafaring that separate
the marine industry from the others.

It must be recognised that the seafarer is a captive of the work environment. Firstly, the
average seafarer spends between three to six months working and living away from
home, on a moving vessel that is subject to unpredictable environmental factors (i.e.
weather conditions). Secondly, while serving on board the vessel, there is no clear
separation between work and recreation. Thirdly, today’s crew is composed of seafarers
from various nationalities and backgrounds who are expected to work and live together
for long periods of time. The operational aspects associated with shipping become more
complex compared with standard industries, for reasons such as: variety of ship-types,
pattern and length of sea passage, port-rotation, and length of time a ship remains in
port. All these aspects present a unique combination of potential causes of fatigue.

Causes of fatigue

The most common causes of fatigue known to seafarers are lack of sleep, poor quality of
rest, stress and excessive workload. There are many other contributors as well, and each
will vary depending on the circumstance (i.e. operational, environmental).
Crew-specific Factors
The crew-specific factors are related to lifestyle behavior, personal habits and individual
attributes. However, fatigue varies from one person to another and its effects are often
dependent on the particular activity being performed.

The Crew-specific Factors include the following:

 Sleep and Rest

1. Quality, Quantity and Duration of Sleep
2. Sleep Disorders/Disturbances
3. Rest Breaks
 Biological Clock/Circadian Rhythms
 Psychological and Emotional Factors, including stress
1. Fear
2. Monotony and Boredom
 Health
1. Diet
2. Illness
 Stress
1. Skill, knowledge and training as it relates to the job
2. Personal problems
3. Interpersonal relationships
 Ingested Chemicals
1. Alcohol
2. Drugs (prescription and non-prescription)
3. Caffeine
 Age
 Shift work and Work Schedules
 Workload (mental/physical)
 Jet Lag

Ship-specific Factors

These factors include ship design features that can affect/cause fatigue. Some ship
design features affect workload (i.e. automation, equipment reliability), some affect the
crew’s ability to sleep, and others affect the level of physical stress on the crew (i.e.
noise, vibration, accommodation spaces, etc.). The following list details ship-specific
factors:

 Ship design
 Level of Automation
 Level of Redundancy
 Equipment reliability
 Inspection and Maintenance
 Age of vessel
 Physical comfort in work spaces
 Location of quarters
 Ship motion
 Physical comfort of accommodation space
Understand and take necessary actions to control fatigueImportance of obtaining necessary
rest

Importance of obtaining necessary rest

Recognising of fatigue

You may exhibit one or more changes in behavior when experiencing fatigue. However,
one very important fact to remember is that people who are experiencing fatigue have a
very difficult time recognizing the signs of fatigue themselves. It is difficult for a number
of reasons, but largely because fatigue can affect your ability to make judgements or
solve complex problems. The following list describes how fatigue affects your mind,
emotions and body; you may recognize some of these changes in others (with time, you
may learn to identify some within yourself):

Physically:

 Inability to stay awake (an example is head nodding or falling asleep against your
will)
 Difficulty with hand-eye coordination skills (such as, switch selection)
 Speech difficulties (it may be slurred, slowed or garbled)
 Heaviness in the arms and legs or sluggish feeling
 Decreased ability to exert force while lifting, pushing or pulling
 Increased frequency of dropping objects like tools or parts
 Non-specific physical discomfort
 Headaches
 Giddiness
 Heart palpitations / irregular heart beats
 Rapid breathing
 Loss of appetite
 Insomnia
 Sudden sweating fits
 Leg pains or cramps
 Digestion problems

Emotionally:

 Increased willingness to take risks

 Increased intolerance and anti-social behaviour
 Needless worry
 Reduced motivation to work well
 Increased mood changes (examples are irritability, tiredness and depression)

Mentally:

 Poor judgement of distance, speed, time, etc.

 Inaccurate interpretation of a situation (examples are focusing on a simple
problem or failing to anticipate the gravity of the situation or failing to anticipate
danger)
 Slow or no response to normal, abnormal or emergency situations
  Reduced attention span
 Difficulty concentrating and thinking clearly
 Decreased ability to pay attention

Understand and take necessary actions to control fatigueEffects of sleep, schedules, circadian
rhythm

Effects of sleep, schedules, circadian rhythm

Basic concepts in understanding fatigue

Sleep

Sleep is an active process; when people sleep they are actually in an altered state of
consciousness. All sleep does not have the same quality and does not provide the same
recuperative benefits. In order to satisfy the needs of the human body, sleep must have
three characteristics to be most effective:

 Duration: Everyone’s sleep needs are unique; however, it is generally

recommended that a person obtain, on average, 7 to 8 hours of sleep per 24-
hour day. A person needs the amount of sleep that produces the feeling of being
refreshed and alert. Alertness and performance are directly related to sleep.
Insufficient sleep over several consecutive days will impair alertness. Only sleep
can maintain or restore performance levels.
 Continuity: The sleep should be uninterrupted. Six one-hour naps do not have
the same benefit as one six-hour period of sleep.
 Quality: People need deep sleep. Just being tired is not enough to ensure a good
sleep. An individual must begin sleep in synch with the biological clock to ensure
quality sleep. If the time of sleep is out of synchronization with his/her biological
clock, it is difficult to sleep properly.

Many factors contribute to sleep disruption, some are within our control while others are
not:

 Environmental factors (e.g. ship’s violent movement, weather, heavy vibration,

noise or poor accommodation)
 Food and consumption of chemicals (e.g. alcohol intake, coffee, medication, etc.)
 Psychological factors (e.g. stress, family worries, on-duty responsibilities)
 Sleep disorders (e.g. one, insomnia–prolonged inability to obtain adequate sleep
or
 E.g. two, sleep apnea–a condition where breathing stops when sleep occurs due
to a collapse of the upper airway or the diaphragm not moving causing the
person to wake up)
 Operational factors (e.g. disruptions caused by drills, loading and unloading)

Biological Clock and Circadian Rhythm

Each individual has a biological clock, and this clock regulates the body’s circadian
rhythm. To best understand both of these features, it is first necessary to understand
how the circadian rhythm functions. Our bodies move through various physical processes
and states within a 24-hour period, such as sleeping/waking, and cyclical changes in
body temperature, hormone levels, sensitivity to drugs, etc. This cycle represents the
circadian rhythm. The biological clock regulates the circadian rhythm. The biological
clock is perfectly synchronised to the traditional pattern of daytime wakefulness and
night-time sleep.

The biological clock makes a person sleepy or alert on a regular schedule whether they
are working or not. In normal conditions, the sleep/wake cycle follows a 24-hour rhythm,
however, the cycle isn’t the same for everyone. Although individual rhythms vary, each
person’s cycle has two distinctive peaks and dips. Independent of other sleep-related
factors that cause sleepiness, there are two times of low alertness (low-points or dips) in
each 24- hour period . These commonly occur between 3-5am and 3-5pm. Preceding
these lowest alertness periods, are maximum alertness periods (peaks).

The states of sleep/wakefulness and circadian rhythms interact in several ways:

 The two can work against one another and thereby weaken or negate each
other’s effect. For example, a well-rested person is still affected by a circadian
low-point; conversely, a person who is sleep deprived may feel a momentary
increase in alertness due to a peak in circadian rhythm.
 The two can also work in the same direction, thereby intensifying the effect they
each have on a person’s level of alertness. For example, when someone is sleep
deprived, a circadian low point will further exacerbate the feeling of sleepiness.

For many seafarers, working patterns conflict with their biological clock. Irregular
schedules caused by shifting rotations, crossing time zones, etc. cause the circadian
rhythms to be out of synchronization.

Further, the internal clock can only adjust by an hour or two each day. Sometimes,
depending on the new schedule, it takes several days to adjust. In the meantime, the
internal clock wakes a person up when they need to sleep and puts them to sleep when
they need to be awake.

Understand and take necessary actions to control fatigueEffects of physical stressors on seafarers

Effects of physical stressors on seafarers

Stress

Stress occurs when a person is confronted with an environment that poses a threat or
demand, and the individual becomes aware of his/her inability or difficulty in coping with
the environment (a feeling of being overwhelmed). This can result in reduced work
performance and health problems.

Stress can be caused by a number of things, including:

 Environmental hardships (noise, vibration, exposure to high and low

temperatures, etc)
 Weather (i.e. ice conditions)
  Personal problems (family problems, home sickness, etc.)
 Broken rest
 Long working hours
 On-board interpersonal relationships

Understand and take necessary actions to control fatigueEffects of physical stressors on

seafarersStress - Types and Causes

Stress - Types and Causes

Modern life is full of hassles, deadlines, frustrations, and demands. Stress is not an
imaginary condition. It is a very real, mental and physiological condition. It arises when
you are overworked, overtaxed emotionally, or physically exhausted and as a result you
find it increasingly difficult to cope with everyday activities.
Stress isn’t always bad. Life without any kind of stress will be very boring. Some forms
of stress can be good for you, but other types of stress disorders can cause major health
problems and even be life-threatening. Therefore it is necessary for you to learn about
the different types of stress, analyse them into good and bad ones and accordingly deal
with them.
Types of stress
The major types of stress are broken down into four categories. They are:

 Eustress
 Hypostress
 Hyperstress
 Distress.

Eustress
It is a form of positive stress that motivates you to do your best. It gives you energy to
face a challenging situation. The sense of excitement you get on winning a race or while
riding a roller coaster is due to eustress.
Hypostress refers to an insufficient quantum of stress, i.e. stress less than the minimum
level necessary for efficient human activity. It occurs when a person has nothing to do
with his time and feels constantly bored and unmotivated. For example, generally people
who find themselves in an unchallenging and uninteresting job environment experience
this kind of stress. For instance, the reason for a student's absenteeism from a class may
also be atributed to hypostress (classes that are non-challenging and boring).
Hyperstress
Hyperstress is the feeling of being pushed to do things beyond your normal capacity.
First time mothers are often prone to experiencing hyperstress as they are not used to
the stresses and strains of motherhood.
Distress
It is a form of negative stress. It occurs when your normal routine is constantly adjusted
and altered. Distress can be an acute stress which is intense, but does not last long. On
the other hand a chronic stress lasts rather long - it could be weeks, months or even
years. Someone who is constantly relocating or changing jobs may experience distress.

The following media explains about the Types of Stress:

Personality traits
Self-induced stress is largely due to your personality. If you look closely at your habits,
attitude, and behaviour, you will be able to identify certain negative traits in your
personality that are responsible for your stress. For instance, your inability to manage
time can result in stress. You would have noticed that in spite of your best efforts you
fail in managing time efficiently.

A negative attitude results in many relationship problems. Because of your attitude, you
will tend to shy away from people. Others may not like you and this may lead to
depression.

Low self esteem is another aspect of one's personality that can cause severe stress. The
self deprecating attitude becomes a major cause of stress and anxiety in your life. You
are never satisfied with who you are and what you have. With low self esteem you are
never sure of yourself and always seek approval and acceptance from others. You
become indecisive and unable to take any action on your own. Anxiety and fear are the
constant companions of a person suffering from low self esteem. Being unsure of
yourself, you become overly sensitive to any remarks or comments made by others,
which becomes a major cause of stress in your life.
Relationship
You might often wonder how to create a happy, successful, long-term interpersonal
relationship. You would have noticed that you enter into conflicts with your parents,
friends, co-workers, bosses, or even with total strangers. Often you do not really know
the reason for such conflicts. This is mainly because you fail to notice or acknowledge
that you have contributed to these problems.
Much of the relationship stress comes from your conscious or unconscious efforts to
change or control other people. You want others to behave in certain ways, and when
you can't get them to doing it, you become angry and resentful. The more you try to
change them and fail, the more angry, frustrated, and depressed you are likely to
become.
Economy
Problems arising out of lack of money are a major cause of stress and conflict. The rising
cost of commodities, a major purchase, loss of income, loss in business, responsibilities
of a large family, burden of loans or mounting credit card debt can leave you stressed.
Personal well-being
The amount of stress your health creates depends on your attitude on personal health.
You may feel stressed if you have a personal bad habit such as smoking, abuse of
alcohol or other drugs that affects your health and hence need to be given up. Any kind
of illness or injury can be a cause for serious concern and stress.
Personal safety also can cause stress. Women, more than men, seem to undergo stress
due to worry about either personal or others' safety. When compared with children,
adults are more likely to be stressed about their health.

Understand and take necessary actions to control fatigueEffects of environmental stressors on

seafarers

Effects of environmental stressors on seafarers

Environmental Factors

Exposure to excess levels of environmental factors, e.g. temperature, humidity,excessive

noise levels, can cause or affect fatigue. Long-term exposure may even cause harm to a
person’s health. Furthermore, considering that environmental factors may produce
physical discomfort, they can also cause or contribute to the disruption of sleep.

Ship motion is also considered an environmental factor. Motion affects a person’s ability
to maintain physical balance. This is due to the extra energy expended to maintain
balance while moving, especially during harsh sea conditions. There is a direct relation
between a ship’s motion and a person’s ability to work. Excessive ship movement can
also cause nausea and motion sickness.

Environmental factors can also be divided into factors external to the ship and those
internal to the ship. Within the ship, the crew is faced with elements such as noise,
vibration and temperature (heat, cold, and humidity). External factors include port and
weather condition and vessel traffic.
 Effects of fatigue

Alertness is the optimum state of the brain that enables us to make conscious decisions.
Fatigue has a proven detrimental effect on alertness– this can be readily seen when a
person is required to maintain a period of concentrated and sustained attention, such as
looking out for the unexpected (e.g. night watch).

When a person’s alertness is affected by fatigue, his or her performance on the job can
be significantly impaired. Impairment will occur in every aspect of human performance
(physically, emotionally, and mentally) such as in decision-making, response time,
judgement, hand-eye coordination, and countless other skills.

Fatigue is dangerous in that people are poor judges of their level of fatigue. The
following is a sample of fatigue’s known effect on performance.

 Fatigued individuals become more susceptible to errors of attention and memory

(for example, it is not uncommon for fatigued individuals to omit steps in a
sequence).
 Chronically fatigued individuals will often select strategies that have a high
degree of risk on the basis that they require less effort to execute.
 Fatigue can affect an individual's ability to respond to stimuli, perceive stimuli,
interpret or understand stimuli, and it can take longer to react to them once they
have been identified.
 Fatigue also affects problem solving which is an integral part of handling new or
novel tasks.

Fatigue is known to detrimentally affect a person’s performance and may reduce

individual and crew effectiveness and efficiency; decrease productivity; lower standards
of work and may lead to errors being made. Unless steps are taken to alleviate the
fatigue, it will remain long after the period of sustained attention, posing a hazard to
ship safety.

Effects of fatigue

Performance Impairment Signs/Symptoms

1 Inability to concentrate
2 Diminished decision-making ability
Unable to organize a series of activities
Preoccupied with a single task
Focuses on a trivial problem, neglecting more important ones
Reverts to old but ineffective habits
Less vigilant than usual
Misjudges distance, speed, time, etc.
Fails to appreciate the gravity of the situation
Overlooks items that should be included
Chooses risky options
Difficulty with simple arithmetic, geometry, etc.
3 Poor memory Fails to remember the sequence of task or task elements
Difficulty remembering events or procedures
Forgets to complete a task or part of a task
4 Slow response Responds slowly (if at all) to normal, abnormal or emergency
situations
5 Loss of control of bodily movements May appear to be drunk
Inability to stay awake
Affected speech e.g. it may be slurred, slowed or garbled
Feeling heaviness in the arms and legs
Decreased ability to exert force while lifting, pushing or
pulling
Increased frequency of dropping objects like tools or parts
6 Mood change Quieter, less talkative than usual
Unusually irritable
Increased intolerance and anti-social behaviour
Depression
7 Attitude change        Fails to anticipate danger
Fails to observe and obey warning signs
Seems unaware of own poor performance
Too willing to take risks
Ignores normal checks and procedures
Displays a “don’t care” attitude
Weakness in drive or dislike for work

In addition to the behavioural changes listed in the table (symptoms), there are also a
number of other changes associated with fatigue that will manifest in physical
discomfort, such as:

 Headaches
 Giddiness
 Heart palpitations / irregular heart beats
 Rapid breathing
 Loss of appetite
 Insomnia
 Sudden sweating fits
 Leg pains or cramps
 Digestion problems

Understand and take necessary actions to control fatigueEffects of changes on seafarer fatigue
Effects of changes on seafarer fatigue

Fatigue may be caused and/or made worse by one or a combination of things:

 Lack of sleep - Only sleep can maintain or restore your performance level. When you do not
get enough sleep, fatigue will set in and your alertness will be impaired.

 Poor quality of sleep - Fatigue may be caused by poor quality of sleep. This occurs when you
are unable to sleep without interruptions and/or you are unable to fall asleep when your
body tells you to. 

 Insufficient rest time between work periods - Apart from sleep, rest (taking a break)
between work periods can contribute to restoring your performance levels. Insufficient rest
periods or postponing assigned rest times (to finish the job early) can cause fatigue.

 Poor quality of rest - Disturbances while resting such as being woken up unexpectedly, on
call (during port operations), or unpredictable work hours (when arriving in port) can cause
fatigue.

 Stress - Stress can be caused by personal problems (family), problems with other shipmates,
long work hours, work in general, etc. A build up of stress will cause or increase fatigue.

 Boring and repetitive work - Boredom can cause fatigue. You may become bored to the
point of fatigue when your work is too easy, repetitive and monotonous and/or bodily
movement is restricted.

 Noise or vibration - Noise or vibration can affect your ability to sleep/rest, and it can affect
your level of physical stress, thus causing fatigue.

 Ship movement - The ship’s movement affects your ability to maintain physical balance.
Maintaining balance requires extra energy, which can then cause fatigue. A ship’s pitching
and rolling motions mean you might have to use 15-20% extra effort to maintain your
balance.

 Food (timing, frequency, content and quality) - Refined sugars (sweets, doughnuts,
chocolates, etc.) can cause your blood sugar to rise rapidly to a high level. The downside of
such short-term energy is that a rapid drop in blood sugar can follow it. Low blood sugar
levels can cause weakness, instability and difficulty in concentrating and in the extreme case
unconsciousness. Eating large meals prior to a sleep period may disrupt your sleep.

 Medical conditions and illnesses - Medical conditions (i.e. heart problems) and illnesses,
such as the common cold, can cause or aggravate fatigue. The effect depends on the nature
of the illness or medical condition, but also the type of work being carried out. For example,
common colds slow response time and affect hand-eye coordination.

 Ingesting chemicals - Alcohol, caffeine and some over-the-counter medications disrupt

sleep. Caffeine consumption can also cause other side effects such as hypertension,
headaches, mood swings or anxiety.

 Jet-lag - Jet-lag occurs following long flights through several time zones. It is a condition that
causes fatigue in addition to sleep-deprivation and irritability. It is easier to adjust to time
zones while crossing from east to west as opposed to west to east. The greatest difficulty in
adjustment results from crossing 12 time zones, the least from crossing one time zone. Our
bodies adjust at the rate of approximately one-hour per day.
  Excessive work load - Working consistently “heavy” workloads can cause fatigue. Workload
is considered heavy when one works excessive hours or performs physically demanding or
mentally stressful tasks.

Excessive work hours and fatigue can result in negative effects such as the following:
1. Increased accident and fatality rates
2. Increased dependence upon drugs, tobacco or alcohol
3. Poor quality and disrupted sleep patterns
4. Higher frequency of cardiovascular, respiratory or digestive disorders
5. Increased risk of infection
6. Loss of appetite

Understand and take necessary actions to control fatigueMeasures to reduce fatigue and stress on
board

Measures to reduce fatigue and stress on board

Sleep Issues

Sleep is the most effective strategy to fight fatigue. Sleep loss and sleepiness can
degrade every aspect of a person’s performance: physical, emotional and mental. To
satisfy the needs of your body, you must acquire the following:

 Deep sleep
 Between 7 to 8 hours of sleep per 24-hour day
 Uninterrupted sleep

Here is some general guidance on developing good sleep habits:

 Develop and follow a pre-sleep routine to promote sleep at bedtime (examples

are a warm shower or reading calming material).
 Make the sleep environment conducive to sleep (a dark, quiet and cool
environment and a comfortable bed encourages sleep).
 Ensure that you will have no interruptions during your extended period of sleep.
 Satisfy any other physiological needs before trying to sleep (examples are, if
hungry or thirsty before bed, eat or drink lightly to avoid being kept awake by
digestive activity and always visit the toilet before trying to sleep).
 Avoid alcohol and caffeine prior to sleep (keep in mind that coffee, tea, colas,
chocolate, and some medications, including cold remedies and aspirin, may
contain alcohol and/or caffeine). Avoid caffeine at least six hours before bedtime.
 Consider relaxation techniques such as meditation and yoga, which can also be of
great help if learnt properly.

Rest Issues
Another important factor that can affect fatigue and performance is rest. Rest, apart
from sleep, can be provided in the form of breaks or changes in activities. Rest pauses or
breaks are indispensable as a physical requirement if performance is to be maintained.
Factors influencing the need for rest are the length and intensity of the activities prior to
a break or a change in activity, the length of the break, or the nature or change of the
new activity.

Guidelines for maintaining performance

Here are some general guidelines that can help you maintain performance:

 Get sufficient sleep, especially before any period when you anticipate that you will
not get adequate sleep.
 When you sleep, make it a long period of sleep.
 Take strategic naps.
 Take breaks when scheduled breaks are assigned.
 Develop and maintain good sleep habits, such as a pre-sleep routine (something
that you always do to get you ready to sleep).
 Monitor your hours of work and rest when opportunity arises.
 Eat regular, well-balanced meals (including fruits and vegetables, as well as meat
and starches).
 Exercise regularly.

Mitigating the effects of fatigue

The most powerful means of relieving fatigue is to get proper sleep and to rest when
appropriate. However, a number of things have been identified as potentially providing
some short-term relief. Note, however, that these countermeasures may simply mask
the symptoms temporarily —the fatigue has not been eliminated.

 An interesting challenge, an exciting idea, a change in work routine or anything

else that is new and different
 Bright lights, cool dry air, music and other irregular sounds
 Caffeine (encountered in coffee and tea, and to a lesser extent in colas and
chocolate) may combat sleepiness in some people for short periods. However,
regular usage over time reduces its value as a stimulant and may make you more
tired and less able to sleep.
 Any type of muscular activity: running, walking, stretching or even chewing gum
 Conversation
 Controlled, strategic naps can also improve alertness and performance (the most
effective length of time for a nap is about 20 minutes).

Strategic Napping

Research has identified “strategic napping” as a short-term relief technique to help

maintain performance levels during long periods of wakefulness. The most effective
length for a nap is about 20 minutes. This means that if you have the opportunity to nap
you should take it. However, there are some drawbacks associated with napping. One
potential drawback is that naps longer than 30 minutes will cause sleep inertia, where
situational awareness is impaired (grogginess and/or disorientation for up to 20 minutes
after waking. A second is that the nap may disrupt later sleeping periods (you may not
be tired when time comes for an extended period of sleep).

Reducing crew fatigue on board

There are a number of steps that can be taken to prevent fatigue. Many of the measures
that reduce fatigue are unfortunately beyond a single person’s ability to influence, such
as voyage scheduling, ship design, and work scheduling. Steps such as the following are
important in the prevention of fatigue on board ship, and are within the Ship Officer’s
ability to influence and implement:

 Ensuring compliance with maritime regulations (minimum hours of rest and/or

maximum hours of work)
 Using rested personnel to cover for those traveling long hours to join the ship and
whom are expected to go on watch as soon as they arrive on board (i.e. allowing
proper time to overcome fatigue and become familiarized with the ship)
 Creating an open communication environment (e.g. by making it clear to the
crew members that it is important to inform supervisors when fatigue is impairing
their performance and that there will be no recriminations for such reports)
 Scheduling drills in a manner that minimizes the disturbance of rest/sleep periods
 Establishing on-board management techniques when scheduling shipboard work
and rest periods, and using watchkeeping practices and assignment of duties in a
more efficient manner (using, where appropriate, IMO and ILO recommended
formats – “Model format for table of shipboard working arrangements” and
“Model format for records of hours of work or hours of rest of seafarers”)
 Assigning work by mixing up tasks to break up monotony and combining work
that requires high physical or mental demand with low-demand tasks (job
rotation)
 Scheduling potentially hazardous tasks for daytime hours
 Emphasizing the relationship between work and rest periods to ensure that
adequate rest is received; this can be accomplished by promoting individual
record keeping of hours rested or worked. Using (where appropriate) IMO and
ILO recommended formats in “IMO/ILO Guidelines for the Development of Tables
of Seafarers’ Shipboard Working Arrangements and Formats of Records of
Seafarers’ Hours of Work or Hours of Rest”
 Re-appraising traditional work patterns and areas of responsibility on board to
establish the most efficient utilization of resources (such as sharing the long
cargo operations between all the deck officers instead of the traditional pattern
and utilizing rested personnel to cover for those who have traveled long hours to
join the ship and who may be expected to go on watch as soon as they arrive)
 Ensuring that shipboard conditions, within the crew’s ability to influence, are
maintained in a good state (e.g., maintaining the heating, ventilation and air-
conditioning (HVAC) on schedule, replacing light bulbs, and contending with the
sources of unusual noise at the first opportunity)
 Establishing shipboard practices for dealing with fatigue incidents and learning
from the past (as part of safety meetings)
 Increasing awareness of the long-term health care of appropriate lifestyle
behavior (e.g. exercise, relaxation, nutrition, smoking and alcohol consumption)