Renewable Energy Engineering: Solar, Wind and

Biomass Energy Systems

Teaching Assistants
Mr. Mrinal Bhowmik
Ms. Makkitaya Swarna Nagraj
Research Scholars
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
Guwahati -781039, India
Email: mrinalbhowmik@iitg.ac.in &
swarn176107002@iitg.ac.in
Dr. R. Anandalakshmi
Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
Guwahati -781039, India
Email: anandalakshmi@iitg.ac.in
 Course Objectives

Enable the learners

 to understand the importance of solar energy
 the basics of solar energy conversion techniques
 to apply the solar energy knowledge for development of sustainable
systems

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 Course Structure

 Solar Energy: An overview of thermal applications

 Solar radiation
 Practice problems

 Non-concentrating solar collectors

 Concentrating solar collectors
 Practice problems

 Thermal energy storage systems

 Solar energy utilization methods

 Turbine terms, types and theories

 Characteristics of wind and power generation

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 Lecture 1: Solar Energy: An Overview of
Thermal Applications
 Basic Concepts of Energy

 Types of Energy

 Renewable and Non-renewable Energies

 Energy Alternatives and Current Energy Scenario

 Sun and Earth Relationship

 Formation of the Atmosphere

 Solar Radiation at the Earth’s Surface

 Air Mass

 Instruments for the Measurement of Solar Radiation and Sunshine

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 Basic Concepts of Energy
Energy: Ability to do work. • SI Unit: Joule (the SI unit of work or
energy, equal to the work done by a
 Work: can be defined as transfer of energy (In force of one newton when its point of
physics we say that work is done on an object application moves one metre in the
when you transfer energy to that object) direction of action of the force,
equivalent to one 3600th of a watt-
 Power: the rate of energy use, such as watts, hour.)
horsepower, etc.
Electricity: watts = amps x volts • Commercial unit of energy: kilo watt-
hour (kwh) : It is the energy supplied
 Energy: power x time; a quantity of energy, such when one kilowatt power is used for 1
as a watt-second, kilowatt-hour, calorie (cal), hr.
Joule (J), etc. Example: watt-second = one J
 Energy density: Energy density is the amount of • Energy can neither be created nor
energy stored in a given system or region of space destroyed; it can only be transformed
per unit volume. Unit is Joule per cubic meter. from one state to another.
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 Thermodynamics

• Internal or thermal energy: energy of

molecular motion.

• Heat: energy that is flowing as a result of a

temperature difference.

• First Law of Thermodynamics (Law of

Conservation of Energy): In any process,
energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
The change in an object’s or substance’s Joule’s Experiment
internal energy is the sum of the mechanical
work done on it and the heat flows into it.
Examples: Joule’s experiment
 Thermodynamics

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Kelvin Planck Statement

It is impossible to construct a cyclically operating device such that it
produces no other effect than the absorption of energy as heat from a
single thermal reservoir and performs an equivalent amount of work

Clausius Statement
It is impossible to construct a device which, operating in a cycle, will
produce no effect other than the transfer of heat from a low temperature
body to a high temperature body

Third law of thermodynamics

The entropy of a perfect crystal is zero when the temperature of the
crystal is equal to absolute zero (0 K)
 Types of Energy
 Potential (Stored): Potential energy is stored energy and the energy of position

 Chemical Energy
 Energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules
 Examples: Batteries, biomass, petroleum, natural gas, and coal. Fossil fuels “store”
electromagnetic energy from the sun. When combusted, the original energy in the bonds of
the reactants = the heat energy released plus the chemical energy of the newly formed
compounds (including carbon dioxide)

 Mechanical energy
 Energy stored in objects by tension
 Examples: Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands

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 Types of Energy

 Nuclear Energy
 Energy stored in the nucleus of an atom – the energy that holds the nucleus together
 Large amounts of energy can be released when the nuclei are combined or split apart
 Examples: Fusion powers the stars – such as the fusion of two hydrogen atoms to form
helium (sun). Fusion powers nuclear bombs

 Gravitational Energy
 Energy stored in an object's height
 The higher and heavier the object, the more gravitational energy is stored
 Examples: Gravity forces water down through a hydroelectric turbine to produce
electricity

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 Types of Energy
 Kinetic (motion): Kinetic energy is the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules,
substances, and objects

 Thermal Energy
 Comes from the movement of atoms and molecules in a substance
 It increases when atoms and molecules move faster and collide with each other
 Example: Geo-thermal energy

 Radiant
 Electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves
 It includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays, and radio waves
 Example: An illuminating object or source such as the sun or a lamp
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 Types of Energy

 Electrical Energy
 Energy caused by moving electric charges called electrons
 Example: Lightning

 Motion energy
 Energy stored in the movement of objects
 The faster they move, the more energy is stored
 It takes energy to get an object moving, and energy is released when slows down
 Example: Wind
 Nonrenewable Energy
• It cannot be used again
and again but one day it
Oil will be exhausted

• Likely to deplete with

Non- time
Natural
Nuclear Renewable
gas
Energy
• It has high carbon
emission and hence not
Coal environment friendly

• It is present in limited
**Electricity generation by burning some fossil fuel (coal, gas, diesel), quantity
the norm is ~ 1kg of CO2 equivalent is generated per kWh of electricity.
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 Renewable Energy
• Can be harnessed without the
release of harmful pollutants
Solar
• Essentially inexhaustible
Geo-
Wind • It can be used again and again
thermal Renewable throughout life
Energy
• These are the energy resources
which cannot be exhausted
Biomass Water
• It has low carbon emission and
hence environment friendly
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 Quality and Source of Energy

Primary energy resources (mined or otherwise obtained from the environment)

 Non renewable energy resources (coal, natural gas, petroleum, uranium)
 Renewable energy resources (biomass, hydro-power, geothermal power, solar energy,
wind energy, tidal energy)

Secondary energy resources (not occur in nature but are derived from primary energy
sources)
 Electric energy from coal burning, hydrogen obtained by electrolysis of water
 Energy Alternatives
Fossil Fuels
 Oil provides 30% of world’s need for energy from commercial
sources (2015). Fuel for transportation systems.
Alternatives
 No threat as of now for natural gas (2025)
 Solar
 Little later for coal (2050)
 Nuclear
 Manufacturing of organic chemicals
 Tar sands and oil shale
 Other sources
Water Power
 Tidal
 Environmental concerns in storing large amounts of water
 Geo-thermal
 Hydrogen
Nuclear power
 Fission reactions in pressurized water/heavy water reactors
using U235 isotope
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 Solar Option
 The Earth receives 1.7×1018 W

 Clean source and available in abundant in all parts of the world where people live

 Solar radiation flux available rarely exceeds 1 kW/m2. Total radiation over a day is at its best
of 7 kWh/m2. Large collecting areas are required in many applications.

 Availability with time (Day-night cycle), seasonal changes (due to earth’s orbit around the
Sun)

 Collection and Storage requires large installation costs

 Direct and In-direct methods: PV & Thermal; Wind & Biomass

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 Current Energy Scenario

Solar photovoltaic: 549,833 GWh

Solar Thermal : 12,200 GWh

https://www.irena.org/Statistics
 Current Energy Scenario

4 GWh - 360 GWh

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https://www.irena.org/Statistics
 Current Energy Scenario

3 MW - 229 MW

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https://www.irena.org/Statistics
 The Earth
• It revolves around the Sun in an elliptical shape once per year

• It is almost round in shape and has a diameter of approximately 1.27 × 107 m.

• It is inclined at 23.5° and rotates about its self-axis.

• The inner core of the Earth is a solid comprising iron and nickel unlike the Sun. Its outer core
constitutes a melted state of iron and nickel.

• The outer core is the Earth’s mantle comprises solid rock. The outermost crust that covers the
mantle also constitutes solid rock.

• Nearly 70% of the Earth is covered by water, and the remaining 30 % is land.

• Average surface temperature of Earth is approximately 288 K. The earth receives radiation:
1.7 x 1018 W
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 The Sun
• Largest member of the solar system
• Sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter
• Diameter: 1.36 × 109 m
• Average distance of the sun from the earth 1.496 × 1011 m
• Sun rotates it own axis approximately once 4 weeks
• Density (at its center): >105 kg/m3 (1.622 x 105 kg/m3), pressure (at its center): over 1
billion atmospheres (2.477 x 1011 bar)
• Centre core Temperature : 8-40×106 K (1.571 x 107 K) (several fusion reactions)
• 90% of the Sun’s energy is generated in a spherical region having a radius 0.23 times the
Sun’s radius. Black body temperature : 5777 K - A continuous fusion reaction
• Energy radiation: 3.8 x 1026 W 21
 Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship

 Solstice: Winter solstice the day is the

year’s shortest, and at the summer
solstice it is the year’s longest.

 Equinox: The time when the sun

crosses the plane of the earth's equator,
making night and day of approximately
equal length all over the earth
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Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship

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 Source of Solar Energy
• Energy generated in the region is due to several
fusion reactions. Convective zone

• In fusion, two hydrogen molecules (i.e., four T = 1.3 x 10 5 K : ρ = 105 kg/m3

protons) combine to form one helium nucleus at
approximately 107 K.
5.1 x 105 km
• The mass of the helium nucleus is less than that
of four protons. The mass, having been lost in 170,000 40% of mass
the reaction, is converted into energy by the years to
1.2% of volume
relation given by Einstein, i.e., E = mc2. radiate 0.7 R
through
this layer 0.23R
of the Sun.
H2 + H2 = He + Energy 90 % of
6.9 x 105 km R
Energy
The produced energy (E = mc2) is transferred
to the outer surface of the Sun by convection. T ~ 8.40 x 106 K,
ρ = 105 kg/m3
• Solar energy is radiated into space, which is
calculated using Energy continues to move toward the surface
E = ϵ σ T4 through convection currents of the heated and
ϵ is the emissivity of the surface and σ is the cooled gas
Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67×10-8
W/m2K4)
 Layers of Solar Energy

 Photosphere
 It reaches from the surface visible at the center of the solar disk to about 400 km
 The temperature in the photosphere varies between about 6500 K at the bottom and 4000 K at the top.
Photosphere is covered by granulation.

 Chromosphere
 The chromosphere is a layer in the Sun between about 400 and 2100 km above the solar surface
 The temperature in the chromosphere varies between about 4000 K at the bottom and 8000 K at the top

 Transition Region
 Very narrow (100 km) layer between the chromosphere and the corona where the temperature rises
abruptly from about 8000 to about 500,000 K.

 Corona
 Outermost layer of the Sun, starting at about 2100 km above the solar surface
 The temperature in the corona is 500,000 K or more, up to a few million K
 The corona cannot be seen with the naked eye except during a total solar eclipse, or with the use of a
coronagraph
 The corona does not have an upper limit 25
 Formation of the Atmosphere

• The Earth’s crust and uppermost mantle

form the lithosphere. The various gases R

stored inside the Earth might have escaped 1 0.23 R

million years back into atmosphere in the

form of greenhouse gases (GHG). Sun

• The GHG are ozone (O3), oxygen (O2), Short wavelength

radiation

nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon Extraterrestrial

mono-oxide (CO), and water vapour (H2O). region
Porous CO2, O2, O3,
atmosphere CO,H2O, dust, etc
• GHG move toward the Sun and becomes
stable between the Sun and the Earth. The Beam
Diffuse radiation
radiation
region of these stable gases between the Sun
Long wavelength
and the Earth is known as the ‘atmosphere’, radiation

which is porous in nature. It is also referred Earth Terrestrial region

as the “Earth’s atmosphere” due to it being
nearer to the Earth. Fig.: View of the atmosphere between the Sun and the Earth
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 Unique Properties of Atmosphere

 The atmosphere has two unique properties:

 It transmits short-wavelength radiation (0.23–2.26 μm) coming from the Sun.
 It behaves as opaque for long-wavelength radiation (>2.26 μm).
 Solar radiation coming from the Sun is reflected back to space from the Earth (approximately
4 %) and its atmosphere (26 %).
 The amount of radiation reflected back is known as “albedo.” The amount of albedo depends
on type of soil, plantation cover over the Earth’s surface, and cloud distribution
 Thermal radiation (0.1 - 100 μm)
 solar radiation (0.1 - 3 μm)
 Zero Albedo: Black colour object. Absorb
100% radiation it receives  visible range (0.4 - 0.7 μm)
 Ultraviolet (0.4-10-2 μm)
 White colour objects - perfect reflector.
 Infrared (0.7-1000 μm) 27
 Beam and Diffuse Radiation
Beam Radiation
 Solar radiation that does not get absorbed or scattered, but
reaches the ground directly from the sun. It produces Scattered
shadow when interrupted by an opaque object.
Diffuse Radiation Diffuse
Beam
 Solar radiation received after its direction has been changed
by reflection and scattering in the atmosphere. Albedo
 Irradiance, which is the rate of radiant energy falling on a
surface per unit area of the surface [W/m2] symbol, G.
Beam and Diffuse Radiation
Irradiation is incident energy per unit area on a surface
The measurement is of the sum
[J/m2]), obtained by integrating irradiance over a specified
of the direct and the diffuse
time interval. Specifically, for solar irradiance this is called solar irradiance and is called the
insolation (H for a day and I for insolation for an hour). global solar irradiance
 Solar Radiation at the Earth’s Space
Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI)
 The amount of solar radiation coming directly from the sun (beam radiation) reaching a flat
surface at the earth's surface oriented normally to the sun's position throughout the day

Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI)

 Portions of the visible radiation reaching the top of the atmosphere can be scattered back to
space or reflected toward the earth's surface by the presence of cloud droplets and aerosols. In
addition, air molecules can absorb some of the radiation in the visible channels.

 The portion that is reflected by clouds and atmospheric aerosols (diffusive radiation) on a flat
surface oriented horizontally

Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI)

 Total radiation falling on a flat surface horizontal to the earth's surface (Global Horizontal
Irradiance) = beam radiation (assuming it is not obscured by a cloud) + diffuse radiation from
the clouds and sky.
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 Air Mass
 When the radiation passes through atmosphere consisting of GHG, there is atmospheric
attenuation. The amount of attenuation is governed by the air mass.
 It is a ratio between the paths travelled by the solar radiation through the atmosphere to the
mass travelled by the solar radiation if the Sun is at its zenith.
 For noon time, this ratio is unity. The larger values of air mass implies greater attenuation.

An expression for air mass is Iext

C
p a th le n g th tra v e rs e d in th e a tm o s p h e re AB B
A ir m a s s = 
v e rtic a l d e p th o f a tm o s p h e re AC ψ H0 CO2, O3,
mo 1 CO, H2O,
=  sec z  fo r  z  0 Atmospheric optical dust, etc
Ho cos z path A Porous
Media

At noon, θz = 0; m = 1; for θz = 60°, m = IN

2 and m = 0 for outside the Earth’s Fig. Direction of the Sun’s rays passing through the atmosphere
atmosphere. 30
 Air Mass
• Kasten proposed the modified expression for air mass as follows

1
 c o s   0 .1 5   9 3 .8 8 5    1 .2 5 3 
m 
 z z  

 From the variation of air mass with the time of the day for the latitude of New Delhi
for different number of days of the year, it is observed that the sunshine hours are
shorter and the air mass higher for the month of December on the 21st compared with
other days as expected.

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Instruments for the Measurement of Solar Radiation and Sunshine

Get the quantum of energy that can be derived from a

particular location

 The global/ diffuse radiation: Pyranometers

 The beam radiation or direct radiation : Pyrheliometer

 Hours of sunshine over a day: Sun shine recorders

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 Pyranometer (Solarimeter)

 A pyranometer can measure solar irradiance in the desired location and solar radiation
flux density. The solar radiation spectru extends approximately between 300 and 2800
nm.

 The World Meteorological Organization has adopted this instrument which is

standardized with respect to the ISO 9060 standard.

 Pyranometers are calibrated based on the World Radiometric Reference, which is

maintained by World Radiation Center, Davos, Switzerland.

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 Pyranometers

 Pyranometer: Measures either global or diffusive radiation falling on a horizontal surface

over a hemispherical field of view

 Black surface which heats up when exposed to solar radiation

 Horizontal circular disc of 25 mm diameter and coated with a special black lacquer
having high absorptivity of solar wavelength.
 Disc is placed on a large diameter guard plate.
 Two concentric hemispheres (30 and 50 mm diameter), made of optical glass having
good transmission, protects the disc surface from weather)

 Temperature increases until radiation equals the rate of heat loss by convection,
conduction and reradiation

 Hot junctions are attached to the black surface while the cold junctions are located under
a guard plate. Emf (0-10 mV) is generated. Read, recorded and integrated over a time.
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 Design of Pyranometers

 Thermopile – A sensor consisting of thermocouples connected in series and provided with a black coating
for absorbing all solar radiation. It exhibits a near-perfect cosine response (variation of the pyranometer's
calibration with θ) and a flat spectrum that covers 300 to 50000 nm. It is capable of producing a potential
that is relative to the temperature gradient.

 Glass dome – This dome restricts the spectral response from 300 to 2800 nm from a field of view of 180
degrees. This hemispherical glass dome also shields the thermopile from wind, rain and convection.

 Occulting disc – It is used for measuring the diffuse radiation and blocking beam radiation from the surface.

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 Working Principle and Advantages
Key Benefits
 A pyranometer is operated based on the
 Very small temperature coefficient (relative
measurement of temperature difference between
change of a physical property associated
a clear surface and a dark surface.
with change in temperature)
 Calibrated to ISO standards
 The thermopile is used to measure this
 More accurate measurements of performance
temperature difference.
index and performance ratio
 Integrated measurement of the total available
 The potential difference created in the thermopile
short-wave solar energy under all conditions
owing to the temperature gradient between the
two surfaces is used for measuring the amount of
Applications
solar radiation.
 Predicting insulation requirements for
building structures
 However, the voltage produced by the thermopile
 Establishment of greenhouse locations
can be measured using a potentiometer.
 Designing photovoltaic systems
Radiation data needs to be integrated by means
 Meteorological and climatological studies
of an electronic integrator.
 Measurement of solar intensity data
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 Pyrheliometer

 Solar radiations are measured by comparing the temperatures

of two identical blackened Manganin strips. Each strip is - +
connected with a thermocouple and electric heater
G

 For measuring the radiation, one strip is shaded and heated

by an electrical current passing through it, whereas the other
is heated by absorbing the solar radiations incident on it.
A B
a b
 The roles of strips are interchanged for second set of
observations to nullify the effect of unavoidable minor
differences in the properties of the strips. G

 When the temperatures of both strips are same, the electrical

energy used in heating the first strip will be equal to the solar
Circuit diagram for thermoelectric-type
energy absorbed by the second strip. pyrheliometer

 Solar radiation absorbed by second strip is obtained by

dividing the electrical energy with the product of the strip
area and its absorptivity 37
 Pyreheliometer

 Pyrheliometer measures beam radiation falling on

a surface normal to the sun’s rays.

 Black absorber plate is located at the base of a Solar radiation

collimating tube, which is aligned with the Acceptance
direction of sun’s rays with the help of two-axis angle
tracking system and alignment indicator. Protective lens

Applications Hollow tube

Typical pyrheliometer measurement applications

include scientific meteorological and climate Black body
observations, material testing research, and Thermocouple
module
assessment of the efficiency of solar collectors
and photovoltaic devices.
 Sunshine Recorder

 Use to measure duration of the day when there was bright sun shine give beam radiation

Construction winter

 Transparent glass sphere mounted on heavy base equinox

 Bowl provided below glass sphere

 Grove is provided to insert paper
summer
Working
 Glass concentrate solar radiation Sunshine Recorder Cards

 Paper receive solar radiation on it

 Paper give burn mark when the sun shine is present
 Sunshine Recorder
This is an instrument for measuring
the duration of bright sunshine in
hours.
It consists of a glass sphere mounted
in a section of a spherical brass bowl
with grooves to hold the recorder
cards.
The sphere burns a trace on the card
after being exposed to the Sun.
The length of the trace is a direct
measure of the duration of bright
sunshine.
There are sets of grooves to take
three sets of cards, namely, (i) a
long curved card for summer, (ii)
a short curved card for winter, and
(iii) straight cards for equinoxes.
 Thermal Applications

Collection and Storage

 Flat plate collector, Evacuated tube collector, Parabolic trough collector

 Thermal Storage (Thermal, electrical, mechanical and chemical): Sensible and latent
heat storage

Applications

 Water and space heating, Distillation, Drying and Cooking

 Space cooling and refrigeration and Power generation

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 Suggested Reading Materials and References

1. S. P. Sukhatme and J. K. Nayak, Solar Energy: Principles of Thermal Collection and Storage, Tata
McGraw Hill, 2015.

2. Arvind Tiwari, G. N. Tiwari, and Shyam, ‘Handbook of Solar Energy: Theory, Analysis and
Applications ‘ Springer.

3. D. Y. Goswami, F. Kreith and J. F. Kreider, Principles of Solar Engineering, Taylor and Francis,
1999.

4. G. N. Tiwari, Solar Energy, Fundamentals, Design, Modeling and Applications, Narosa, 2002.

5. J. A. Duffie and W. A. Beckman, Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, John Wiley, 2006.

6. H. P. Garg and J. Prakash, Solar Energy: Fundamentals and Applications, Tata McGraw Hill,
1997.
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