ModelosPropagacion Oct 2016

Modelos de Propagación
Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Quito – Ecuador
Copyright @2016, I. Bernal
Agenda
 Radio Propagation and Propagation Path-

Loss Models
Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional 2

Bibliografía
 Garg, Vijay Kumar, Wireless communications
and networking, 1st ed. 2007 by Elsevier Inc.
 Chapter 3

Radio Propagation
 Open areas
 Free from obstacles.
 Simplest to treat.
 In general, propagation over the earth and the
water involves at least one reflected wave.
 Urban areas
 Propagation is quite complex because it often
consists of reflected, scattered and diffracted
waves produced by multipath propagation.
 Rayleigh model is used.
 There is no dominant path
Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Radio Propagation
 Closed areas
 Indoors, tunnels and underground passages.
 No established models have been developed as
yet, since the environment has a complicated
structure.
 For random environmental structure:
 Use the Rayleigh Model (the one used for urban areas)
 When the propagation path is on LOS (tunnel and
underground passages):
 Environment may be treated either by the Rician Model
(there is a dominant path) or waveguide theory.
 For corridors:
 Direct wave models may be used.
Attenuation over Reflecting Surface
 Signals reflected from the ground are
fundamentally no different than any other
reflected signal.
 However, they are considered separately because
they contribute to the received signal power at
virtually all terrestrial receiving locations.
 50 to 2000 MHz, two-ray model:
 Direct wave
 Ground-reflected wave


 Assume hb<<d and hm << d
 hb: base station (BS) antenna height
 hm: mobile station antenna height
 d: separation between BS and mobile
 Assume the reflecting earth surface is flat.
 Received power is also proportional to (hb*hm)2

 If height of any of the antennas is increased, received power increases.

 For Lo=1, gains=1

 L2RAY = 40 * log(d) – 20 * log(hb*hm)
 Path loss is independent of frequency (wavelength).

 If distance is increased 10 times (d-> 10d), you will
have a 40dB increase in losses.

Two-ray model
 Used when a single ground reflection dominates
the multipath effect.
 Model not generally accurate for cities or indoors
 Why is this model so important?
 Free-space path loss model does not consider
interference.
 Consider the problem of delivering wireless coverage
to an island using a wireless backhaul from mainland
(this problem is based on a real scenario).

Two-ray model

• This attenuation should be considered when estimating the received power

as: 10 log (Agr)

Effect of Earth’s Curvature
 Radio horizon is the LOS for space waves.
 It is different from optical LOS because the earth’s atmosphere
bends the radio waves which cause the radio horizon to lie
beyond the optical horizon.
 If we assume that the optical and radio horizon are the same
and the radio wave travels in straight path (see figure in next
page) then, it is clear that the distance between a transmitting
antenna and the earth d and earth radius is Re.

 d: distance to the radio horizon.
 Using the diagram on the left:


 Practically, the range of the space wave comes out grater then the value obtained
by last equation.
 To convert Radio Horizon into Optical LOS, the effective radius of earth is used.
 Re´=Re* (4/3)
 d2=2*(4/3)*6 370 000(m)*hb (m)/1 000 000 (d in km)
 d2=2*(4/3)*6 370 (km)*hb (m)/1 000 (d in km)
 d2=17*hb(m) (d in km)
 d=4.124 sqrt[hb(m)] (d in km)
Results of d are given in km
Assume Re’ is used in the diagram and the following formulas:

 Radio horizon in Kilometers:
 {Square root of H1 (in meters)} x 4.124 = D1
 {Square root of H2 (in meters)} x 4.124 = D2
 D1 + D2 = Radio Horizon in Kilometers
 Example:
Antenna #1 height = 15m
Antenna #2 height = 5m
D1= 15.972 km
D2= 9.221 km
D1+D2 = 15.972 + 9.221 = 25.193 Km
(theoretical maximum distance)

 On average the refractive index of earth’s
atmosphere is such that the earth’s radius
appears to be about 33% more than the
actual radius.
 Thus, the effective radius of the earth is often
assumed to be 8500 km (4/3 * 6370km).
 This is to correct for refraction by the atmosphere.

 The curvature of the earth further affects the
propagation of the space wave since the ground-
reflected wave is reflected from a curved surface.
 Therefore, the energy on a curved surface diverges more
than it does from a flat surface and the ground-reflected
wave reaching the receiver is weaker than for a flat earth.
 The divergence factor D that describes this effect is less
than unity and is given as:

 D (divergence factor) ranges from unity for a small
value of d and approaches zero as d approaches the
distance to the radio horizon.
 It can be combined with the ground reflection

coefficient so that the attenuation due to ground
reflections becomes:

 In last Equation, the reflection coefficient, ,
has been modified to account for the
divergence factor (D).
 The effect of the divergence factor is to reduce the
effective reflection coefficient of the earth (ρ).

Initial summary
 ‘Large-scale' effects cause the rx power to vary gradually due to
attenuation determined by the geometry of the path profile.
 Power averaged over an area of tens or hundreds of meters ('area-
mean' power).
 Attenuation factor is 2 in free space, but it can be 3, 4, …
 Long-term or slow fading
 Shadowing: received local-mean power varies around the area-mean.
 It is a 'medium-scale' effect.
 Examine distances of a couple of kilometers.
 Slow fading is caused by movement over distances large enough to

produce gross variations.
 Use lognormal distribution to model
 Short-term or fast fading
 It is a ‘small-scale' fading.
 Examine the power over a few hundred meters.
 Fast fading occurs over distances of about ½ λ.
 Rapid fluctuations are caused by a local multipath.

 Use Rayleigh and Rice distributions to model.
Radio Wave Propagation
 Multipath propagation
 It leads to rapid fluctuations of the phase and
amplitude of the signal if the vehicle moves over a
distance in the order of a wave length or more.
 Multipath fading thus has a 'small-scale' effect.
 Shadowing
 Field strength variations occur if the antenna is
displaced over distances larger than a few tens or
hundreds of meters.
 It is a 'medium-scale' effect.
 Long-term or slow fading.

 The 'large-scale' effects of path losses cause the received
power to vary gradually due to signal attenuation determined
by the geometry of the path profile in its entirety.
 This is in contrast to the local propagation mechanisms, which are
determined by building and terrain features in the immediate
vicinity of the antennas.
 The large-scale effects determine a power level averaged over an
area of tens or hundreds of meters and therefore called the 'area-
mean' power.
 Shadowing introduces additional fluctuations, so the received
local-mean power varies around the area-mean.
 The term 'local-mean' is used to denote the signal level averaged
over a few tens of wave lengths, typically 40 wavelengths.
 This ensures that the rapid fluctuations of the instantaneous
received power due to multipath effects are largely removed.

 Radio waves arrive at a mobile receiver from
different directions with different time delays.
 They combine via vector addition.
 Resultant signal is a combination of incoming waves to
strengthen each other or cancel each other.
 So, a receiver at one location may experience a signal
strength several tens of decibels (dB) different from a
similar receiver located only a short distance away.
 As a mobile receiver moves, the phase relationship
between the various incoming waves also changes.

 Two difficulties arise when a signal is
transmitted over the wireless medium.
 The first is envelope fading, which attenuates
the signal strength in an unpredictable way.
 The other is dispersion, which alters the original
signal waveforms in both time and frequency
domains.

 Thus, there are substantial amplitude and phase
fluctuations, and the signal is subjected to fading.

 A steady decrease in the received signal power at a
separation distance, d, of several kilometers occurs.
 This is the signal attenuation.
 Attenuation is proportional to the second power of distance in
the free space, but can vary to the fourth or fifth power in
built-up areas because of reflections and obstacles.

 When we focus on a distance of a couple of kilometers,
we observe that signal power fluctuates around a mean value
and the fluctuations have a somewhat longer period.
 Slow fading is caused by movement over distances large
enough to produce gross variations in the overall path
between the base station and the mobile station.

 When we examine the signal power over a few hundred meters, we
find that signal power fluctuates more rapidly.
 These rapid fluctuations are caused by a local multipath.
 Fast fading occurs usually over distances of about half a wavelength


 For VHF and UHF, a vehicle travelling at 50 km/h
(≈14 m/s) can encounter several fast fades in a
second.
 Therefore, the mobile radio signal contains a short-term fast
fading signal superimposed on a long-term slow fading signal
(which remains constant over a small area but varies slowly
as the mobile receiver moves).

 The received signal s(t) can be expressed as the
product of two components:
 the signal subjected to long-term fading, m(t), and
 the signal subjected to short term fading, r(t), as:

 Fast fading (short term)
 The rapid variations (fast fading) in signal power
caused by local multipaths are represented by
Rayleigh distribution.
 If there is one path making a dominant
contribution to the received signal, the latter is
represented by Rician distribution.
 Slow fading (long-term)

 Long term variations in the mean level are
denoted by lognormal distribution.
 Shadow Effects (long term)

Fast fading
 Rapid fluctuations in fast fading is a result of
small movements of the transmitter, receiver,
and surrounding objects.
 Because fast fading is random, its statistical
properties are used to determine system
performance.

Fast fading
 Rayleigh
 For locations that are heavily shadowed by
surrounding buildings, it is typically found that a
Rayleigh distribution approximates the probability
density function (PDF).
 Rice
 For locations where there is one path making a
dominant contribution to the received signal,
the distribution function is typically found to be
that of a Rician distribution.
 When the base station is visible to the mobile station
(typically in the indoor environment).

Fast fading

Rician distribution
 When there is a dominant stationary
(nonfading) signal component present, such
as a LOS propagation path, the small-scale
fading envelope distribution is Rician.
 The Rician distribution has a probability
density function (PDF) given by:

Rician distribution
 The Rician distribution is often described in
terms of a parameter K, known as the Rician
factor:
 As A → 0, K → ∞ dB and as the dominant

path decreases in amplitude, the Rician
distribution degenerates to a Rayleigh
distribution.

Rayleigh distribution
 Used to describe the statistical time-varying
nature of the received envelope of a flat
fading signal, or the envelope of an
individual multipath component.
 We will explain “flat fading” later.

Rayleigh distribution
 Instead of the distribution of the received
envelope (signal value), we can also
describe a Rayleigh fading signal in terms of
the distribution function of its received
normalized power.
 The instantaneous received power divided by the mean
received power:
 It must be true that:
 Equation represents a simple exponential density function.

 A flat fading signal is exponentially fading in power.

 To separate out fast fading from slow fading,
the magnitude of the received signal is
averaged over a distance on the order of
10m, and the result is referred to as the
small-area average or sector average.

Shadow effect ( Lognormal fading )
 Because of shadowing by buildings and other objects, the
received power averaged within individual small
areas also varies from one small area to the next in an
apparently random manner, referred to as the shadow
effect.
 The random variations at propagation loss over such an area are
caused by the terrain structure, foliage and man-made
structures.
 Shadow effect is often called lognormal fading because its
distribution is represented by lognormal distribution.
 Yet, no generally accepted explanation for shadow fading or its
log-normality has been presented.
 The local mean power has been found to be well approximated
by the log-normal distribution over a wide range of propagation
environments, carrier frequencies, and transmitter-receiver
distances.
Lognormal distribution
 A random variable X is said to be log-normally distributed
if log(X) is normally distributed.
 Only positive values are possible for the variable, and the
distribution is skewed to the left.


 If a mobile is driven
around a base
station at a
constant distance,
then the local
mean signal level
will typically appear
similar to the
Figure after
subtracting the
median (50%) level
in decibels.

 The distribution of the underlying signal powers is log-normal.

 That is, the signal measured in decibels has a normal
distribution.
Lognormal Distribution
 Describes the random shadowing effects
which occur over a large number of
measurement locations which have the same
transmitter and receiver separation, but have
different levels of clutter on the propagation
path.
 The signal, s(t), typically follows the Rayleigh
distribution but its mean square value or its local
mean power is lognormal in dBm with variance
equal to .
 Typically the standard deviation, equals 8 to 10
dB.

Lognormal Distribution

Shadow effect
 Shadow effect is “long term” (slow fading).
 [Large] Medium scale fading
 In a moving vehicle, slow fading is observed over a
longer time scale than fast fading.
 Slow fading is the average of received signal power
over large transmitter and receiver separation
distances.
 A local mean is computed by averaging signal power over 5
to 40 wavelengths (λ), or separation distance between 40 to
80 fades (where a signal crosses a certain level).
 The number of random attenuations needs to be quite large for
the convergence to log-normal distribution to take place (40 to
80).

Shadow effect
 Usually “d0=1m” is used for indoor environment and

“d0=1km” for outdoor environment.
 The accuracy of Pr can be improved by accounting

for a random shadow effect caused by obstructions
such as buildings or mountains.

Shadow effect
 Shadow effect is described by a zero-mean Gaussian
random variable, Xσ, with standard deviation σ(dB).
 Under ideal conditions, it is possible to estimate path
loss Lp(d) from the transmitter (Pt) and receiver
power (Pr) as Lp(d)=Pt - Pr, but this approach
ignores the fact that the signal undergoes lognormal
fading, which could reduce the received power at
any location.
 Since the fading is long term (shadow effect), no
improvements can be expected if the mobile station
moves through short distances.

Shadow effect

Shadow effect

Doppler shift
 Whenever relative motion exists between
transmitter and receiver, there is a Doppler
shift in the received signal.
 The maximum Doppler shift fm is given as:

Initial summary presented again
 ‘Large-scale' effects cause the rx power to vary gradually due to
attenuation determined by the geometry of the path profile.
 Power averaged over an area of tens or hundreds of meters ('area-
mean' power).
 Attenuation factor is 2 in free space, but it can be 3, 4, …
 Shadowing: received local-mean power varies around the area-mean.
 It is a 'medium-scale' effect.
 Examine distances of a couple of kilometers.
 Slow fading is caused by movement over distances large enough to

produce gross variations.
 Use lognormal distribution to model
 It is a ‘small-scale' fading.
 Examine the power over a few hundred meters.
 Fast fading occurs over distances of about ½ λ.
 Rapid fluctuations are caused by a local multipath.

 Use Rayleigh and Rice distributions to model.
Characteristics of a Wireless Channel
 A mobile radio channel exhibits:
 Time dispersion
 The multipath delay spread is the time dispersion
characteristic of the channel.
 Frequency dispersion


 Multipath delays occur as a transmitted signal
is reflected by objects in the environment.
 Buildings, trees, hills, or even trucks and cars.
 The reflected signals arrive at the receiver
with a random phase offset.
 Each reflected signal generally follows a different
path.
 Result is a random signal that fades as the
reflections destructively or constructively
superimpose on one another.
 This effectively cancels or adds part of signal
energy for brief periods of time.

 The degree of fading will depend on the delay spread
of the reflected signals as embodied by their relative
phases, and their relative power.
 The multipath delay spread is the time dispersion
characteristic of the channel.
 : rms delay spread in multipath delay.

 Some definitions
 The maximum delay time spread is the total time
interval during which reflections with significant
energy arrive.
 The rms delay spread Trms is the standard deviation
(or root-mean-square) value of the delay of
reflections, weighted proportional to the energy in
the reflected waves.
 For a digital signal with high bit rate, this dispersion
is experienced as frequency selective fading and
intersymbol interference (ISI). No serious ISI is
likely to occur if the symbol duration is longer than,
say, ten times the rms delay spread.

 Time dispersion
 Is the distortion to the signal and is manifested by
the spreading in time of the modulation symbols.
 Caused by frequency-selective fading.
 A frequency selective channel has many frequency
components that take different times to arrive at the
receiver and undergo different attenuation levels.
 The frequency band over which the attenuation remains
constant provides a region where all frequency
components behave identically. This frequency band is
the coherence bandwidth (Bc) of the channel.

 Time dispersion
 Occurs when the channel is band-limited or when
the coherence bandwidth of the channel is smaller
than the modulation bandwidth.
 Frequency components of a signal separated by more
than Bc will fade independently.
 Leads to inter-symbol-interference (ISI).
 The energy from one symbol spills over into another
symbol, thereby increasing the bit-error-rate (BER).

 Frequency-Selective and Flat Fading
 Frequency selective fading: multipath delay will
randomly affect only a portion of the overall
channel bandwidth at a given time.
 The delay spread exceeds the symbol duration.
 Frequency-selective channel if:
Bw is the signal bandwidth.


 Frequency selective distortion occurs whenever a signal’s
spectral components are not all affected equally by the
channel.

 Frequency-Selective and Flat Fading
 Flat fading: when there is no dispersion, thereby
affecting all frequencies in the signal equally.
 The delay spread is less than the symbol duration.
 In order to avoid channel-induced ISI distortion, the
channel is required to be flat fading by ensuring:
 Thus, the channel coherence bandwidth sets an upper

limit on the transmission rate that can be used without
incorporating an equalizer in the receiver.
 Flat fading can lead to deep fades of more than 30 to 40
dB. ???? O se producen pero para todos por igual en Bc??

 Frequency dispersion
 Doppler shift is the random changes in a channel
introduced as a result of a mobile user’s mobility.
 Doppler spread has the effect of shifting or spreading
the frequency components of a signal.
 This is described in terms of frequency dispersion.
 Coherence time of the channel
 It is defined as the time over which the channel can be
assumed to be constant.
 It is the inverse of the Doppler spread.
 It is the measure of the speed at which channel
characteristics change.
 This determines the rate at which fading occurs:
 Fast fading Doppler
 Slow fading spread
 Coherence time of the channel
 The coherence time describes the expected time duration
over which the impulse response of the channel stays
relatively invariant or correlated.
 The coherence time is approximately inversely proportional
to Doppler spread:

 Fast and Slow Fading
 Fast fading
 If the transmitted symbol interval (Ts) >> Tc, then the channel
will change or fade rapidly during the symbol interval and
frequency dispersion and symbol distortion will occur.
 In such cases, a matched filter is impossible without
equalization and correlator losses occur.
 Slow fading
 When the channel changes are slower than the symbol rate.
 If Ts « Tc the channel does not change during the symbol
interval.

Level Crossing Rate (LCR) and Average Fade
Duration
 LCR
 Average number of times a signal crosses a certain
level.
 Doppler spread can be used to calculate LCR
 Average fade duration
 Average time over which the signal below a certain
level.
 The combination of LCR and average fade
duration, can be used to design the signaling
format and a diversity scheme for cellular
systems.

Duration
 The LCR at threshold ρ is the expected rate at
which the normalized envelope passes the
value ρ with a positive slope.

Duration
 Let be the value of the specified
amplitude level, R, normalized to local rms
amplitude of the fading envelope Rrms, based
on the Rayleigh distribution of the received
signal envelope.

Propagation Path-Loss Models
 Propagation path-loss models play an
important role in the design of cellular
systems.
 Useful to specify key parameters such as
transmission power, frequency, antenna heights,
and so on.
 Several models have been proposed for cellular
systems operating in different environments:
 Indoor
 Outdoor
 Urban
 Suburban
 Rural

 Some models were derived in a statistical
manner based on field measurements.
 Others models were developed analytically
based on diffraction effects.
 Each model uses specific parameters to
achieve reasonable prediction accuracy.
 It is essential to select a proper path-loss
model for design of the mobile system in the
given environment.

 Long distance prediction models
 Use base station and mobile station antenna
heights and frequency.
 Intended for macrocell systems
 Short distance prediction models
 Use building heights, street width, street
orientation, and so on.
 These models are used for microcell systems.
 Very small cell size
 In the range of 10 to 100 m.
 Deterministic models based on ray tracing
methods are used.
 Importance of selecting the correct path-loss
model for design of the mobile system:
 Used to determine the number of cell sites required to
provide coverage for the network.
 Initial network design typically is based on coverage.
 Later growth is engineered for capacity.
 Used to determine the traffic distribution by using the
coverage requirement along with the traffic requirement.
 It is necessary to determine if offloading traffic from an existing
cell site to new cell sites is required.
 Helps to determine where the cell sites should be placed to
achieve an optimal location in the network.
 If the propagation model used is not effective in placing cell
sites correctly, the probability of incorrectly deploying a cell site
in the network is high.

 Importance of selecting the correct path-loss
model for design of the mobile system.
 It is used for interference predictions so affects the
performance of the network.
 As an example, if the propagation model is inaccurate by 6 dB (provided
S/I=17dB is the design requirement), then S/I, could be 23 dB or 11 dB.
 Designing for a high S/I could negatively affect financial feasibility.
 Designing for a low S/I would degrade the quality of service.
 Used in other system performance aspects including handoff
optimization, power level adjustments, and antenna
placements.
 Each of the propagation models being used in
the industry has pros and cons.
 It is through a better understanding of the limitations of each
of the models that a good RF engineering design can be
achieved in a network.
 Two widely used empirical models:
 Okumura/Hata
 It has been used extensively both in Europe and North
America for cellular systems.
 COST 231
 It has been recommended by ETSI for use in Personal
Communication Network/Personal Communication System
(PCN/PCS).
 International Mobile Telecommunication-2000
(IMT-2000) proposed empirical models for:
 Indoor office environment
 Outdoor to indoor pedestrian environment
 Vehicular environment.

Okumura/Hata Model
 Okumura analyzed path-loss characteristics
based on a large amount of experimental
data collected around Tokyo.
 He selected propagation path conditions and
obtained the average path-loss curves under flat
urban areas.
 Then he applied several correction factors for
other propagation conditions, such as:
 Antenna height and carrier frequency
 Suburban, quasi-open space, open space, or hilly terrain
areas
 Diffraction loss due to mountains
 Sea or lake areas
 Road slope
Okumura/Hata Model
 Hata derived empirical formulas for the median path
loss (L50) to fit Okumura curves.
 Hata’s equations are classified into three models:
>=300MHz
<300MHz

Okumura/Hata Model

Cost 231 Model
 It is a combination of empirical and
deterministic models for estimating the path
loss in an urban area.
 Frequency range: 800 MHz to 2000 MHz.
 It is used primarily in Europe for the GSM 1800
system.

Cost 231 Model

The multiscreen loss

The multiscreen (multiscatter) loss

Cost 231 Model

Okumura-Hata vs. Cost 231

IMT-2000 Models
 Operating environments:
 Indoor office environments
 Outdoor to indoor environments
 Pedestrian environments
 Vehicular (moving vehicle) environments.
 Narrowband technologies:
 FDMA and TDMA
 Path-loss models: delay spread is characterized by its rms
value alone.
 Wide band technologies
 CDMA
 Path-loss models: strength and relative time delay of the
many signal components become important.

IMT-2000 Models
 For some technologies (e.g., those using power
control):
 Path-loss models: must include the coupling between all co-
channel propagation links to provide accurate predictions.
 Also, in some cases, the shadow effect temporal variations of
the environment must be modeled.
 The key parameters of the IMT-2000 propagation
models are:
 Delay spread, its structure, and its statistical variation
 Geometrical path loss rule
 Shadow fading margin
 Multipath fading characteristics (e.g., Doppler spectrum,
Rician vs. Rayleigh for envelope of channels)
 Operating radio frequency

IMT-2000 Models
 Indoor Office Environment
 Characterized by small cells and low transmit powers.
 Both base stations and pedestrian users are located indoors.
 RMS delay spread ranges from around 35 nsec to 460
nsec.
 The path loss rule varies due to scatter and attenuation by
walls, floors, and metallic structures such as partition and
filing cabinets.
 These objects also produce shadowing effects.
 A lognormal shadowing with a standard deviation of 12 dB can be
expected.
 Fading characteristic ranges from Rician to Rayleigh with
Doppler frequency offsets are determined by walking speeds.
 Path-loss model for this environment is:

IMT-2000 Models
 Outdoor to Indoor and Pedestrian Environment
 Characterized by small cells and low transmit power.
 Base stations with low antenna heights are located outdoors.
 Pedestrian users are located on streets and inside buildings.
 Coverage into buildings in high power systems is included in the
vehicular environment.
 RMS delay spread varies from 100 to 1800 nsec.
 A geometric path-loss rule of d-4 is applicable.

 If the path is a line of- sight on a canyon-like street, the path
loss follows a rule of d-2, where there is Fresnel zone
clearance.
 For the region with longer Fresnel zone clearance, a path loss
rule of d-4 is appropriate, but a range of up to d-6 may be
encountered due to trees and other obstructions along the
path.
IMT-2000 Models
 Outdoor to Indoor and Pedestrian Environment
 Lognormal shadow fading with a standard deviation of 10 dB
is reasonable for outdoors and 12 dB for indoors.
 Average building penetration loss of 18 dB with a standard
deviation of 10 dB is appropriate.
 Rayleigh and/or Rician fading rates are generally set by
walking speeds, but faster fading due to reflections from
moving vehicles may occur sometimes.
 The following path-loss model has been suggested for this
environment:
 This model is valid for non-line-of-sight (NLOS) cases only and describes
the worst-case propagation.
 Lognormal shadow fading with a standard deviation equal to 10 dB is
assumed.
 The average building penetration loss is 18 dB with a standard deviation
of 10 dB.
IMT-2000 Models
 Vehicular Environment
 This environment consists of larger cells and higher transmit
power.
 RMS delay spread from 4 µs to about 12 µs on elevated
roads in hilly or mountainous terrain may occur.
 A geometric path-loss rule of d-4 and lognormal shadow
fading with a standard deviation of 10 dB are used in the
urban and suburban areas.
 Building penetration loss averages 18 dB with a 10 dB
standard deviation.
 In rural areas with flat terrain the path loss is lower than that
of urban and suburban areas.
 In mountainous terrain, if path blockages are avoided by
selecting base station locations, the path-loss rule is closer to
d-2

IMT-2000 Models
 Vehicular Environment
 Rayleigh fading rates are determined by vehicle
speeds.
 Lower fading rates are appropriate for applications using
stationary terminals.
 The following path-loss model is used in this
environment:

IMT-2000 Models
 Delay Spread
 A majority of the time rms delay spreads are
relatively small, but occasionally, there are “worst
case” multipath characteristics that lead to much
larger rms delay spreads.
 Measurements in outdoor environments show that
rms delay spread can vary over an order of
magnitude within the same environment.
 Delay spreads can have a major impact on the
system performance.
 It is important to model the variability of delay spread as
well as the “worst case” locations where delay spread is
relatively large.

IMT-2000 Models
 Delay Spread
 For each environment IMT-2000 defines three multipath
channels:
 Channel “A” represents the low delay spread case that occurs
frequently;
 Channel “B” corresponds to the median delay spread case that
also occurs frequently;
 Channel “C” is the high delay spread case that occurs only
rarely.

 The visual horizon distance in kilometers
d ( Km)  sqrt ( altura[cm] / 6.752)
 Example:
height of the eye=167.6cm d= 4.982 km
 This is the maximum distance you could
theoretically see if standing on the beach in
Portugal looking out across the Atlantic Ocean.

Curvature of Radio Waves
 Because of the decrease of the index of
refraction with increase in height, the
velocity of propagation increases with
height.
h n v
 This happens in such a way that the
radio wave ray paths are very nearly
arcs of circles over the distances
involved in ground-to-ground mobile
communications.

Curvature of Radio Waves
 The radius of curvature is in the standard
atmosphere, where:
 A horizontally emitted ray is curved, bending towards
Earth instead of continuing in a straight line, but not
intersecting Earth (which is assumed to be a sphere).

Radio Horizon
 So, because radio wave paths are curved, the
distance to the horizon for radio signals is larger than
the straight-line distance (optical path).
 The geometry of the situation in which an inclined
curved ray path from or to antenna i with effective
height is tangent to the earth is illustrated below
for a “smooth Earth” with no terrain features.

Radio Horizon
 The path distance to the tangent point is the smooth-
Earth radio horizon distance for that antenna,
denoted in the diagram.
 Because for analysis of communications paths it is
more convenient to deal with straight-line ray
paths, it is desirable to change the geometrical
coordinate system so that the refracted rays appear
to be straight lines.
 For this purpose, a modified tangential geometry
involving a fictitious Earth, having a radius
is postulated with the same distance

Radio Horizon
 For the same distance of the ray path above Earth, h,
for either model for any distance along the tangential
ray path, it can be shown that the fictitious Earth’s
radius should be taken to be

Radio Horizon
 The use of allows ray paths to be
considered as being straight so long as they
lie within the first km above Earth.
 The radio horizon distance for a smooth
Earth, as a function of antenna height, is
calculated as:
when Earth’s radius and the antenna height are
expressed in the same units.
 For typical units, the smooth-earth radio
horizon is given by

Radio Horizon
 A transmitter and receiver are said to be
within radio line-of-sight (LOS) when the link
distance is such that:
 The actual radio horizon distance, as opposed

to the idealized value, is typically smaller,
because of the effect of terrain and buildings.


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Modelos de Propagación

Escuela Politécnica Nacional

 Radio Propagation and Propagation Path-

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional 2

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional 3

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

 Received power is also proportional to (hb*hm)2

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

 For Lo=1, gains=1

 Path loss is independent of frequency (wavelength).

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

• This attenuation should be considered when estimating the received power

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

 It can be combined with the ground reflection

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

 Slow fading is caused by movement over distances large enough to

 Fast fading occurs over distances of about ½ λ.

 Rapid fluctuations are caused by a local multipath.

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

 Slow fading (long-term)

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

 As A → 0, K → ∞ dB and as the dominant

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

 We will explain “flat fading” later.

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

 It must be true that:

 Equation represents a simple exponential density function.

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

 The distribution of the underlying signal powers is log-normal.

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

Draft-October 2016 Iván Bernal, Ph.D. Escuela Politécnica Nacional

 Usually “d0=1m” is used for indoor environment and