Renewable Energy Systems

Lecture 2 & 3
Primary Energy Resources
• Coal
• Gas
• Hydrocarbons (Oil)
• Nuclear
Primary Energy
• Primary energy is the total energy ‘content’ of the original
resource.
• (Natural occurring energy store )

• Our main present resources are the fossil fuels (coal, oil and
natural gas)
• Biofuels such as wood, straw, dried dung, etc.
• Nuclear power stations
• Hydroelectric geothermal plant and other ‘renewables’ such
as solar or wind power.
Unit of Energy
• Watt is not a unit of energy, but a rate at which energy is being transformed or
converted from one form to another.
1 watt = 1 joule per second
• One kilowatt-hour is the amount of energy converted in one hour at a rate of one
kilowatt.
1 kWh = 3.6 MJ

• The world rate of primary energy consumption is 15.9 TW, which is 15.3 million
million watts, and the world population is about 6829 million people. The average rate
of consumption is therefore
15,900,000 / 6829 = 2.328 kW
• On average, therefore, we are each consuming primary energy at a steady rate of
about 2.2 kW. There are 24 hours in a day, so the daily consumption per person is
2.328 kW × 24 hours = 55.87 kWh.
Unit of Energy
• One tonne of oil equivalent (toe) is simply the heat energy
released in the complete combustion of 1000 kg of oil and is
equal to 42GJ.
• One tonne of coal equivalent (tce) is the heat energy
released in burning one metric tonne of coal and is equal to
20 GJ to 30GJ.
• One BTU is the heat energy needed to warm one pound of
water by one degree Fahrenheit and is equal to 1055 joules.
• One calorie is the heat energy needed to warm one gram of
water by one degree Celsius and is equal to 4.19 joules.
Worldwide Commercial Energy Production
How We Use Energy
• What are the commercial uses of energy?
• Industry uses 38%;
• Residential and commercial buildings use 36%; and,
• Transportation uses 26%.
• Half of all energy in primary fuels is lost during conversion to
more useful forms while being shipped or during use.
• Nearly two-thirds of energy in coal being burned to
generate electricity is lost during thermal conversion in
the power plant. Another 10% is lost during transmission
and stepping down to household voltages.
• Natural gas is the most efficient fuel.
• Only 10% of its energy content is lost during shipping and
processing. Ordinary gas-burning furnaces are about
75% efficient. High-economy furnaces can be 95%
efficient.
 FOSSIL FUELS
Coal

Oil

Natural Gas
Coal Extraction and Use
• Mining is dangerous to humans and
the environment
• Coal burning releases large amounts
of air pollution, and is the largest
single source of acid rain in many
areas.
• Economic damages are billions of
dollars
• 900 million tons of coal are burned in
the U.S. for electric power generation.
As a result, multiple pollutants are
released such as:

• Sodium Dioxide (18 million metric

tons)
• Nitrogen Oxides ( 5 million metric
tons)
• Particulates (4 million metric tons)
• Hydrocarbons (600,000 metric tons)
• Carbon Dioxide (1 trillion metric tons)
 Oil Extraction and Use
• The countries of the Middle East control two-thirds of all
proven-in-place oil reserves. Saudi Arabia has the most.
• The U.S. has already used up about 40% of its original
recoverable petroleum resource.
• Oil combustion creates substantial air pollution.
• Drilling causes soil and water pollution.
• Often oil contains a high sulfur level. Sulfur is corrosive,
thus the sulfur is stripped out before oil is shipped to
market.
• Oil is primarily used for transportation providing > 90% of
transportation energy.
• Resources and proven reserves for the year 2000 are 650
billion barrels (bbl). 800 bbl remain to be discovered or
are currently not recoverable.
 Natural Gas Consumption
• World’s third largest commercial fuel (23% of global energy used).
• Produces half as much CO2 as equivalent amount of coal.
• Most rapidly growing used energy source.

• Proven world reserves and

resources of natural gas equal
3,200 trillion cubic feet. This
equals a 60 year supply at
present usage rates.
• Natural gas produces only half
as much CO2 as an equivalent
amount of coal.
• Problems: difficult to ship
across oceans, to store in large
quantities, and much waste
from flaring off.
NUCLEAR POWER
The common fuel for nuclear reactors is U235 that occurs
naturally (0.7%) as a radioactive isotope of uranium.

U235 is enriched to 3% concentration as it is processed into

cylindrical pellets (1.5 cm long). The pellets are stacked in
hollow metal rods (4 m long).

100 rods are bundled together into a fuel assembly. Thousands

of these fuel assemblies are bundled in the reactor core.
NUCLEAR POWER (contd.)
• When struck by neutrons, radioactive uranium atoms
undergo nuclear fission, releasing energy and more
neutrons. This result triggers a nuclear chain reaction.

• This reaction is moderated in a power plant by neutron-

absorbing solution (Moderator).
• Control Rods composed of neutron-absorbing material are
inserted into spaces between fuel assemblies to control
reaction rate.

• Water or other coolant is circulated between the fuel rods

to remove excess heat.
Renewable Energy
Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that
comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a
human timescale such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves,
and geothermal heat.

Energy from a source that is not exhausted when used,

such as wind or solar power.
Reasons for Renewable Energy
• Declining Fossil Fuel Supplies

• Environmental Concerns – Global Warming

• Increasing Cost of Fossil Fuels

• Political Concerns

• Business Opportunities
 SOLAR ENERGY
• Photosynthesis
• Passive solar heat is using
absorptive structures with no
moving parts to gather and hold
heat. Greenhouse design
• Active solar heat is when a system
pumps a heat-absorbing medium
through a collector, rather than
passively collecting heat in a
stationary object.

Mean solar energy striking the upper atmosphere is 1,330 watts per square
meter. The amount reaching the earth’s surface is 10,000 times > all
commercial energy used annually. Until recently, this energy source has been
too diffuse and low intensity to capitalize for electricity production.
High-Temperature Solar Energy
•Parabolic mirrors are curved
reflective surfaces that collect light
and focus it onto a concentrated
point. It involves two techniques:

– Long curved mirrors focus on a

central tube containing a heat-
absorbing fluid.

– Small mirrors arranged in

concentric rings around a tall
central tower track the sun and
focus light on a heat absorber
on top of the tower where
molten salt is heated to drive a
steam-turbine electric generator.
Photovoltaic Solar Energy
• During the past 25 years, efficiency of energy capture by
photovoltaic cells has increased from less than 1% of
incident light to more than 10% in field conditions, and 75%
in laboratory conditions.
• Invention of amorphous silicon collectors has allowed
production of lightweight, cheaper cells.

• Photovoltaic cells capture solar energy and convert it

directly to electrical current by separating electrons from
parent atoms and accelerating them across a one-way
electrostatic barrier.
• Bell Laboratories - 1954
• 1958 - $2,000 / watt
• 1970 - $100 / watt
• 2002 - $5 / watt
Average Daily Solar Radiation
Challenges for solar Power Utilization
 Lack of local capacity has been a persistent barrier to
exploiting solar energy in Pakistan. Pakistan does not have a
local solar manufacturing industry, as we remain dependent on
imports of critical raw materials and components from China
and Europe.

 They mostly operate on a small scale, with only few having

the expertise to provide adequate maintenance services,
resulting in dwindling customer confidence in the
technology.
 High upfront costs and lack of availability of easy and
consistent financing options, has further slowed the uptake of
solar.
Photovoltaic energy -
solar energy converted
directly to electrical
current
Incentive by Government for Solar Power
Project Development in Pakistan
 The government has taken measures to increase solar
diffusion in the country through commissioning of solar
PV plants that will directly feed into the grid.
 The Renewable Energy policy offers attractive Return on Equity on
a “Cost Plus” basis.
 Makes purchase of electricity by the State Owned Transmission
Company, i-e: NTDC from qualifying RE based project mandatory.
 The policy makes the purchaser responsible for extending the grid
to the point of production.
 Permits an investor to generate electricity based on RE resources
at one location and receive an equivalent amount for own use
elsewhere on the grid at the investors own cost of generation plus
transmission charges (wheeling).
 The policy allows net metering and billing
Incentive by Government for Solar Power
Project Development in Pakistan (cont.)

 Long Term Agreements to cover Political Risk

 Facilitation for procurement / lease of land for wind/Solar farms at
cheaper rates by the Energy Department, Govt of Sindh (unheard
in other territories in the region).
 Availability of infrastructure for setting up manufacturing facilities.
 Credit Market Facility
 100% Carbon Credits to IPP
 No import duties on equipments
 Zero sales tax
Efforts for Establishment of Solar Power
projects
 GoP is encouraging the private sector to invest in solar power
and set up commercial power projects.
 AEDB has been facilitating several private sector companies that
have been attract due to vigorous campaign and promotional
activities of AEDB.
 The GoP has set an ambitious target of having at least 5% of the
total power generation of the country (i.e. 9700 MW) through
alternative energy by 2030 that would have a descent share
coming from solar power.
 AEDB has made significant progress mobilizing the public and
private sector companies in solar power sector. The public
sector stakeholders like CPPA/NTDC/DISCOs, NEPRA,
provincial governments, and the private investors are being
taken on board for development of solar power in the country.
 AEDB, at its end, has done level-best to actively mobilize the
• stakeholders involved with the project. AEDB has attracted national
• and international investors. 15 companies hold LOIs for
• development of solar PV power projects in Pakistan with
• cumulative capacity of around 400 MW.

 National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, Colorado

• USA in collaboration with USAID, PMD and AEDB has carried out
• detailed analysis to determine solar energy potential in various
• regions of Pakistan and has solar Maps f Pakistan.  These solar
• maps indicates that major  Describe that Pakistan lies on Sunny Belt
 The mean global irradiation falling on horizontal surface is about
200-250 watt per m2 per day. About 1500-3000 sun shine hours and
1.9 - 2.3 MWh per m2 per year.

 Balochistan province is particularly rich in solar energy. It has an

average daily global insulation of 19 to 20 MJ/m 2 per day with
annual mean sunshine duration of 8 to 8.5 hours a day and these
values are among the highest in the world. For daily global radiation
up to 23MJ/m2, 24 consecutive days are available in this area.

 Keeping in view the fact that the benefits of solar energy for power
generation can be attained in areas where abundant barren land is
available and no other development activities like agriculture,
livestock, industry etc. is possible. Such areas include the following:
Most part of Balochistan Province

Thal Desert in Punjab

Thar Desert in Sindh
Cholistan Area
Solar Power Projects
• At present, 31 projects of 709.6 MW capacity are under
development within the framework of AEDB policies and
procedures. These projects are at various stages of
development. The expected timelines for their commissioning
are as follows:

Yearly Cumulative
Year Projects
Capacity (MW)

2016 6 46
2017 3 150
2018 22 513.6
Total 31 709.6
BIOMASS
Fuel-wood Crisis

• Currently, about half of worldwide annual wood harvest is used as fuel.

• Eighty-five percent of fuel-wood is harvested in developing countries.
• By 2025, worldwide demand for fuel-wood is expected to be twice current
harvest rates while supplies will have remained relatively static.

• About 40% of world population depends on firewood and charcoal as their

primary energy source.
• Of these, three-quarters do not have an adequate supply.
• Problem intensifies as less developed countries continue to grow.
• For urban dwellers, the opportunity to scavenge wood is generally
nonexistent.
ENERGY FROM EARTH'S FORCES

Wind
Geothermal
Tidal
Wave
Hydropower
• Water power produces 25% of
the world’s electricity and it is
clean, renewable energy.

• Dams cause social and

ecological damage.
• Hydropower
• By 1925, falling water generated 40% of world’s electric power.
• Hydroelectric production capacity has grown 15-fold, but fossil fuel use
has risen so rapidly that now hydroelectric only supplies one-quarter of
electrical generation.
• Total world hydropower potential estimated about 3 million MW.
• Currently use about 10% of potential supply.
• Energy derived from hydropower in 1994 was equivalent to 500 million
tons of oil. Much of recent hydropower development is in very large
dams.
• Drawbacks to dams include:
• Human Displacement
• Ecosystem Destruction
• Wildlife Losses
• Large-Scale Flooding Due to Dam Failures
• Sedimentation
• Evaporative Losses
Wind Energy
WIND RESOURCES IN PAKISTAN
 In Pakistan, first 50 MW wind power plant was inaugurated in
December 2012 and started full production in 2013.
 The wind power potential in Pakistan that has been identified
in Sindh and Balochistan is more than 50,000 MW while Punjab
has potential of producing almost 1,000 MW.
 Gharo, one of the sites in Sindh where the wind data have
been recorded and studied by Pakistan Metrological
Department (PMD), has been selected for this feasibility study.
The wind measurements at Gharo have been carried out during
24 months period. The annual mean wind speed is estimated
to be 6.86 m/s at 50 meter above ground level. The annual
power density of area is 408.6 W/m2, which bring the site into
good category of power potential it also means this area is
suitable for large economically viable wind farm.
WIND RESOURCES IN PAKISTAN (cont.)

• The Gharo-Keti Bandar Wind Corridor spreading 60 km

along the coastline of Sindh province and more than 170 km
deep towards the land alone has a potential to generate
more that 60,000 MW of electricity.
• In recent years, the government has completed several
small projects to demonstrate that wind energy is viable in
the country. In Mirpur Sakro, 85 micro turbines have been
installed to power 356 homes. In Kund Malir, 40 turbines
have been installed, which power 111 homes. The
Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB) has also
acquired 18,000 acres for the installation of more wind
turbines.
Incentive by Government for Wind Power Project
Development in Pakistan
• Government of Pakistan's "Policy for Development of
Renewable Energy for Power Generation" offers the following
incentives for setting up Wind IPPs:
• Upfront tariff US Cents14.6628/Kwh.
• Facilitation for procurement / lease of land for wind farms
provided by AEDB (unheard of in other territories around the
world) on extremely cheap rates offered for land for Wind farms
(Euro 7/- only per acre per year.
• Availability of land is guaranteed for fast track projects .
• Wind Risk (risk of variability of wind speed).
• Guaranteed Electricity Purchase.
• Grid provision is the responsibility of the purchaser
• Protection against political risk.
Incentive by Government for Wind Power Project
Development in Pakistan

• Attractive Tariff (Cost plus 15% ROE), indexed to inflation &

exchange rate variation (Rupee / Dollar).
• Euro / Dollar Parity allowed.
• Carbon Credits available.
• No Import Duties on Equipment.
• Exemption on Income Tax / Withholding Tax and Sales Tax.
• Repatriation of Equity along with dividends freely allowed.
• Permission to issue corporate registered bonds.
•
 Geothermal Energy

This energy source

involves the use of high-
pressure, high-
temperature steam
fields that exist below
the earth’s surface.
Tidal & Wave Energy

•Ocean tides and waves

contain enormous amounts of
energy that can be harnessed.
– Tidal Station - Tide flows
through turbines, creating
electricity. It requires a
high tide/low-tide
differential of several
meters.
– Main worries are saltwater
flooding behind the dam
and heavy siltation.
– Stormy coasts with
strongest waves are often
far from major population
centers.