EET435:RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

MODULE 1
•Conventional Energy Resources
•Non-Conventional Energy Resources
•SOLAR THERMAL
•SOLAR ELECTRIC SYSTEMS
Conventional Energy Sources
Those energy sources which has been traditionally used
for many decade and were in common use around oil
crisis of 1973 are called conventional energy sources
Eg:
o Fossil Fuel
o Nuclear
o Hydro Resources
o Fossil Fuel-Coal,Petroleum,Oil, Gas.
Coal:
• These are formed by the decomposition of the remains of dead
plants and animals buried under the earth for a long time.
• These are non-renewable sources of energy, which,
if exhausted, can not be replenished in a short time.
• Their reserves are limited and are considered very precious.
• These are also contributing to the global environmental pollution.
Coal
• Since the advent of industrialization coal has been most common
source of energy.
• In the last three decades, the world switched over from coal to oil as
a Major source of energy because it is simpler and cleaner to obtain
useful energy from oil.
• Coal is a complex mixture of compounds of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. Small amounts of nitrogen and Sulphur compounds are also
present in coal.
Coal
• It is mainly available in Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa and Madhya
Pradesh.
• The big coal mines in our country are at Jharia and Bokaro in Bihar
and at Raniganj in West Bengal.
• It is considered as the backbone of the energy sector for its use in
industry, transportation and electric power generation.
Depending upon the carbon contents of coal,
it is classified as follows
Type of coal Carbon content (%)

Peat 60

Lignite (soft coal) 70

Bituminous (house hold coal) 80

Anthracite (hard coal) 90

Petroleum or Oil
• It is a dark coloured, viscous and foul smelling crude oil.
• The petroleum means rock oil.
• It is normally found under the crust of earth trapped in rocks.
• The crude oil is a complex mixture of several solid liquid gaseous
hydrocarbons mixed with water, salt and earth particles.
• It is a natural product obtained from oil wells.
Some of the crude oil producing locations in
our country are:

• Ankleshwar and Kalol in Gujarat

• Rudrasagar and Lakwa in Assam; and

• Bombay high (off-shore area)

Petroleum or Oil
• The oil wells of Bombay high are producing about 22 million tons of
crude petroleum oil per year,
• which is little less than half of the total requirement of the country.
• The crude petroleum is refined by the process of fractional
distillation to obtain more useful petroleum products
Petroleum or Oil
• The crude petroleum is heated to a temperature of about 400oC in a
furnace and vapors thus formed are passed into a tall fractioning
column from near its bottom.
• As the mixture of hot vapours rises in the column, it starts getting
cooled gradually.
The products obtained from crude petroleum
as follows:
• Petroleum gas (below 40oC) used as LPG.

• Petrol (40oC to 170oC) for light vehicles.

• Kerosene (170 to 250oC) for household and industrial use.

• Diesel oil (250 to 350oC) for heavy vehicles.

• Residual oil ; (a) Lubrication oils (b) paraffin wax and (c) asphalt

• Fuel oil (350 to 400oC) for boilers and furnaces.

Natural gas
• It consists about 95% Methane and rest ethane and propane.
• It occurs deep under the crust of the earth either alone or a long with oil above
the petroleum deposits.
• It is a product of petroleum mining.
• The gas is available in Tripura, Jaisalmer, off-shore areas of Bombay High and in
the Krishna – Godavari delta.
• It is used as a domestic and industrial fuel.
• The natural gas is now also available as CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) a
substitution of petrol in automobiles.
Hydraulic energy (or) Water power
• Water power is developed by allowing water to fall under the force of
gravity.
• It is used almost exclusively for electric power generation
• Potential energy of water is converted into Mechanical energy by
using prime moves known as hydraulic turbines.
• Water power is quite cheap where water is available in abundance.
Hydraulic energy (or) Water power
• Although capital cost of hydro electric power plants is higher
as compared to other types of power plants
• but their operating Costs are quite low, as no fuel is required
in this case
The development rate of hydropower is still
low, due to the following problems:
• In developing a project, it will take about 6-10 years time for planning,
investigation and construction.
• High capital investment is needed, and some parts of the investment
have to be designed from foreign sources.
• There are growing problems on relocation of villages, involved,
compensation for damage,
• selecting the suitable resettlement area and environmental impact.
In order to reduce the cost of development several Measures
have been considered as follows:
• Development of low cost turbines and generators.

• Participation of villages in the development and operation of the

project.

• Using the appropriate technology and tolerable substandard

requirement and project civil work component at the beginning stage.
Nuclear energy
• According to modern theories of atomic structure, matter consists of
minute particles known as atoms.
• Heavier unstable atoms such as U235, Th239, liberate large amount
of heat energy.
• The energy released by the complete fission of one Kg of Uranium
(U235), is equal to the heat energy obtained by burning 4500 tonnes
of coal (or) 220 tons of oil.
Nuclear energy
• The heat produced by nuclear fission of the atoms of fissionable
material is utilized in special heat exchangers for the production of
steam which is then used to drive turbo generators as in the
conventional power plants.
• However there are some limitations in the use of nuclear energy
namely high capital cost of nuclear power plants, limited availability
of raw materials, difficulties associated with disposal of radio active
waste and shortage of well trained personnel to handle the nuclear
power plants.
However there are some limitations in the use
of nuclear energy namely

• high capital cost of nuclear power plants,

• limited availability of raw materials,
• difficulties associated with disposal of radio active waste
• and shortage of well trained personnel to handle the nuclear power
plants.
• The Uranium reserves in the world at present are small.
• These reserves are recoverable but are expensive
The presently working power plants are:
• Tarapur atomic power station in Maharashtra
• Ranapratap sagar atomic power station near Tota, Rajasthan
• Kalpakkam atomic power station near Madras, Tamilnadu.
• Narora atomic power station in U.P.
• About 3% of the energy produced in India is obtained from nuclear
power plants.
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF CONVENTIONAL ENERGY
RESOURCES:
ADVANTAGES:

• Coal: as present is cheap.

• Security: by storing certain quantity, the energy availability can be

ensured for a certain period.

• Convenience: it is very convenient to use.

 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF
CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES:

• DISADVANTAGES:
• Fossil fuels generate pollutants: CO, CO2, Particulate matter & heat. The
pollutants degrade the environment, pose health hazards & cause
various other problems.

• Coal: it is also valuable petro-chemical & used as source of raw material

for chemical, pharmaceuticals & paints, industries, etc. From long term
point of view, it is desirable to conserve coal for future needs.
 Non-Conventional Energy Sources
• The sources of energy which are being produced
continuously in nature and are inexhaustible are called
renewable sources of energy (or) non-conventional energy.
Some of these sources are:
• Solar energy
• Wind energy
• Bioenergy
• Ocean energy
• Geo thermal
Advantages Of Non Conventional Energy
Source
• They are non polluting
• Renewable source of energy
• Less running cost
• They are cheap and clean
• The energy sources like wind , solar , heat waves ect. can be stored in original form
• Renewable energy sources have less capital cost
• Eco-friendly
• Leads to job creation
• Renewable energy has stabilized global energy prices
Importance Of Non Conventional Energy
Sources
• The demand of energy is increasing by leaps and bounds due to rapid industrialization and
population growth, the conventional sources will not be sufficient to meet growing demand
• Conventional sources are non-renewable and bound to finish one day
• Conventional sources cause pollution and degrade the environment
• Large hydro-resources effect wild life , cause deforestation and pose very serious problem
• Fossil fuels are used as row material in chemical industry and need to be conserved for future
generation
Disadvantage Of Non Conventional
Energy
• High cost of harnessing energy
• Uncertainty of availability
• Difficulty in transporting
• Biogas energy causes greenhouse effect
• Tidal energy is difficult to harness
• Wind energy causes noise pollution
• Wind mills are costly to take-up
• Low efficiency levels
• Renewable energy can be unreliable. It changes depending
upon the weather conditions
• The electricity generation capacity is still not large enough
 Solar energy
Sun is the source of almost all energy sources on the planet earth.
solar energy is intermittent in nature, eco-friendly and non polluting.
• The power from the Sun intercepted by the earth is approximately
1.8×1011 MW which is many thousands of time larger than the
present consumption rate on the earth of all commercial energy
sources.
• Thus, in principle solar energy could supply all the present & future
energy needs of the world on a continuing basis.
• This energy is radiated by the Sun as electromagnetic waves of which
99% have wave lengths in the range of 0.2 to 4 micro meters.
• Solar energy reaching the top of the Earth‘s atmosphere
consists about 8% U.V radiation, 46% of visible light, 46%
Infrared radiation
It can be used for direct conversion into electricity by
using photovoltaic conversion and into thermal energy.
Thermal energy conversion can be categorized
according to temperature by:
• Low temperature range(<10oC)
• Medium temperature range(100 -1500C)
• High temperature range( >1500C)
The amount of solar energy radiation striking the earth
is called insolation
Some important solar thermal devices:
1) Solar water heater
2) Solar cooker
3) Solar desalination
4) Solar drying
5) Solar pumping
6) Solar timber drying
7) Solar ponds
8) Solar refrigerator and air conditioning
9) Solar thermal power generation
Solar PV
• Solar radiation received on the earth on a bright sunny day
at Noon is approximately 1Kw/m2
• Solar PV is expensive compared to coal fired thermal plant,
but now the cost of solar panel per watts is reduced to
around 30/watts.
 Wind energy
The kinetic energy associated with large masses of air is wind
energy.
• Energy of wind can be economically used for the generation of
electricity.
• Winds are caused from 2 main factors:
• 1. Heating & cooling of the atmosphere which generates
convection currents. Heating is caused by the absorption of solar
energy on the Earth‘s surface & in the atmosphere.
• 2. The rotation of the Earth with respect to atmosphere & its
motion around the sun
• The energy available in the wind over the Earth‘s surface is
estimated to be 1.6×107 MW
 Modern applications of wind energy are given below:
1) Agricultural use
2) Rural and municipal uses
3) To pumping and compressed air
4) Large scale electricity generation
 Bioenergy
Biogas :
it is a renewable source of energy produced from organic materials
like human waste, cattle dung and different types of
biomass.
 Biomass undergo decomposition in the absence of oxygen in a
biogas plant and form a mixture of gases and this mixture is
called biogas.
Biomass :
• The energy obtained from organic matter, derived from biological organisms
(plants & animals) is known as bio-mass energy.
• The average efficiency of photosynthesis conversion of solar energy into bio
mass energy is estimated to be 0.5% - 1.0%.
• To use biomass energy, the initial biomass maybe transformed by chemical or
biological processes to produce intermediate
 Ocean energy
About 71% of earths surface is covered with water.
Ocean tides and its waves have vast energy potential.
due to wind motion across miles of ocean surface there
is a temperature difference between upper and lower
layers of water which results in energy potential in
waves
On other hand tides and waves produce mechanical
energy
OTEC utilizes the thermal gradient available in ocean to
operate a heat engine to produce a work output.
TIDAL ENERGY
• The tides in the sea are the result of the universal gravitational effect of heavenly
bodies like SUN & MOON on the Earth.
• Periodic rise & fall of the water level of sea is called TIDE.
• These tides can be used to produce electrical power which is known as tidal power.
• When the water is above the mean sea level called flood tide.
• When the water is below the mean sea level called ebb tide

Wave Energy
▶ Waves are caused by the transfer of energy from surface winds to sea.
▶ The rate of energy transfer depends upon the wind speed & the distance over which
interacts with water.
▶ The energy flux in waves is more than that available from solar, wind & other
renewable sources.
▶ The power in the waves is proportional to the square if its amplitude & to the period
of its motion.
▶ The energy stored is dissipated through friction at shore & turbulence at rates
depending on characteristics of wave & water depth.
 Solar Thermal Systems
• Solar energy can be utilized directly in two ways:
1) by collecting the radiant heat and using it in a thermal system -‘Solar Thermal’
2) by collecting and converting it directly to electrical energy using Photovoltaic
system. -
‘Solar Photovoltaic’ (SPV) system
• Solar thermal systems provide thermal energy for various processes. In cold climate
regions, large amount of low-grade thermal energy is required for heating air for
comfort and hot water for washing, cleaning and other domestic and industrial
needs.
• Solar energy is best suited for low-grade thermal applications. Even in high
temperature heating applications a significant amount of fuel can be saved by using
solar energy for preheating (up to about 180 °C)
• Solar thermal energy is also being utilized in drying and process industries. It can
also be converted and utilized as mechanical and electrical energy in the same way
as in any conventional thermal system.
 PRINCIPLE OF CONVERSION OF SOLAR RADIATION
INTO HEAT
• Energy from the sun comes in the
form of light, a shortwave radiation.
• When this radiation strikes a solid or
liquid, it is absorbed and transformed
into heat energy, the material become
warm and stores the heat, conducts it
to surrounding materials(water, air,
other solids or liquids) or reradiates
into other materials of lower
temperature.
• Like the heat conversion by green
house effect.
 SOLAR COLLECTORS
• Solar power has low density per unit area (1 kW/sq. m. to 0.1 kW/sq. m.). Hence it is
to be collected by covering large ground area by solar thermal collectors.
• Solar thermal collector essentially forms the first unit in a solar thermal system. It
absorbs solar energy as heat and then transfers it to heat transport fluid efficiently.
• The heat transport fluid delivers this heat to thermal storage tank / boiler / heat
exchanger, etc., to be utilized in the subsequent stages of the system.

Classification
• The classification is based on the way they collect solar radiation. The non-
concentrating type absorbs the radiation as it is received on the surface of the
collector while the concentrating type, first increases the concentration of radiation
per unit area before absorbing it.
• Further, based on the techniques employed for concentration of radiation, the
concentrating type is further subdivided into focus and non-focus types.
• The focus type is further divided into line or point focus depending on the focusing
method
SOLAR COLLECTORS
 Flat plate collector
• A flat plate collector is simple in construction and does not require sun tracking. Therefore, it
can be properly secured on a rigid platform and thus becomes mechanically stronger than
those requiring flexibility for tracking purpose.
• As the collector is installed outdoors and exposed to atmospheric disturbances (rain, storm,
etc.), the flat plate type is more likely to withstand harsh outdoor conditions. Also because of
simple stationary design, a flat plate collector requires little maintenance.
• The principal disadvantage of flat plate collector is that because of absence of optical
concentration, the area from which heat is lost is large. Also, due to same reason high
temperatures cannot be attained.
Components of the flat plate collector
 A flat plate collector consists of following essential components:
i. Absorber plate.
ii. Transparent cover.
iii. Fluid tubes or channels.
iv. Thermal insulation.
v. Tight container or box
 Flat plate collector
i. Absorber plate. It is meant to intercept and absorb incident solar radiation. It is
primarily a blackened heat absorbing plate usually made of copper, aluminium
or steel. It may also be given a coating to minimise the emission of heat from
its surface. cover. It is made of one or more transparent sheets of glass or
ii. Transparent
plastic. It is placed above the absorber plate. The cover allows radiation to
reach the absorber plate but it prevents any reradiation and heat loss due to
iii. convection.
Fluid tubes or channels. Fluid tubes or channels are arranged in thermal
contact with the absorber plate so that heat can be transferred from the
absorber plate to the fluid in the tubes or channels.
iv. Thermal insulation. The thermal insulation is provided under the absorber plate
and fluid tubes to minimise any heat loss by transmission or convection from
the absorber plate and fluid tubes.
v. Tight container or box. All the above components of the collector are protected
by a tight container or box as shown in Figure 3.3.
 Flat plate collector
• The characteristic features of a
flat
plate collector are as follows:
1. It absorbs both direct and
diffuse solar radiation.
2. It does not need any sun
tracking system. Hence, it is
mechanically stronger than
other collectors which require
tracking system.
3. It has simple construction
requiring a little maintenance.
 Modified Flat platecollector
• It is a modified form of the flat plate collector as it has plain reflectors at its edges to
reflect additional radiation to the absorber or receiver and so there is some
concentration of solar radiation at the receiver.
• The mirror reflectors are called booster mirrors which increase the acceptance
angle and concentration ratio of the flat plate reflector from 1 to 4.
• The arrangement of the reflecting mirrors is shown in Figure 3.4.
 Concentrating collector (SolarConcentrators)
• In concentratingtype solar collectors, solar radiation is convergedfrom large area into
smaller area using optical means.
• Beam radiation, which has a unique direction and travels in a straight line, can be
converged by reflection or refraction techniques.
• Diffuse radiation, however, has no unique direction and so does not obey optical
principles.
• Therefore, diffuse component cannot be concentrated.
• Thus, concentrating type solar collectors mainly make use of beam radiation
component (plus very little diffuse component coming directly over absorber), while
non-concentrating (flat plate) collectors absorb both beam as well as diffuse
radiation, which is a distinct advantage of flat plate collector.
• Main advantage of concentrating type collectors is that high temperatures can be
attained due to concentration of radiation.
• This also yields high temperature thermal energy.
 Concentrating collector (SolarConcentrators)
Concentratingcollectors use mirrored surfacesto concentrate the sun's energy on
an absorber called a receiver.
 Concentrating collectors also achieve high temperatures, when direct sunlight is
available.
Some designs concentrate solar energy onto a focal point, while others concentrate
the sun's rays along a thin line called the focal line.
 The receiver is located at the focal point or along the focal line.
 A heat-transfer fluid flows through the receiver and absorbs heat.
However, concentrators can only focus direct solar radiation, with the result being that
their performance is poor on hazy or cloudy days.
Concentrators perform best when pointed directly at the sun. To do this, these
systems use tracking mechanisms to move the collectors during the day to keep
them focused on the sun.
 trackers need frequent maintenance.
 commercial applications.
 Types of Concentrating collector (SolarConcentrators)
1. Parabolic trough
2. Parabolic dish
3. Central Tower Collector

Parabolic trough
• Parabolic troughs are devices that are shaped like the letter “u”.
• The troughs concentrate sunlight onto a receiver tube that is positioned along the
focal line of the trough.
• Sometimes a transparent glass tube envelops the receiver tube to reduce heat loss.
• Parabolic trough reflectors have been made of highly polished aluminium, or silvered
glass or of a thin film of aluminized plastic on a firm base.
• For the solar radiation to be brought to a focus by parabolic trough reflector, the sun
must be in such a direction that it lies on the plane passing through the focal line and
the vertex.
 Types of Concentrating collector (SolarConcentrators)
• Trough type of collectors are generally oriented in the east-west or north-south
directions.
 Types of Concentrating collector (SolarConcentrators)
Parabolic dish
• A point-focus collector has a dish of the shape of a paraboloidal, that is, the surface
produced when a parabola is rotated about its axis. The paraboloidal surface can
concentrate all incident radiation parallel to its axis to a point focus where the
receiver tube is positioned.

• In order to ensure proper incidence of

radiation, the parabolic dish collector
should be provided with two axes
tracking:
1. by rotating the support structure
about the vertical axis for dish
alignment and
2. the dish is rotated about a horizontal
axis for elevation tracking as shown
in Figure 3.9.
 Types of Concentrating collector (SolarConcentrators)
Central Tower Collector
• In this type of collectors, the receiver is located at the top of a tower and solar
radiation is reflected on it from many independently controlled flat mirrors called
heliostats.
• The heliostats can be moved independently about two axes so that the reflected
solar radiation is always directed towards the absorber mounted on the tower as
shown in Figure 3.12.
• The heliostats are spread over a large area on ground surrounding the absorber
mounted on the tower.
• The number of heliostats can be as high as thousands, and they simultaneously
track the sun to reflect the solar radiation from all sides on the receiver.
• These heliostats together act as a very large paraboloidal dish collector. The
concentration ratio as high as 3000 can be obtained by this point type concentrator
called central tower receiver collector.
• The solar radiation at the receiver is converted into heat, which is transported to a
heat engine or any other device for use.
Types of Concentrating collector (SolarConcentrators)
Comparison between Flat and Focussing Collectors
 Solar Photovoltaic Systems
• Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems convert solar energy directly into electrical energy. Basic
conversion device used is known as a solar photovoltaic cell or a solar cell
• A solar cell is basically an electrical current source, driven by a flux of radiation.
• Solar cells were first produced in 1954 and were rapidly developed to provide power for
space satellites based on semiconductor electronics technology.
• Its terrestrial applications were considered seriously only after oil crisis of 1973 when a real
need of alternative energy sources was felt globally for the first time.
Major advantages of solar PV systems over conventional power systems are:
i. It converts solar energy directly into electrical energy without going through thermal-
mechanical link. It has no moving parts.
ii.Solar PV systems are reliable, modular, durable and generally maintenance free. iii.
These systems are quiet, compatible with almost all environments, respond
instantaneously to solar radiation and have an expected life span of 20 years or more.
iv. It can be located at the place of use and hence no or minimum distribution network is
required, as it is universally available
 Solar Photovoltaic Systems, Cont..
It also suffers from some disadvantages such as:
i. At present the costs of solar cells are high, making them economically uncompetitive
with other conventional power sources.
ii. The efficiency of solar cells is low. As solar radiation density is also low, large area of
solar cell modules are required to generate sufficient useful power.
iii. As solar energy is intermittent, some kind of electrical energy storage is required, to
ensure the availability of power in absence of sun. This makes the whole system more
expensive
 Solar Cell Fundamentals
 What do you understand by photovoltaic
effect?
or
 What is the principle of solar photovoltaic?
• Photovoltaic effect is a process in which two
dissimilar materials in close contact produce an
electrical charge when struck by light or any
other radiant energy.
• When light strikes crystals such as silicon or
germanium (p-n junction) in which electrons are
usually not free to move from n-region to p-
region due to the potential barrier, the light
provides the energy (e.m.f.) needed to free
some electrons from the bound condition
depending on the absorption of solar energy
(Figure 4.6).
 Solar Cell Fundamentals, Cont..
• Free electrons cross the junction between two dissimilar crystals more easily in one
direction than in the other, giving one side of the junction a negative charge, and this results
in a negative voltage with respect to the other side, as in the case of a battery in which one
electrode has negative voltage with respect to the other.
• The photovoltaic effect can continue to provide voltage and current as long as light falls on
the junction of two materials.
What is solar power?
• Solar power is the production of electricity directly from sunlight.
• The solar photovoltaic (PV) power is produced using photovoltaic effect so that when
sunlight strikes a solar voltaic cell, it releases electrons from the p-n junction of the cell and
pushes these electrons across a potential barrier or electric field at the junction.
• These electrons then travel through an external circuit to return to their usual state and in
this process create electric power.
• The photovoltaic effect is the basic physical process through which a PV or solar cell
converts sunlight into electricity. Sunlight is composed of energy packets called photons.
 Solar Cell Fundamentals, Cont..
• These photons contain different amounts of energy that correspond to different
wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When photons strike a PV cell, they may be reflected,
absorbed or can pass through the p-n junction. The absorbed photons in the p-n junction
generate electricity.
• A solar cell is essentially a p-n junction with a large surface area. The n-type material is kept
thin to allow light to pass through it and strike the p-n junction.
• The light travels in packets of energy called photons. The generation of electric current takes
place inside the depletion zone of the p-n junction. The depletion zone is the area around
the p-n junction where the electrons from the n-region diffuse into the holes of the p-
region.
• When a photon of light is absorbed by one of these atems in n-region of silicon, it will
dislodge an electron from any atom, thereby creating a free electron and hole pair.
• The free electron and hole pair has sufficient energy to jump out of the depletion zone. If a
wire is connected from the cathode at n-type silicon to an anode of p-type silicon, electrons
flow through the wire.
 Solar Cell Fundamentals, Cont..
• The electron is attracted to the positive charge of p-type material and travels through the
external load (bulb or resistance), thereby creating a flow of electric current. The hole
created by the dislodged electron is attracted to the negative charge of the n-type material
and travels to "back electrical contact".
• As the electron reaches the p-type silicon from the "back electrical contact", it combines
with the hole, thereby restoring the electrical neutrality (Figure 4.7).
 Solar Cell Characteristics
Voltage-Current Characteristic of p-n Junction (Solar Cell)
Explain the current-voltage characteristics of a solar cell and define fill factor. What is the
significance of the fill factor?
or
Explain how the variation of isolation (incident solar radiation) and temperature affects the
current-voltage characteristics of a solar cell.
• The output power from solar cell is the product of voltage and current (P = I x V).
• It is desirable to operate the solar cell to produce maximum power.
• The power is product of voltage and current and power curve is hyperbola.
• In case hyperbola (P = I x V) of power is drawn on I-V characteristic curve, the hyperbola of
power curve is tangential to I-V characteristic at the point of maximum power as shown by
point Pm in Figure 4.15.
• The voltage and current corresponding to Pm are Vm and Im respectively. Hence, there is only
one point on the voltage-current characteristic curve of p-n junction at which the p-n
junction produces maximum power for a given isolation or illumination level.
 Solar Cell Characteristics, Cont..
• In case we operate the p-n junction at any other point on I-V characteristic curve, power
produced will be lesser than the maximum power, resulting in certain amount of solar
radiation energy being wasted out as thermal power.
• The maximum power output can be determined when the value of the product of voltage
and current is maximum.
• The product of voltage and current has the greatest value when the rectangle having sides
equal to these voltage and current, as well as inscribed within the characteristic curve, has
the largest area. The rectangle having the largest area with sides Vm and Im and depicting
maximum solar power output (shown with hatched lines) is shown in Figure 4.15.
 Solar Cell Characteristics, Cont..
Fill factor (FF)
• The maximum power output from a solar cell is possible when the output power from
rectangle can fill up or utilise as much area as possible of the characteristic curve.
• The fill factor indicates the quality of solar cell, that is, how much power or area of the
characteristic curve is being used.
• In ideal case, the fill factor should be unity when the complete area between the
characteristic curve and axes has been utilised that is, the product of Voc and Isc.
• The fill factor is defined as the ratio of peak power to the product of Voc and Isc.
𝑉 𝑚 𝑋 𝐼𝑚
• Hence, FF =
𝑉 𝑜𝑐 𝑋 𝐼𝑠𝐶
• The typical value of fill factor is in the range of 0.5-0.83. The fill factor can be improved by
the following ways:
i. Increasing the photocurrent and decreasing the reverse saturation current of a solar
cell.
ii. Minimising the internal series resistance
iii. Maximising the shunt resistance.
 Solar Cell Characteristics, Cont..
Solar efficiency
• It is the ratio of maximum possible solar cell power output Vm x Im which is converted to the
solar energy supplied to the cell.
Classifications
 Classifications
• Apart from this, solar cells are also divided into three main categories called generations.
• The first generation include wafer based mono and multicrystalline solar cells. At present,
solar cells of first generating are dominating the market.
• The second-generation solar cells include thin film cells such as amorphous silicon, CIGS
and Cadmium Telluride, etc. These solar cells are available commercially.
• The third generation solar cells operate on entirely different principle. They include dye
sensitized, organic and quantum dot solar cells, etc. The third generation solar cells are
under development stage
 Solar PV Systems

Central Power Station System

• This type of solar power station is similar to other conventional power stations which are
required to feed generated power into some national grid.
• This type of solar power stations are designed to meet high peak daytime load only and
these have large generation capacity in megawatt (up to 6 MW).
 Solar PV Systems, Cont..
• Only few such power stations have been installed worldwide as the capital cost of these
plants is high.

Stand-Alone System
• Solar PV power station is planned and located at the load centre. Its complete electricity
generation is meant to meet the electrical load of any remote area, village or installation.
• Energy storage is essential to meet the requirement during non-sunshine hours. A typical
stand-alone solar PV system is shown in Figure 4.17.
 Solar PV Systems, Cont..
• The maximum power point tracker (MPPT) senses the voltage and current outputs from
the solar array and then suitably adjusts the operating point to obtain maximum power
output from the solar array as possible from the climatic conditions.
• The solar electric output in direct current is converted into alternating current and it is fed
into the load.
• The excess power is preferably stored by charging the battery and otherwise excess is
dumped in the electric heaters.
• When the sun radiation is unavailable, the batteries supply the electricity through the
converter.

Grid Interactive Solar PV System

• In grid interactive solar PV system, the system first meets the requirement of house,
village or installation and then all excess power is fed to an electric grid during sunshine
hours (Figure 4.18).
 Solar PV Systems, Cont..
• This arrangement helps in preventing any dumping of electricity as required in the stand-
alone solar PV system.
• The second advantage of this system is that during absence of insufficient sunshine, the
supply of electricity is maintained from the electric grid, thereby eliminating any need of
battery.
• This system is very popular in the United Kingdom, where two-way electric meters
provided to record (i) the electricity generated and supplied by rooftop PV system of
various houses to the electric grid system during non-peak sunshine hours and (ii)
electricity supplied to the houses from the electric grid during non-sunshine hours. The
difference of two is paid to consumers or vice versa
 Solar PV Systems, Cont..
Small Consumer Systems
• These systems are designed to meet the power requirement of low energy devices which
are generally used for indoor applications, such calculators, watches and electric devices.
Hybrid Solar PV System
• The hybrid solar PV system is designed to provide electric power by some other means
besides solar electricity.
• It is difficult and uneconomical to provide all of the power from only solar PV system.
• It may be more economical to meet the power requirement by some other means, such as
windmills, fuel cells and diesel or petrol generators.
• The best hybrid solar PV system is the one in which no amount of solar PV generated
power is wasted.
 Solar PV Systems, Cont..
Advantages are as follows:
1. It directly converts solar energy to electric power without any use of moving parts.
2. It is more reliable, durable and maintenance free.
3. It works without any noise.
4. It is non-polluting.
5. It has long lifespan.
6. It can be located near the point of load and requires no distribution system.

Disadvantages are as follows:

1. It has high cost of installation.
2. It has low efficiency.
3. It requires a large area for installation to produce sufficient power.
4. Its output is intermittent, thereby requiring some means to store energy to use
during non-sunshine hours.
 Solar Cell, Module, Panel and Array
Solar Cell
Explain Construction of solar cell
The solar cell consists of
i. p-type silicon material layer,
ii. n-type silicon material layer,
iii. front metallic grid and
iv. opaque back metal contact
as shown in Figure 4.8.

• The bulk material consists of p-type silicon having thickness about 100-350 µm.
• A thin layer of n-type silicon having thickness of about 2 µm is diffused on this bulk
material, providing p-n junction.
• A metallic grid at top with n-type material and an opaque back metal contact at the bottom
of p-type material are provided which also act as negative and positive terminals.
 Solar Cell, Module, Panel and Array, Cont..
Solar PV module
What is a solar PV module?
• A single solar cell cannot be used as such as it has (i) a very small output and (ii) no
protection against dust, moisture, mechanical impacts and atmospheric harsh conditions.
• Suitable voltage and adequate power can be obtained by suitably interconnecting a number
of solar cells.
• This assembly of solar cells is called solar module. Solar cells are provided with transparent
cover, and these are hermetically sealed for assembly into solar module.
• A solar module has generally 32-36 solar cells
connected in series to charge a 12 V battery.
• It is necessary that all solar cells should match
as closely as possible with each other so that
peak power of the module is the algebraic sum
of the peak power of individual solar cells.
• A typical module is shown in Figure 4.9.
 Solar Cell, Module, Panel and Array, Cont..
Solar Module construction
• A bare single cell cannot be used for outdoor energy generation by itself.
• It is because
1. the output of a single cell is very small and
2. it requires protection (encapsulation) against dust, moisture, mechanical shocks and
outdoor harsh conditions.
3. Workable voltage and reasonable power is obtained by interconnecting an appropriate
number of cells. Cells from same batch are used to make PV module. This is done to
ensure that mismatch losses are minimal in the module.
 Solar Cell, Module, Panel and Array, Cont..
• The electrically connected cells are encapsulated, typically by using two sheets
of ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) at either side.
• EVA is a good electrical insulator, transparent material and has very low water
absorption. The encapsulant cannot provide rigidity to the module, for which
glass is provided at the front side of the module.
• At the rear side of the module a hard polymer material, typically, polyvinyl
fluoride (PVF, also known as tedlar) is used.
 Solar Cell, Module, Panel and Array, Cont..
Solar PV Panel
Describe the construction of a solar PV panel.
• Solar PV panel consists of a number of solar PV modules connected in series and parallel to
obtain the power of desired voltage and current.
• When modules are connected in series, it is desirable that each module should produce
maximum power at the same current.

• When solar PV modules are connected in

parallel, it is desirable that each module
should produce maximum power at the same
voltage.
• A frame is used to mount several modules to
form a solar PV panel as shown in Figure 4.10.
 Solar Cell, Module, Panel and Array, Cont..
• In the panel, bypass diodes are installed across each module so that any defective module
can be bypassed by the output of remaining modules.
• The blocking diodes are connected in series with each series string of modules which enable
the output of the remaining series strings should not be absorbed by the failed string.
• A typical panel with the series and the parallel connections is shown in Figure 4.11.
 Solar Cell, Module, Panel and Array, Cont..
Solar PV Array
What do you understand by a solar PV array?
• A PV array consists of a number of solar panels which are installed in an array field.
• The solar panels may be installed as stationary facing the sun or installed with some tracking
mechanism.
• The installation should ensure that no panel should cast shadow on any of the neighbouring
panels and those panels can be easily maintained.
 Solar PV Systems
1. Stand Alone or Off Grid
• It is located at the load center and dedicated to meet all the electrical loads of a
village/community or a specific set of loads.
• Energy storage is generally essential.
• It is most relevant and successful in remote and rural areas having no access to grid supply.
• Indicative capacity of such a system is 10 Wp–100 kWp.
• Various types of configuration for stand-alone PV system are shown in Fig. 6.44.
• In Config. 1, a dc load is directly connected to PV panel. This is the simplest possible
configuration. Power is available only during sunshine hours and no arrangement is made
for power storage. Such type of arrangement may be used for supplying raw dc load such as
minor irrigation.
• In Config. 2, a regulated power is supplied to the load. A DC-DC converter is inserted
between panel and load. The converter may be controlled using MPPT algorithm to extract
maximum power from the PV panel. Usually when MPPT is implemented a battery is used to
absorb excess power, which the load cannot consume.
Solar PV Systems, Cont..
 Solar PV Systems, Cont..
• Config. 3 is used for loads such as lighting for which battery storage is required. For safe
charging and discharging operation a charge controller is also required. The use of battery
ensures uninterrupted and smooth power availability. In the charge controller operation,
MPPT may also be implemented to optimize the use of solar power.
• Config. 4 also includes ac loads for which an inverter is also required. Since most of the
commonly available loads are ac type, this configuration is suitable for most domestic and
commercial applications.
b. Grid-Interactive or Grid Tied
• This system is connected to the utility grid with two-way metering system.
• It may be a small rooftop system owned and operated by the house owner or a relatively
bigger (rack mounted) system meant for the whole village or a community. It meets daytime
requirements of the house owner without any battery backup and surplus power is fed to
the grid. During peak hours and during nights the energy shortage may be met from grid.
The grid serves as infinite source or sink of energy.
 Solar PV Systems, Cont..
• Grid-connected PV systems usually employ two stages, to appropriately condition the
available solar power for feeding into the grid, as shown in Fig. 6.45. While the first stage is
used to track the maximum solar power, the second stage inverts this DC power into high
quality AC power.

• Other configurations such as, single stage configuration as well as multistage (more than
two) are also available for certain applications, which have their own merits and demerits.
 Solar PV Systems, Cont..
• Solar Water Pumping
• Pumping of water for the purpose of drinking or for minor irrigation, during sunshine hours,
is very successful application of stand-alone PV system without storage.
• Water pumping appears to be most suited for Solar PV applications as water demand
increases during dry days when plenty of sunshine is available.
• There would be less need of water during rainy season when the availability of solar energy
is also low.
• SPV water pumping systems have been successfully used in many parts of the world in the
range of few hundred Wp to 5 kWp.
• An SPV water pumping system is expected to deliver a minimum of 15,000 liters per day for
200 Wp panel and 1, 70,000 liters per day for 2,250 Wp panel from suction of 7 meters and /
or a total head of 10 meters on a clear sunny day.
• Three types of motors have generally been used: (i) permanent magnet dc motor (in low-
capacity pumping systems), (ii) brush-less dc motors and (iii) variable voltage and variable
frequency ac motors, with appropriate electronic control and conversion system.
 Solar PV Systems, Cont..
Lighting (Street)
• Next to water pumping, lighting is the second most important
and extensive application of stand-alone solar PV system.
• As lighting is required when sun is not available battery storage
is essential.
• Energy efficient compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) or low-
pressure sodium vapour lamps (LPSVL) are used at 25–35 kHz
frequencies, as SPV is an expensive power source.
• Pole mounted out-door lighting, shown in Fig. 6.54, is designed
for 3–6 hours an evening. A typical system has two 35 WFP
modules connected in parallel, an 11W (900 lumens) CFL, a 90
or 120 Ah, 12 V storage battery and associated electronics
including inverter, battery charger and timer to switch on and
off the light.
• The approximate cost of one pole mounted streetlight is Rs
30,000.