CHAPTER-II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Previous chapter, namely Introduction, dealt with origin and

statement of the problem, objectives and hypothesis of the study,
rationale behind the variables involved in the study, definition of the
terms used in the study and delimitation of the study. Chapter in hand
namely, review of the related research studies involved a comprehensive
review of research studies conducted in India and abroad on variables of
the present study, as it provided researcher an insight in selecting sample,
tools for data collection and statistical techniques for data analysis.
Review of the related research studies also helped the researcher in
overcoming the weaknesses of the earlier studies and in handling the
problem systematically, correctly and precise.
In present chapter, the researcher has presented comprehensive and
detailed review of the research studies of concerned field. Research
studies for the review were drawn of steps Encyclopedia, Journals,
International Dissertation, Abstracts and other published materials. Some
unpublished Ph.D. thesis and Dissertations were also reviewed from the
university libraries and included in the chapter.
However, all reviewed studies have been presented in two major
categories mentioned below:–
1. Studies conducted abroad
2. Studies conducted in India
Each of the two categories contained review of the research studies
on stress and work condition, stress and personality and stress and
adjustment.

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2.1 Studies Conducted in Abroad
The concept of roles in organizations was proposed by Kahn et.al.
(1964). Their work on role conflict and role ambiguity was the pioneer
effort in organizational studies. They conceptualized organization as an
open system of roles. They studied organizational factors, interpersonal
and personality variables as related to role conflict and role ambiguity
and proposed model of role episodes. They found that objective role
conflict and role ambiguity were related to low job satisfaction, low
confidence in organization and high degree of job tension. They also
found that positions contained deep within the organizational structure
were relatively conflict-free; positions located near the boundary of the
organization were likely to be conflict-ridden. Thus, jobs involving
negotiations, purchasing, selling or otherwise representing the
organization to the public were subjected to greater stress. They also
found that several personality dimensions mediate significantly the
degree to which a given intensity of objective conflict is experienced as
strain by the focal person. These personality dimensions include
emotional sensitivity, introversion-extroversion, flexibility-rigidity and
the need for career achievement.
Katz and Kahn (1970) also revealed that both of role conflict and
role ambiguity were significantly related to the personality.
A study conducted by Bell (1974) at University of Houston on
“Personality and Organizational Correlates of Conflict Resolution”
revealed that personality of an individual is responsible for role conflict.

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This study also revealed that different personality trait works in different
organization in different ways.
Richards (1974) conducted a study to provide insight into
relationship between role conflict and personality factors experienced by
special education teachers. The population of study was 67 Mentally
Retarded teachers. The instruments for data collection was developed
with the help of Getzels and Guba, theory of Role Conflict. Chi-square
analysis was employed to determine the relationship between Role
Conflict, the dependent variable, and the confidence in principal’s
leadership, the principal's rating of effectiveness and the teacher’s rating
of satisfaction, the independent variable. The conclusion of study
emphasized that personality of an individual is an important variable
which affects the role conflict among the special education teachers.
Rosen (1975) in a study tried to compare the Role Conflict between
the teachers, who were Activists and Moderates. Rosen found that
although both the types of teachers were having an equal amount of role
conflict, but the Moderates were more successful in teachers Corps
programme.
Johnson and Stinson (1975) studied the moderating effects of need
for achievement and need for independence on relationship between role
ambiguity, role conflict and job satisfaction on a sample of 90 military
and civil services personnel. Results indicated that need for achievement
moderated relationships between task ambiguity and satisfaction while
need for independence moderated the relationship between intersender
conflict and satisfaction was more negative for both high need for
achievement subjects and high need for independence subjects than

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subjects low in these characteristics. The relationship between task
ambiguity and satisfaction was more negative for high need for
achievement group and low need for independence group.
Roark (1976) in one of his study titled “Administrators and
Counsellors Personality Characteristics in Training in conflict Reduction”
found that personality factors are highly and significantly correlated with
role conflict of the individual.
Beehr et. al. (1976) found that some effects of role stresses on
individually valued states were incompatible with their effects on three
organizationally valued motivational states: involvement, effort towards
quantity and effort towards quality. Especially, role overload was found
to correlate positively with organizationally valued outcomes, but also
with three adverse individual outcomes: job dissatisfaction, fatigue and
tension. Two other role stresses, role ambiguity and non-participation
were found to have adverse effects on both individually and
organizationally valued psychological stress. Relationships between role
stresses and individually valued outcomes were moderated by higher
order need strength. The study was conducted on a sample of 79 males
and 64 females in a midwestern company. Higher order need strength
does not moderate the relationship between role stress and motivation.
Beehr (1976) studied the perceived situational moderators of the
relationship between subjective role ambiguity and role strains. The four
psychological strain variables were job dissatisfaction, life dissatisfaction,
low self-esteem and depressed mood. Three situational characteristics
were hypothesized to moderate the relationship by reducing its strength
group cohesiveness moderated the relationship between role ambiguity

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and two of role strains, but, the direction of its moderating influence was
inconsistent. Superior support showed a non-significant tendency to
reduce the strength of the relationship between role ambiguity and role
strain. Autonomy tended to moderate the relationship in the expected
direction significantly and strongly. Sample for this study comprised of
651 employees of a printing company (N=173), a small R&D company
(N=21), two automotive supply companies (N=120 and 124) and a
hospital (N=213).
Okalobi (1977) summarized in his study “Personality Role Conflict
and Leadership Style”. The sample of the study was sixth and seventh
grades of three junior high school Principals: The results of the study
indicated that how for the role conflict is affected by leadership style and
change in the curriculum. It was found that the change in the curriculum
caused role conflict among teachers and administrators.
Gunn (1977) predicted the way in which students react under
specific psychological conditions of role conflict. The main purpose of
the study to describe to problems of students’ conflict. The findings
revealed that human behaviour and their environment is responsible for
role conflict. He also suggested that the students’ conflict, school crisis
and violence can be finished, if the environment of the school and the
behaviour of the principal and the staff may be improved.
A study conducted by Lopez (1978) on the topic “Role Conflict
Specific to Chicano Administrators in Community Colleges of
Southwest”. The sample of study was 175 Chicano administrators and
methodological approach was descriptive survey. The findings of study

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revealed that personality is an important variable for role conflict among
administrators.
Joseph (1978) in his study attempted to examine the relationship
between personal variables and role conflict among teachers, and found
that no significant relationship exists between personal variables and role
conflict.
Lawrence  (1978) has explored antecedent factors associated with
role conflict and role ambiguity in the office of school superintendent.
The design treated the personality and organizational variables as
independent and role conflict and role ambiguity variables as dependent,
there are 8 personality variables and 15 organizational variables. Data
indicated that there was no relationship between personality and role
conflict but inverse and weak relationship between job satisfaction and
role conflict.
Knapp (1979) conducted “A Study of Perceptions of Optional and
Actual Principal’s Conflict Handling Style”. The findings of this study
indicated that role conflict is significantly related to the personality of the
principal.
Helwig (1979) conducted a study on employment counsellors. The
sample of study consisted of 506 employment counsellors from ten state
agencies of United States employment service. The findings of study
revealed that a significant relationship exists between personality and role
conflict. He also revealed that job satisfaction of counsellor was
significantly and positively correlated with role conflict. It was (r=.43).
Fielding (1982) found in his study, that personality characteristics
of teacher affect their perceived stress.

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 Feinstein (1982) made a study for identifying specific relationship
between the dependent variables of depression, job satisfaction and self-
esteem and independent variables of locus of control and years of
teaching experience, a greater understanding of the teacher burnout
phenomenon.
Fifty public school elementary (n=33) and high school teachers
(n=17) of emotionally disturbed children served as subject. The study
demonstrated that certain variables job satisfaction, depression and self-
esteem, characteristic of burnout are statistically inter-related. Depression
and job satisfaction, self-esteem and job satisfaction were negatively
correlated while life-esteem and job satisfaction were positively
associated. These relationships provide individuals with clear
understanding surrounding the dynamics of teacher burnout. When
dealing with the symptoms characteristics of burnout different locus of
control style subjects did not perform significant different from each
other.
A developmental study was made by Walton (1983) to review and
synthesize relevant literature on teacher stress and burnout. As a result of
the study it was concluded that teacher stress is currently a critical
concern of education.
In a correlational study Jackson (1983) found a significant
relationship between out of classroom stress and emotional exhaustion, In
classroom stores and personal out, stress due to a perceived lack of
recognition and support and depersonalization, satisfaction with type of
work was negatively related to emotional exhaustion. Satisfaction with
supervisor was related to all three compensate of burnout.

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 Violani and Marshall (1983) have determined, using a
questionnaire, the interrelationships among 3 elements of the police stress
process: occupational stress, individual stress, and coping strategies. Ss
were 500 police officers from 21 police departments. Results show that
depersonalization positively and significantly increased stress in Ss, that
cynicism increased significantly in Ss who faced increased demands for
depersonalization or authoritarianism, and that deviance was among the
most overt of police coping methods and was likely to bring additional
organizational pressure. It was found that two of the most used coping
responses, cynicism and deviance, failed to lessan stress. It is suggested
that the police occupational structure, with its strong influence on
members, may pressure officers who are cynical and deviant and impede
coping success.
Allie (1983) made a study to measure the effect of job stress and
personal life stress on performance, sick days used, burnout, job
satisfaction and serious illness. Significant findings of a study was as
follows: (1) special education teachers reported significantly less job
stress than regular teachers and rural teachers reported less job stress than
either urban or sub urban teachers strong relationship between job stress,
job dissatisfaction and emotional exhaustion (MBI) was found. While
weaker relationship between job stress and serious illness were found.
Positive personal life stress was associated with only one outcome i.e.
telling of personal accomplishment. It was conducted that while work-
related stresses were better predictors of work-related outcomes, personal
life stresses were significantly positive of work outcomes.

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 Cook and Rousseau  (1984), used questionnaire and interview data
from 200 elementary and high school teachers primarily (21–55 years
old) and examined the relationship between family roles and work-role
expectations ad stress and strain. Results are consistent with role theory’s
prediction that multiple roles can lead to stressors) work overload and
interrole conflict) and to symptoms of strain. Family roles were related to
strain by interaction with work-role expectations so that the relation
between those expectations and work overload is progressively greater
for single teachers, those who were married, and those who have children.
In addition, family roles were directly and negatively associated with
physical strain when their relation to interrole conflict was controlled, and
they were indirectly related to strain through their relation to interrole
conflict. Family-role expectations seemed to reduce the amount of
physical strain experienced by individuals.
Srinika and Chess  (1984) have used a national sample of 553
social workers to examine the relationship between work stress, strain,
and emotional support. Ss completed a questionnaire measuring their
assessments of their work situations. Results indicate negative
associations between support and perceived stress and strain. No evidence
was found for the buffering effects of emotional support.
Perrier and Toner  (1984) discussed the nature of stress, its origin,
and its effects as it relates to the policing occupation. Recognizing that
police work combines the elements of working with people and working
within a bureaucratic organization, J. G. Stratton (1977) proposed a four-
four classification. Stressor external to police organizations, stressors
internal to police organizations, stressors in police work itself, and

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stressors confronting the individual police officer. The physical,
emotional, and behavioural aspects of stress are considered, and it is
suggested that the behavioural indicators are among the more easily
detectable reactions to stress. Among the more prevalent indicators are
withdrawal and social isolation, as well as reluctance to accept
responsibilities, alcohol abuse, gambling, spending sprees, lateness for
work, poor appearance, decrease in work performance, and poor personal
hygiene, stress reduction programmes are discussed, and it is concluded
that preparation for handling stressors should be an integral part of the
induction phase for the officer entering the police force.
Hubert (1984) made a study for testing an explanatory path mode
of the relationship between teacher stress and organizational health. Role
stress was operationalized with Porter's definition of Need Satisfaction,
and teacher stress included Maslach and Jackson's dimensions of
Emotional Exhaustion, Depersonalization and Personal Accomplishment.
Deaux (1984) reported that physiological sex alone does not
represent the experience differences between men and women.
Popkin (1984) reported in an investigation that qualitative
differences were discovered between males and females in a reporting of
stress. Males tended to demonstrate their stress through high tended
feelings of depersonalization and less sense of personal accomplishment.
In contrast females reported feeling emotionally exhausted and drained
by their work.
A stepwise multiple regression analysis was accomplished to
examine the relationship between the independent leadership styles, age,
job setting, and years in education and the dependent variables of

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emotional exhaustion. The result though not significant in the subscale
stress/burnout areas of EE personal accomplishment did despite a
statistical significance in the subscale stress/burnout area of
depersonalization.
Chen Chin (1985)  investigated pattern and sources of job stress
and satisfaction on the Iowa High school industrial arts teachers. He also
determined the selected demographic variables e.g. school level, school
location, school size, teachers' age, marital status, years of teaching
experience and educational level which contributed to job stress and
satisfaction.
A booklet was designed to investigate stress and satisfaction in
nine areas. Booklets were mailed to 350 teachers and 183 returned it for
data collection. Results revealed that overall means of job stress and
satisfaction were marginally in the positive range. Main source of job
satisfaction were faculty relationships, teachers’ own expertise and
community environment. Main sources of job satisfaction were salary and
benefits, school administration and teacher status. The major source of
distress were teacher status, salary and benefits and school
administration. A positive relationship between stress and satisfaction
was examined, 49.4% of teachers would elect to leave the teaching
profession. Salary and benefits was a main contributor to the decision.
Blanton (1985) determined the levels of occupational and general
stress among teachers in selected school systems in Albama. The purpose
of the study was to determine the perceptions of principals to the levels
of stress impacting upon their teachers. Specifically the study assessed
the levels of occupational stress, responses to general stress and selected

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personal and occupational variables as measured by teacher occupational
stress factor questionnaire, the personal life style survey and demographic
information survey, respectively. The teachers, because they have been
the target of much criticism and abuse about the current state of our
educational system, are burning out of the job. Factors such as student
discipline problems, school violence, strikes and firing are the direct
causes of many of our best teachers leaving the profession. It was found
in the study that the teacher-principal relationship was one of the least
stressful education situation. The profile of teachers working under
highest levels of stress indicated a teacher who is (a) white, (b) male, (c)
20–29 years of age, (d) divorced, (e) AA/Eds. certified, (f) teaching with
0–3 or 10–19 years experience, (g) working in a middle school, (h) in a
rural setting, (i) a science teacher, (j) teaching in grades 6–8, (k) in a
school with student population 600–899.
Scott (1985) studied about the stress and teachers. The main
objective of the study was (i) to compare the sources and symptoms of
stress as it affects a variety of teachers with regard to their educational
settings and subject areas taught. (ii) to analyse a collection of stressful
areas and specific concerns which teachers of Maths/Science and teachers
of English/readings. The gathered data was analysed by F ratios and two
way ANOVA. At 0.05 level of significance the ANOVA indicated no
significance for each F ratio calculated. The main findings of the study
were: (i) educational setting did not differ significantly among themselves
in their relationship to stress regardless of the subject area taught, i.e.
Maths/Science or English/reading, (ii) the teaching areas of
Maths/Science and English/reading did not differ significantly among

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themselves in their relationship to stress regardless of the educational
setting.
Hedley (1985) studied relationship between the job purview and
the job related behaviours of absenteeism, turn over and job satisfaction
of public school teachers. The objective of the study was to attempt to
determine of a job purview booklet that contained information about
teaching would have statistically significant effect on the three job-related
behaviours of absenteeism, turnover and job satisfaction. Data was
gathered from 103 newly hired teachers in the seven school division.
Results of the multiple analysis of variance indicated that none of the
eight control variables were statistically significant. Some possible
limitations were discussed, e.g. future job preview could be provided
after the interview but before the contract was signed. The potential
benefits of reduction in absenteeism and turnover and improved
satisfaction might justify additional job preview research.
Turner (1985) determined a relationship among perceived stressful
situations in the classroom and among female secondary classroom
teachers in Indiana. To study 268 female secondary school teachers,
Turner used three instruments. First gathered data regarding the age
group, years of experience, type of school system, population of school
system, enrolment of secondary school, subject and grade taught. Second
instrument measured the amount of stress perceived by respondents.
Third perceived needs in stress counselling to help teachers to deal with
stress. Following findings and conclusions were drawn: (1) students
threats and physical attacks are major sources of stress among discipline
problems of teachers, (2) administrators do not support the teachers in

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conflict situations, (3) students who are not cooperative in class are a
major source of stress for responding teachers, (4) student apathy and
lack of volunteerism in class are major sources of stress, (5) parents
defaming their child’s misbehaviour are a major source of stress, and (6)
the majority of teachers do not desire stress counselling to assist them in
dealing with class stress.
Lerner  (1985) described a 5-session groups weight-loss and
control programme that included overall stress assessment, exploration of
stressful thoughts of belief systems, assertiveness training, time
management, and life style and stress reducers. In addition, participants
charted their eating activities and corresponding circumstances, examined
the relation between stress and behaviours, role played by food
management techniques, and explored nonedible supports.
Kemery et al.  (1985) applied the model of causal nexus between
role stress and selected outcome variables developed by A. G. Bedeian
and A. A. Armenokes to 3 samples of accountants (Acs)-275 public Acs,
254 government Acs, and 459 industrial Acs - and a sample of 66 hospital
employees. The relationship between role stress (involving role
ambiguity and conflict) ad job-related tension, job satisfaction, and
propensity to leave was measured with a battery of questionnaires,
including the Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire. Data from AC
samples supported Bedeian and Aromenakis’s model.
In a conditional problem by using the Surrey method Brown
(1985) that the correlation between stress and personal accomplishment
and stress and situational involvement were not statistically significant,

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while there was a statistically significant relationship between stress and
emotional exhaustion and stress and depersonalization.
In a study conducted by Nelson & Quick (1985), it was further
confirmed that employed women experience greater stress than both
unemployed women as well as employed men. This difference was
attributed to several unique stressors which employed women encounter,
such as marriage/work interface, social isolation, discrimination and
stereotyping.
Fimian (1987) surveyed 226 experts on teachers stress to determine
the relevance of 49 teacher stress items to their overall concepts of
teacher stress. There was significant agreement among experts in the way
they noted the items. When the group was compared in terms of
background variables, it was found that the younger respondents, those
who present stress management workshops and those who conduct
qualitative stress research perceived some of the stress factors as being
more relevant to teacher stress then did the older respondents, those not
publishing, and those conducting combinations of qualitative and
quantitative stress research.
Baruch et al. (1987) reported tht the unemployed women
experience greater stress as they take up the homemaker's role in the
family. This role is characterized by greater psychological demands and
lesser control.
The purpose of the study made by Sunja was to generate the
hypothesis which explains the factor that satisfy or dissatisfy Junior or
Senior high school teachers with special reference to how these factors
impose or promote teacher stress and burnout. An additional purpose was

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to examine the external stress and burnout affect teachers' perceptions of
teaching as a profession.
The aim of the study designed by Cunneen (1990) was to survey
how school superintendents in the state of New Hampshire perceived job
related stress burnout. The entire population of New Hampshire school
were sent three survey measures, a demographic questionnaire a
stress/burnout survey and a leadership inventory. The results obtained
from these three instruments provided a set of descriptive statistical data
reflective of total population. Factors such as years of experience, job
setting, average age, education attainment level, background experience
in/outside education were revealed.
Bhalla et al. (1991) examined the incidence of various stressors at
work and outside work among 128 female and 124 male white-collar
Canadian govt. workers. Measures of work stressors included role
stressors (load, insufficiency, conflict, ambiguity and responsibility) as
well as stress due to the physical environment. Clerical workers were
distinguished by higher level of insufficiency; project officers by higher
level of conflict and lowest level of job satisfaction and organizational
communication and managers by higher levels of perceived responsibility
for others. Insufficiency appeared to be a major problem for workers in
all categories. Non-work stress was a stronger source of variance in strain
for managers than for other groups.
Boardman (1991) believing that the objective, analytical, and
competitive modes have already been overemphasized in educational
institutions, many feminist teachers stress the subjective, contextual, and
collaborative. Such changes involve not only a commitment of energy

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and time, but also an important shift in a teacher’s perception of what
counts as knowledge, equity, and learning. This raises the question of
what it means to be a teacher in the midst of making these changes, how a
feminist writing teacher might view her own movement to a philosophical
position and teaching style that challenge the assumptions of her own
education, and how teachers interpret and remake their traditional pasts as
students to help understand and evaluate what they are now attempting to
do as teachers. The stories of three feminist writing teachers who had
experienced these changes and who combine memories of their college
learning and discussions of their current classroom practice to illustrate
how they dealt with these questions take up the greater part of this paper.
Certain patterns emerged: that the feminist teachers had experienced
intellectually stimulating educations that failed to develop subjective
response or allow the voicing of personal concerns, and that they came to
use the past to critique their current practice.
The purpose of the study made by Dabrowski (1991) was to
determine the levels of stress and burnout in female and male teachers in
a large suburban high school. The study analyzed those stressors which
resulted in the greatest degree of burnout. In addition, various levels of
stress and burnout were identified in female and male high school
teachers selected for this study. The sample was conveniences sample
consisting of 77 subjects, 41 male teachers and 36 female teachers, from a
single suburban school district.
For achieving the purpose of the study three instruments were
employed (1) demographic identification (2) tedium measure
questionnaire (3) teacher stress questionnaire.

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 An analysis of variance, Pearson r, Spearman rank correlation and
mean scores were used for analyzing the data.
It was found that there was no significant difference in the degree
of stress among female and male teachers while considering the factors of
number of years of teaching experience, level of education and content
area. Finally it was established average tedium scores accurately reflected
self reported stress.
Iwata et. al. (1992) explored work stress-strain relations and the
effect of Type A/B personality among 256 Japanese adult bank
employees. Subjects completed several scales concerning role stress and
job dissatisfaction, the 28 item General Health Questionnaire and Jenkins
Activity Survey. While most of the variables differed across three
subsamples (male clerks, males of chief clerk status or higher and female
clerks), both role overload and conflict were highly associated with
psychological distress, but role ambiguity showed a few significant
correlations. Buffering or exacerbating effects of Type A/B personality
on stress-strain relations varied between genders, across job positions and
across the types of stress at work and distress.
A study by Sanders (1992) on stress in public accounting
profession found that there were several outcomes like job related
tensions, lower job satisfaction, psychosomatic distress and turnover
intention.
Chan & Leon (1994) make a study, they examine how Chinese
American immigrant families, faced with many stressors and conflicts,
are challenged to cope with two different cultures, such difficulties faced
by these individuals usually stem from language, religious and basic

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cultural value differences. Furthermore, family members are faced with
role and status changes due to differing rates and levels of acculturation.
Cultural mythology about femininity and masculinity, men’s and
women’s roles in Chinese families, and elder status are explored. There is
a great need for mental health services. However, due to cultural barriers,
mental health services are not accessible nor acceptable to many Chinese
Americans. Effective intervention strategies and treatment approaches
that integrate the Chinese cultural values and norms with psychotherapy
are recommended.
Lamude and Joseph. (1995) said that previous research has shown
that burnout among college teachers is negatively associated with on-task
learning and student-oriented concerns expressed as tactics on influence
in class. Using data collected from 142 college teachers, this study
examined this relationship. Burnout was measured on Cherniss's measure,
and tactics of influence were assessed by the Behaviour Alteration
Message Technique. Analysis indicated burnout in teachers was
positively related to pressure and position tactics on influence and
negatively related to exchange of rewards, rational arguments and
feedback tactics of influence.
Another study Jou and Fukada (1995) examined the effects of an
adjustment of 3 dimensions of support (needed, perceived, actual) and the
gaps between those dimensions. 92 Chinese students in Japan responded
to questionnaires that included a social support scale and items measuring
adjustment, correlational analysis and multiple regression analysis
consistently indicated that the relation between needed support and
adjustment was positive, but that there was no association of perceived

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support and adjustment. Perceived support had a positive effect on
adjustment for students who had a high need for support, but not for
students with a low need for support (a buffering effect), and actual
support had a positive effect on adjustment for all students (a direct
effect). All support gaps were negatively related to adjustment indicating
that insufficient support was linked to poorer adjustment.
In a longitudinal study Burke and Greenglass (1996) studied this
longitudinal study examined antecedents and consequences of
psychological burnout among human service professionals. Antecedents
of psychological burnout included individual and situations
characteristics, work stressors, and measures of social support.
Consequences of psychological burnout emphasized satisfaction and
emotional and physical well-being variables. Participants in the study
were 362 school-based educators (teachers and administrators) employed
by the same school board. Respondents completed questionnaires sent to
them at their schools at two points in time, one year apart. Regression
analyses of time-lagged data replicated many empirical findings from
cross-sectional studies.
Burke and Greenglass (1996) studied a longitudinal examination of
a process model of psychological burnout proposed by Cherniss [1;
Professional Burnout in Human Service Organizations (1980)]. In this
model, working setting characteristics and individual difference variables
have both direct effects on burnout and indirect effects on burnout
through levels of experienced stress. Data were collected at two points in
time separated by one year using questionnaires. Respondents were 362

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school-based educators. Considerable support for the Cherniss model was
found using path analysis.
By Montalvo et al. (1996) perceptions of factors in occupational
stress were examined using the 17 elementary and 25 high school
teachers' gender, age, experience, and grade taught. Statistically
significant differences were reported.
Oakland and Ostell (1997) measured the coping and found that the
coping is thought to be a major component in the relationship between the
experience of stress and health. Currently, the most popular method for
measuring coping is the quantitative, methods-foci approach which was
developed by Lazarus and his colleagues (Aldwin, Folkman, Schaefer,
Coyne and Lazarus, 1980). Through a critical review of studies using this
approach, and by drawing on qualitative data from a study of stress,
coping and health among headteachers, this paper argues that these
widely-used measures need refining. Qualitative data show that the
efficacy of coping actions and the adequacy of external resources are two
pivotal variables in the coping process, both of which are completely
overlooked in quantitative coping checklists. More broadly, it is argued
that alternative methodologies must be considered if we are to better
understand the role of coping in the stress/health relationship.
Manthei et al. (1997) examined the Intermediate school teachers
from the same eight New Zealand schools were surveyed five times over
four years using the self-report Stress in Teaching Questionnaire. Sources
of teacher stress were found to be similar to those identified in previous
research. Higher levels of stress were related to lower job satisfaction and
a reduced commitment to remain in the job long term. Absence due to

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sickness was not found to be correlated with stress. No marked increase
in stress among teachers was found over the five survey episodes.
Lamude and Mary (1997) found in a study of 134 college teachers,
teachers' self-reported stress scores were significantly and positively
related with their perceptions of students' use of reluctant compliance and
deception tactics in resistance to on-task learning.
Mwamwenda et al. (1998) conducted a study on secondary school
teachers in Transkei. The purpose of this study was to explore self-
reported stress experienced by secondary school teachers in Transkei,
South Africa using a local unstandardized scale. Contrary to the literature
on western teachers, an average rating of stress of 93.5 was reported by
the 134 teachers, and no differences were noted between the 66 men and
68 women.
In a study Brett (1998) found that the principal is crucial to helping
previously home-schooled children make a successful transition to public
school. Principals should make parents feel welcome; have teachers stress
openness, warmth, and caring; give parents and students clear
expectations; create a public-relations brochure; describe discipline
procedures; discuss the school's philosophy; and provide easy access to
support services.
Doherty (1999) found self-described experiences by 75 public
school teachers indicated a significant emotional aspect to the rewards
they perceived as "negative" which in some cases resulted in a decrease
in their job satisfaction and commitment toward the job.
McMahan (1999) studied there is a deep, pervasive, and shameful
drugs problem in schools today that is never spoken of, and it concerns

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the medications being taken by teachers. Teachers are stressed out of their
minds because the burden placed on them, is intolerable. They suffer
because of ruthless line management and a totally politicized education
system, the society that surrounds them and the unparented, unsocialized
students they teach.
Singh et al. (2000) has investigated the effects of intrinsic
motivation to do research and perceived lack of rewards contingent on
doing research on burnout or disenchantment from research. Findings,
based on a survey of 328 faculty at a major university, indicate that these
two variables account for 74 and 81 percent of the variance in scores on a
scale relating to burnout among 260 tenured and 68 untenured
professors, respectively. The effect of perceived lack of rewards
contingent on doing research on burnout was moderate by the tenure
status.
Ediger contends that, if pupils are to achieve as optimally as
possible, the principal needs to provide quality leadership in having
teachers stress vital principles of learning from educational psychology.
The paper states that there are selected principles of learning that all
schools of psychology emphasize. It first enumerates and elaborates on
five of these principles. Noting that there are specific schools of thought
in the psychology of learning that principals need to understand to help
their teachers in teaching pupils, the paper then discusses these diverse
psychologies of learning, including (1) the measurement movement; (2)
constructivism; and (3) pupil decision-making. The paper also considers
the contributions of Jerome Bruner and Jean Piaget, two outstanding
educational psychologists. It continues by discussing the basics in the

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curriculum, that is, the importance of pupils learning what is basic.
Finally, the paper concludes by reiterating the different psychologies of
learning.
Ashwarth and Armstrong (2001) examined the factors that were
most stressful for new principal (i.e. senior partner) general practitioners
(GPs) in inner city general practices and whether perceived stress
translated in to regret that they had joined their practice and factors that
might protect them from regret. A questionnaire survey was sent to all
101 principal GPs appointed in inner city London boroughs between 1992
and 1995; 83 GPs replied. The greatest sources of stress were, in order,
patient expectations, fear of compliant, out of hour stress and fear of
violence. However, 61% of Ss expressed no regret at having joined their
practice, with just 4% reporting considerable regret. Stress within the
partnership and stress arising from patient expectations accounted for
23% of the variation in regret. There was no evidence that other factors
such as medical positions outside the practice, membership in a young
principal's support group, fundholding status, or training practices offered
significant protection against regret. Despite reported difficulties in
recruiting new young principals to inner city practices, and despite their
reported high levels of stress, few have regret about their decision to join
their practice.
Vishwesran et al. (2003) found in a study 1, correlation between
(1) social support and workplace stressors and (2) between social support
strain as well as (3) incremental Rs2 across 68 studies, when the
interaction term of stressors and support was added to the regression of
strain of stressors and support, were meta analytically cumulated.

84
Potential moderators of these relationships were weak, suggesting the
presence of 3 general constructs of stressors, strain and social support. In
study 2, the various models for the role of social support in the process of
work-place stress were tested for the general constructs identified in the
1st study. Results indicated that social support had a three-fold effect on
work stressor-strain relations. Social support reduced the strains
experienced, social support intigrated perceived stressors, and social
support moderated the stressor-strain relationship. Evidence for
mediational and suppressor effects of social support on the process of
work stress was weak. In addition, the argument that social support is
mobilized when stressors are encountered was not consistent with the
available empirical evidence.
Anderson et al. (2003) studied that teachers stress has been the
focus of educational concern and research for decades, and has resulted in
the development of several teacher stress scales and various strategies to
address the negative effects of stress and burnout. Promising results in
reducing teacher stress have come from the practice of standardized
meditation (SM). The current study employed a pre-test post-test control
group design and used the teachers stress inventory. State Trial Anxiety
Inventory and the Maslach Burnout Inventory to assess the occupational
stress of 91 full time elementary, middle and high school teacher (aged 22
to 60 years) from suburban districts in 3 states. Results were consistent
with previous studies and offered support for the hypothesis that SM
significantly reduces teachers perceived stress. Teachers' perceived a
reductions in stress using SM only 2–5 times per week. The use of SM by
school psychologist in reducing teacher stress is discussed.

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 Pruessner et al. (2004) examined the effects of burnout and
perceived stress an early morning free cortisole level after awakening in a
group of 66 teachers (mean age 42 years). For 3 days, salwary, cortisol
levels were measured at the time of awakening and 15, 30 and 60 minutes
thereafter. On the night before the 3rd day, SS took 0.5 mg
dexamethasone orally for testing glucocorticoid feedback inhibition.
Burnout and perceived stress were measured by 3 different
questionnaires. Perceived stress correlated with increases of cortisol
levels during the 1st hour after awakening after dexamethasone
pretreatment. In addition, SS scoring high on burnout showed lower
overall, cortisol secretion on all sampling days, and a higher suppression
of cortisol secretion after dexamethasone administration. In the subgroup
of SS with both of higher levels of perceived stress and a burnout, a lower
overall cortisol secretion was observed on the 1st two days, with stronger
increases during the first hour after awakening after dexamethasone
suppression. This subgroup also showed the lowest self esteem, the
highest external locus of control, and the highest number of somatic
completes. These results demonstrate differential effects of burnout and
perceived stress on hypothalamicpituitary adrenal axis regulation.
Dussault et al. (2005) conducted a study on teachers. The aim of
the study was to investigate the relationship between professional
isolation of teachers and their occupational stress. A systematic random
sample of 1,110 teachers in Quebec were administrerd French Canadian
versions of the UCLA Loneliness Scale and Teachers Stress Inventory.
Analysis gave, as expected, a positive and significant correlation between

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isolation and occupational stress. This highlights the importance of
looking for ways to reduce professional isolation of teachers.
A study by Weisberg and Sagie (2006) examined the impact of
burnout dimensions on the intention of female teachers in Israel to leave
their current jobs. Subjects were 28 female teachers in a secondary school
in Tel Aviv, with whom in-depth interviews were conducted. The 21
items on the Pines et al. (1981) Burnout Scale were factor analyzed for
the teachers; classified as physical, emotional, or mental; and correlated
with intention to leave by means of a multiple regression analysis.
Findings indicated that both mental and physical exhaustion positively
and significantly influence intention to leave. It was observed that the
influence of emotional exhaustion is not significant, and neither is the age
of the teacher. Furthermore, it was found that tenure is negatively and
significantly correlated with both burnout and intention to leave.
Van Horn et al. (2006) conducted a study on burnout among 249
Dutch elementary and secondary school teachers. The current study
considers burnout in terms of the exchange of investments and outcomes
at interpersonal (teacher-student) and organizational (teacher-school)
levels. In addition, demographic (age and gender) and work-related
factors (school type, teaching experience, number of hours employed) are
included. Findings show that when teachers invest more than they get
back from their school, they report higher levels of emotional exhaustion.
As expected, at the inter pesonal level, low outcomes from students are
related to higher burnout levels; whereas at the organizational level, low
investments are related to higher burnout levels. These findings are

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discussed in terms of the extent to which psychological contact is more
intimate or impersonal in both types of relationships.
Fabri (2006) studied that refugees to the United States are fleeing
intolerable conditions and arriving to a new, very unfamiliar environment
with many possibilities and sometimes conflicting expectations. Some are
able to focus on their new life; others experience significant
psychological, emotional, and physical adjustment problems. English-as-
a-Second-Language (ESL) teachers can develop helpful and supportive
relationships with refugees struggling to cope with daily life, but can also
be ready targets for displaced anger, disappointment, and frustration. ESL
teachers may be called on to referee conflicts. ESL teachers may also feel
ineffectual in the face of students' lack of progress or seeming disinterest,
and feel powerless to effect change. Teachers may be able to refer
students having more difficulties than expected to resettlement mental
health services. If the community has not addressed the concerns of
refugee mental health, it may be time to initiate the discussion. Working
with refugee groups can be both highly rewarding and highly stressful. It
is important to monitor ESL teachers' stress levels and emotional
responses, be familiar with the way they cope. Teachers should take the
time to do a personal inventory and care for themselves, which is also
good role modeling for students.
By Abel and Sewell (2007) sources of stress and symptoms of
burnout were examined in 51 rural and 46 urban secondary school
teachers from 11 school systems is Georgia and North Carolina. Urban
school teachers experienced significantly more stress from poor working
conditions and poor staff relations than did rural school teachers. Stress

88
from pupil misbehaviour and time pressure was significantly greater than
stress from poor working conditions and poor staff relations for both rural
and urban school teachers. Poor working conditions and time pressures
predicted burnout for rural school teachers; pupil misbehaviour and poor
working conditions predicted burnout for urban school teachers. Results
were discussed in relation to designing effective programmes to prevent
negative effects of stress and burnout.
Gunthert et al. (2008) examined the influence of neuroticism (N)
on the occurrence of different types of daily events, primary and
secondary appraisals of those events, use of specific coping strategies,
and end-of-day negative mood. College students completed
questionnaires at the end of every day for 14 consecutive days. When
reporting their most stressful event of each day, high-N individuals,
compared with low-N individuals, reported more interpersonal stressors
and had more negative primary and secondary appraisals. Compared with
low-N individuals, high-N individuals used less-adaptive coping
strategies (e.g., hostile reaction) and reacted with more distress in
response to some types of coping strategies. The appraisal findings in
particular, help to explain the chronic negative affectivity associated with
neuroticism.
Pitchers, and Soden (2008) examines the relationship between
person-environment fit and occupational stress and strain for a group of
300 Australian and Scotish vocational teachers. A self-report
questionnaire was used to obtain a measure of predominant work interest
type for each individual. Teachers were allocated to the congruent group
on the basis of reporting a predominantly Social interest type; Social

89
types are seen to be most congruent with teaching. Teachers were
allocated to the incongruent group on the basis of reporting a
predominantly practical interest type. The Occupational Stress Inventory
(OSI) was used to measure various aspects of occupational stress, strain
and coping resources. Significant between-group effects (congruent vs
incongruent) were found for two of the four strain subscales of the OSI.
The implications of person-environment fit and strain for teachers of
discussed.
Joe Tomaka, et al. (2008) in a study assertiveness as a moderator of
stress reactions among women was examined. Specifically, the
experiments examined how high and low assertive women cognitively
appraised, affectively and physiologically responded to, and
behaviourally coped with the stress of giving an impromptu speech. High
aspective women appraised the speech stressor as challenging, whereas
low assertive women appraised the stressor as threatening. High assertive
women also had a challenge pattern of autonomic response during the
task, companing with the threat response of low assertive women.
Afterward, the high assertive women reported expesconcing less stress
and negative emotion and greater positive emotion than did the low
assertive women. Overall, the high assertive women's stress-related
reactions indicated challenge, whereas the low assertive women's
reactions indicated threat.
An attempt was made by Vashishtha and Mishra (2009) to explore
the moderator effect of tangible support on the occupational stress-
organizational relationship. The General Population Form of
Interpersonal Support Evaluation list (ISEL, Cohen, Mermelstein,

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Kamarck and Hoberman, 1985) the Occupational Stress Index (Srivastava
and Singh, 1981) and Organizational Commitment Scale (Meyer and
Allen, 1984) were administered to a sample of 200 supervisors in a
factory making auto scooters. Moderated Multiple Regression Analysis
and Subgroup Analysis confirm that tangiable support has a partially
moderating effect on the occupational stress and organizational
commitment relationship.
Starzyk et al. (2009) studied the Personal Research Form-E (PRF-
E; 20 need structure scales), the Holden Psychological Screening
Inventory (HPSI; 3 psychological adjustment scales), and the Leisure
Motivation Scale (LMS; 4 leisure motivation scales) were administered to
60 young offenders and 50 high school students. Significant between
sample differences in means resulted for HPSI Psychiatric, Social, and
Depression Symptomatology scales; I the PRF-E Affiliation, Aggression,
Autonomy, and Harm Avoidance content scales; and LMS and 19 of the
20 PRF-E content scales as well as the HPSI Depression and Social
Symptomatology scales. It is concluded that young offenders, as
compared to high school students, are significantly less well adjusted and
gave different leisure motivations and personality needs. It is likely that
need structure impacts directly on psychosocial adjustment as well as
indirectly through leisure motivation.
Piekarska (2010) examine school stress, teachers' abusive
behaviours, and children's coping strategies. Data were drawn from six
questionnaires that were completed by 271 students aged 13 and 14 in
Poland. Results revealed that the most frequent stressors for students
were teachers' abusive behaviours in tuition and assessment and that

91
coping strategies and school results were influenced by the severity of
school stress, anxiety, and temperamental characteristic. It is concluded
that teachers' psychological abuse is an important factor in children's
school stress and that survival-coping strategies utilized by students are
destructive for their school achievements and their well-being.
Farber, Barry A. (2011) suggests that there are three types of
burnout "wearout", wherein an individual gives up, feeling depleted in
confronting stress; "classic" burnout, wherein an individual works
increasingly hard in the face of stress; and an "underchallenged" type,
wherein an individual is faced not with excessive degrees of stress per se
(e.g. overload), but rather with monotonous and unstimulating work
conditions. The major arguments put forward are that: a) clinicians
should avoid treating teacher burnout as if it were a single phenomenon,
and instead tailor their treatment to the specific type of burnout
manifested by their client' and b) these treatments, while embodying
different elements, should be essentially integrative in nature
Psychoanyalytic insight, cognitive restructuring, empathic concern, and
stress-reduction techniques may all be necessary, albiet in different
combinations, to treat successfully burnout of each type.
Friedman (2012) found that burnout usually is conceptualized as a
work-related syndrome stemming from the individual's perception of a
significant gap between expectations of successful professional
performance and an observed, far less satisfying reality. The article
examines this perception as a discrepancy between expected and
observed levels of the individual's professional self-efficacy. The
teaching profession and its service providers-teachers-serve as a model to

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illustrate and support this examination. Self-reports of novice teachers'
experiences in their first year of teaching are given, reflecting a world a
shattered dreams of idealistic performance. Finally, a number of
suggestions for programmes and activities that have proven helpful in
alleviating stress and burnout among teachers are described.
Westmen and Etzion (2013) examined the hypothesis that vacation
relief decrease psychological and behavioural strain caused by job
stressors. The impact of job stress and found that impact of vacation only
on psychological strain such as burnout and job and life satisfaction.
Hess and Copeland (2014) investigated the relationship between
two interpersonal variables— stressful life change events and reported
coping strategies and high school completion status among early
adolescents. The sample was comprised of 92 students (44 females & 48
males) who had completed questionnaire regarding the number and types
of life change events they had experienced and the coping strategies they
reported using during ninth grade. A 3-year followup study of these
students was completed to determine whether they finished high school or
reported dropping out.
Karatzias (2015) attempted to study correlates of QLS including
demographic, personality variables and school stress, and construct a
consistent model of QSL, using data derived from 425 pupils (mean age
14.2 years) in two Scottish secondary school. The model constructed was
found able to account for 56% of the QSL variance. Overall results
indicated that QSL is predominantly associated with personality factors,
in particular school self-esteem. Result are discussed in relation to the
'trait' character of QSL and the educational implications of the model.

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 Trenberth and Deve (2015) explored the importance reasons
individuals attach to leisure as a means of coping with work stress. The
sample was made up of 695 principals and deputy principals from
secondary schools throughout New Zealand. Analysis revealed that there
were two reasons why leisure is important as a means of coping; one
because of its active/challenging nature and the other because of its more
passive or recuperative nature. The items that made up these two broad
categories were then further explored in relation to a number of measures
of well being. This involved the use of sequential tree analysis and the
sequential unfolding of the different reasons. The pattern of emerge
suggested that 'being totally focused' was an important reason for
engaging in active/challenging leisure whereas a more complex profile
emerged for using passive or recuperative leisure activities. The
significance of these findings is discussed in terms of interventions
strategies and the role of leisure within work stress research.

2.2 Studies Conducted in India

Suraj (1965) studied the relationship between teacher trainees
Intellectual Efficiency (IE), Self Acceptance (SA) and Teaching Skills
(TS). It was revealed in the study that the sex differences in the three
relationships were significant at 0.01 level. The intellectual efficiency of
the trainees was forecasted to be 57% while efficiency of the self
acceptance was forecasted 45%. Anyhow in the pattern of Ray (1965) no
characteristic pattern of difference was suggested between men and
women teachers.

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 In an exploratory study Mishra (1983-88) enquired the meaning in
life, stress and burnout in teachers of secondary schools.
The objectives of the study were:
(1) To study if teachers varied in the degree of overall meaning in life
and if they showed a trend toward low and high meaning.
(2) To find out the relationship if any among the different measures of
meaning in life.
(3) To study if teachers varied in the extent of perceived burnout.
(4) To study the relationship between stress and burnout meaning in life
and stress, and meaning in life and burnout in teachers.
The data was collected through Moholick's purpose in life test
(1969) Maslach and Jackson's 1981 inventory for study of burnout, and a
scale and interview schedules prepared by the investigator for
measurement of stress and other background variables. 345 teachers from
15 secondary schools and in-service teacher population of three teacher
training institutions in Calcutta. Survey and case study techniques were
followed in the conduct of the study. Descriptive and non-parametric
statistical techniques were used for analysis of data. It was found in this
study:
(1) Meaningfulness of life of the teachers was quite high according to
their own perception.
(2) All the measures of meaning in life namely self reported meaning in
life, sources of meaning in life and sources of meaning in teaching
had a positive relationship with meaning of life.
(3) Age difference was significant with regard to stres of teachers.

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(4) Stress was positively related to burnout with regard to emotional
exhaustion and depersonalization.
(5) A comparatively low level of meaning in life was identified among
the sample teachers.
Sharma (1967) categorized the Headmasters’ personality as
cohesive, neutral and antagonistic personality and the conclusion of study
indicated that personality is an important variable for role expectations
and role performance among the headmasters.
Sharma (1968) organized “A Study of Role Conflict in
headmasters of Secondary Schools in Rajasthan”. Findings of this study
indicated that personality of an individual is responsible for role conflict.
Khatry (1973) conducted comparative study of the self concept of
teachers of different categories and found relationship of their self
concept with professional adjustment. This study was conducted keeping
in view the following objectives : (i) To measure the self concept of
teachers by developing a self concept inventory in Hindi, (ii) to measure
the professional adjustment of teachers by using this inventory. (iii) to
study self ideal discrepancies among primary, secondary and college
teachers, (iv) to study the relationship between measures of self concept
and professional adjustment of the three categories of teachers, (v) to
compare the self concept of professional adjustment of the three
categories of teachers.
A sample of 900 teachers both men and women belonging to
primary, secondary and college level were randomly selected from urban
areas of the state of Haryana. The tools were the Professional Adjustment
Inventory (PAI) and the Self Concept Inventory (SCI). The main findings

96
of the study were: (i) There were no significant differences among the
self concept of primary, secondary and college teachers, (ii) there were
significant differences between the self ideal discrepancies of college and
secondary teachers but not primary and college teachers, (iii) there were
significant differences in the professional adjustment between college and
primary teachers but not between primary and secondary school teachers,
(iv) there was a significant relationship between self concept scores and
self ideal discrepancy scores of all the three types of teachers, (v) there
was significant relationship between self concept scores and professional
adjustment scores of the three types of teachers.
Pandey (1973) studied teacher’s adjustment in relation to
Professional Efficiency. The main objectives were: (i) to construct an
Adjustment Inventory for school teachers, (ii) to construct a scale for
professional efficiency, (iii) to find out the main factors of adjustment of
male and female teachers, (iv) to predict professional efficiency on the
basis of inventory, (v) to find the validity of the adjustment inventory.
Five point scale was constructed. Findings were: (i) male and female
teachers indicated positive relationship between all five elements of
adjustment, (ii) in case of males two factors, (a) institutional and (b)
physical were identified while in females they were identified as (a)
physical (b) Institutional, (iii) multiple R in males was .8656 while for
females it was .9751, (iv) regression equation for females was higher than
for males, (v) validity of male and female was .65 and .76 respectively.
Pinto (1974) made a study of psycho-social adjustment of
physically handicapped children. The objective of this study was to
investigate into the influence of sex, intelligence and degree of disability

97
upon their adjusted pattern. The male and female teachers too, having a
variety of academic qualifications and different socio-economic groups
may influence their adjusted pattern of behaviour and relate it to their
motivational pattern.
Sharan (1974) conducted “A Study of Role Conflict and its
Influence on Role Performance”. The sample of study was 385 males and
115 female students of Bhagalpur University. The results of study
indicated that a significant and strong relationship was found between
personality and role conflict of students.
A study conducted by Verma (1974) titled as “Role Conflict and
the Corresponding role Performance Among the Head masters”. The
major objectives of the study was to find out the relationship between role
conflict and personality traits of headmasters. The sample of study was 15
headmasters, 150 parents, 225 students, 150 teachers and 5
administrators. The findings of study revealed that personality of
headmaster is key position in the organizational climate, which affects the
role conflict.
Pareek (1976) opened new vistas in the area of stress research,
when he proposed his model of role space and role set to define various
types of role stresses. He classified 10 different types of role stresses. He
also proposed model of coping styles. He developed many tools to
measure different aspects of role behaviour of an individual, coping
strategies to cope with stress and different aspect of organizational
behaviour, based on his own models. His versatile tools are now being
used by many researchers working in the area of stress research.

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 Sharma (1978) studied the factors underlying adjustment problems
of professional and non-professional college students. The scope of his
study was limited to find adjustment areas as home, health, social areas,
emotional and educational fields. It was found that adjustment of most
professional and non-professional college students depended on these
factors. Thus professional adjustment indicates greatly, its influence on
the motivation patterns of teachers.
Madhu and Hari Gopal (1978) presented their paper in 1978 in
which they have examined the relationship between role conflict and job
involvement and job performance and job tenure. This study included
technical and non-technical supervisors. The result of non-technical
supervisors indicated a negative relationship between role conflict and
job involvement. For technical supervisors, role conflict correlated
positively with age that is, as age increases, the amount of experienced
role conflict also tends to increase.
Nath (1980) studied role conflict on a sample of 50 managers, 50
supervisors and 50 workers in a private company. Workers obtained
significantly low scores on role conflict, as compared to managers and
supervisors. Role conflict decreases as the length of service increases in
all three levels of personnel.
In another empirical investigation, Pestonjee and Singh (1982)
explored the stress-strain relationship in the case of both public and
private sector computer service organizations. The total sample
comprised of 70 EDP managers (35 from each public and private sector)
and 70 EDP system analysts (35 from each public and private sector)
from computer service organizations. The results revealed that role

99
erosion and resource inadequacy were experienced as dominant whereas
role expectation conflict and personal inadequacy as remote contributors
of role stress in case of both public and private sector organizations.
Managers in the private sector scored significantly higher on job
satisfaction and inter-role distance as compared to managers in the public
sector. System analysts (private sector) scored significantly higher on role
stagnation, role expectation conflict and role overload as compared to
system analysts (public sector).
Sen (1983) in his study investigated the main role stresses
experienced by employees in banks at different levels and coping
strategies adopted by them. The study was conducted on a sample of 446
employees at four different levels from three banks. He also studied
various background factors in relation to role stress and coping strategies.
These were age, sex, education, marital status, salary, family type,
residence, distance of work place from residence, entry and previous job
experience. Age and income were found to be negatively related with role
stress. No significant differences were observed with respect to sex,
family marital status and rural or urban background in coping style
measures. However, defensive style was the most frequently used
strategy followed by introspective and impunitive styles.
Gupta (1986) emphasized through his study titled “Leadership
Behaviour of Secondary School Headmasters in Relation to Their
Personality in the Climate of Their Schools”, the tone of school is mainly
influenced by the personality and behaviour of headmaster. He measured
that the relationship between role and personality of headmasters through

100
P. F. and found that no significant relationship was found between role
and personality factor A, C, E, H, Q1, Q3, and Q4.
Similar results were reported by Surti (1989) in a study of working
women. The sample comprised 360 working women belonging to
different professional groups such as researchers, doctors, nurses, social
workers, school teachers, university and college teachers, gazetted
officers, bank employees and women entrepreneurs. Differences were
found in dominant role stress perceived by individuals in different work
populations. No significant differences were observed in any type of role
stress with age, birth order, educational level, family related variables,
promotion, length of service, experience in organization, distance of work
place and mode of conveyance.
The aim of the study designed by Mishra (1984) was to make
relationship of personality need, job satisfaction, adjustment with primary
school male teachers of Gorakhpur region. Five hundred and sixty full-
time male primary school teachers were included in the sample. The data
was collected through Meenakshi Personality Inventory, Teacher job
satisfaction scale and primary teachers burnout scale and teacher
adjustment scale developed by investigator himself. It was found in this
study:-
(1) The personality needs of primary school teachers were related to
their burnout tendency.
(2) Primary school teachers adjustment and their burnout state are
negatively and significantly related.
(3) Primary school teachers job satisfation and their burnout state are
negatively and significantly related.

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 Pandey (1996) studied work overload, role ambiguity, role conflict
as related to work performance in 95 employees of a sugar factory in
Gorakhpur. Role ambiguity, role conflict and work overload were found
to be negatively and significantly related with performance.
Shukla (1998) did a study with 152 male executives of middle and
senior level, drawn from various private and public sector organizations
representing a cross section of organizational functions, e.g., production,
finance, etc. was an explanatory survey to identify the nature of
managerial stress expenses. The number identifies the lack of autonomy
as an important cause of stress in Indian situations.
Beena and Poudwal (1999) in their study of 80 executives (40 from
each sex) from different organizations in Kerala, found that female
executives experience more stress than their male counterparts. When age
increases, experience of stress also increases. The author concluded that
gender difference in work stress is the consequence of work-family
conflict, social expectations and behavioural norms that women face as
they occupy a combination of roles rather than an inherent biological
difference between men and women.
Rajeshwari (2002) studied employee stress and its related variables
among 113 banking professionals in Virudhnagar. The results show that
Type A personality leads to experience high stress in employees. And ,
employees who perceived high stress, were suffering from ulcer, diabetes,
heart problems, asthma, high blood pressure and back pain.
Organizational policy factors, organizational process factors and
organizational physical working condition factor play important role in
the perception of stress.

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 Verma (2003) attempted to explore the developmental aspects of
tension and conflict in a public sector undertaking’s employees (Indian
Telephone Industries Ltd.). For measuring tension and conflict a
culturally appropriate checklist was developed. The checklist was
administered on 300 employees of I.T.I., Raibareli (both officers and non-
officers). The results indicated that younger employees, officers,
technical employees and employees with more than two children were
significantly higher on tension scores as compared to older employees,
non-officers, non-technical employees and employees with smaller
families, respectively. Further, employees whose spouses were more
educated, friendly and active were significantly less tense than whose
spouses were less educated, unfriendly and less active.
An investigation was done by Anjuli (2004) about the effect of
stress in relation to organizational effectiveness. The interpretation of
results indicated that on different dimensions of stress and organizational
effectiveness, the difference between males and female was too much. It
was found that females were better capable of handling stress than males
and they face very little or no stress at all
In a study Gyanani (2006) found that the organizational climate of
an institute plays a significant role in create of stress and strain among the
teachers. A sample of 200 teachers were selected from various graduate
and post graduate levels of educational institutions of Agra & Firozabad
city and he found that the teachers working in closed or controlled type of
organizational climate remain tensed and develop some
psychophysological as well as psychological deformities, while the

103
teachers working in autonomous or open type of organizational climate
remain mentally happy and healthy.
An attempt was made by Venkatammal (2007) to know the stress
experienced by the teachers of Annamalai University. The hypotheses
examined the existence of significant differences in the levels of stress
among teachers of Arts faculties and the Teachers of Science faculties. In
addition, the variable like sex, different cadres such as Lecture, Reader
and Professor, and the level of job satisfaction were also studied. Sample
studied were 58 teaching staff. Results show that teachers belonging to
Arts faculties and Science faculties do not differ significantly on
occupational stress. Male teachers and female teachers are not differing
significantly on occupational stress. Lectures, Readers and Professors do
not differ on occupational stres. The teachers who are just satisfied with
their job show more stress than the teachers who are highly satisfied with
their job.
Shakuntala and Sabapathy (1907) studied the adjustment of
secondary school teachers in relation to their interest in and attitude
towards teaching. A sample of 240 teachers were selected by stratified
random sampling technique. A total of 122 male and 118 female teaches
were included in the study. Three major scales were administered, namely
(i) teacher adjustment scale, (ii) Kakkar interest in teaching scale, and
(iii) attitude towards teaching scale. Results showed that there was a
significant and positive correlation between adjustment of secondary
school teachers and their interest in and attitude towards teaching. Further
t-test analysis revealed that differences in interest in teaching, attitude
towards teaching, sex, type of management, marital status, age and

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experience of secodnary school teachers accounted for significant
differences in their adjustment.
A study conducted by Saini and Das (1908) regarding stress.
Teachers Stress Inventory by Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1978a) and
Presumptive Stressful Life Event Scale (PSLE) by Singh, Kaur and Kaur
were administered on a sample of 30 randomly selected secondary school
female teachers of Agra city. Very low positive correlation of 0.25 was
found between the scores of these two tests, indicating that teachers'
stress in their occupation is independent of their stress in their personal
life.
The study of Sen et al. (1909) is concerned with the mental health
and job stress of self-paced repetitive and non-repetitive workers. The
study was conducted in a match factory. The sample consisted of 150
self-paced repetitive workers and 50 non-repetitive workers. These 200
subjects were randomly taken from the box filling, frame filling and
another department of a match factory. The average age of the groups
(N=200) was about 35 years. Adapted tests/scales and questionnaires
were used in this study. These are: (a) job satisfaction; (b) Job
Descriptive Index; (c) Rating of Perceived Effort; (d) Self-Esteem at
Work, and (e) Inventory of Subjective Health. The results showed that
both the groups have significantly high job stress and low job
satisfaction, but self-paced repetitive workers described the job more
unfavourably than the non-repetitive workers. Moreover, mental health,
subjective assessment of health, and self-esteem at work were poorer for
self-paced repetitive workers than the non-repetitive workers.

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 A study was conducted by Jena (1910) on the occupational stress
of women. In this study were founded the job is relatively less important
for women than it is for men. This could be due to the low demand placed
on the occupational roles of women. Meta-analysis of the sex-
occupational stress literature revealed that physiological sex alone does
not fully represent the difference between men and women. Marriage
work interface, social-isolation, discrimination and stereotyping play
significant roles in determining life satisfaction and occupational stress,
psychological and situational factors that also co-vary with sex deserve
consideration for future research.
In a study Daftuar and Nair (2011) measure the impact of
organizational stress on occupational stress in process, service and
engineering and manufacturing organizations and to study the differences
in the culture of these organizations. The results indicate an adverse
relationship between organizational culture and occupational stress, the
culture of 01 was found to be significantly different from 03 and the
culture of 03 differed significantly from 04. No significant differences
were found between any other organizations.
Deosthalee (2012) attempts to assess the effect on occupational
stress experienced by engineers of genders are variation and differences
in the levels of educational qualifications. The sample for the study
consisted of 198 engineers, both male and female, working in different
graded organisations in and around Mumbai city, who are from three age
groups (<25, 26 to 40 and 40 years) A.K. Srivastava and A.P. Singh's
Occupational Stress Index (OSI) was used to measure the stress
experienced by the engineers. The results show that the age has no effect

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on the stress experienced by the engineers. However, the gender as well
as the levels of education have displayed significant impact on stress:
male engineers experienced more stress than that of females whereas the
higher the education, the lesser the stress the engineer experienced.
Singh et al. (2012) research intends to study the personality
patterns of urban and rural female teachers of high school. The study was
conducted on 120 urban and 120 rural female teachers falling in the age
range of 30 to 40 years. Findings of the study denote that urban female
teachers have shown higher mean scores than the corresponding mean
scores of rural female teachers on certain personality traits viz. pure,
diligent, studiores more intellegent and patient. On the other hand rural
female teachers of high school have shown higher mean scores than their
urban counter parts on certain traits of personality viz. truthful, non-
violent, continent, unavaricious, restrained from theft, complacent and
atheist. All the mean differences of these two groups are significant at .01
level.
Devraj and Sarladevi (2014) examines the gender differences in
examination stress and manifest anxiety of Class X, XII, M.Sc. and
Vocational students. 50 students (25 boys and 25 girls) were selected
randomly from class, X, XII, M.Sc. Vocational group for the present
study. They were given examination stress questionnaire prepared by the
investigator and Taylor's manifest anxiety in order to measure
examination stress and manifest anxiety. Results were analyzed by using
"t" test and "f" test. Findings show that examination stress and anxiety
were related to each other. Girls were having more examination stress and
anxiety.

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 A study was conducted by Sharma and Mahajan (2014) to know
the gender differences in stress a result of different personality variables
on clerical cadre staff of nationalized banks in the municipal limits of
Shimla town of Himachal Pradesh. It was observed that both extrovert
and introvert females experienced more stress than their male
counterparts on most of the stress parameters. Neurotic females and
stable males showed more stress than their corresponding counterparts.
Suresh and Parvathy (2015) conducted a study to investigate the
influence of cognitive ability, organizational role stress, burnout on job
performance of engineering executives in a public sector organization.
The sample consisted of 38 engineering executives working at various
levels. The subjects were administered standard progressive matrices,
organizational role stress scale, Maslach burnout inventory and
performance evaluation form for assessment. One way analysis of
variance, Pearson's product movement correlation were used to analyze
the data. This study indicated positive relationship between cognitive
ability and job performance. However, no significant relationship was
found between organizational role stress and job performance, burnout
and job performance.

2.3 General Conclusion

Summing up, it can be said that in earlier section the studies of
personality factors and adjustment as predictors of stress have muddled
the water. It is very difficult to draw common conclusions because of the
unexpected findings and use of diverse tools and techniques
(Nevertheless). However, it is worth by to note some of the more

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expected conclusions. None of the areas of personality and adjustment
have so far revealed any set of variables that can be said to have a definite
association with stress discrepancy of any kind.
The similarity the results found in some studies is apparent rather
than real because the variables in these cases has not been measured by
the same tests.
In most of the studies test have been arbitrarily chosen and rational
guiding the choice is missing in the reports and it creates confusion.
In most of these investigations, significant difference have been
reported. The test of significance, however, has its own weakness. Some
research workers (Colman 1956, Solvin 1956, Selvin 1957, etc.) have
felt that such tests do not perform a valid section in sociological research.
The method is applicable only to laboratory experiment in which it is
possible to secure adequate experimental control of independent
variables. This control is not possible in sociological researches and
therefore, the observed differences may be a combination "treatment
effects" and of uncontrolled variations in the experimental subjects.
These errors might have been analysed by controlling all solvent
correlated variables either in the begining or by cross tabulation after the
data have been gathered.
It may be possible that diversity in result is due to the difference in
methodology of identification of stress loaded teachers.
Broadly speaking, the following situations may be considered
responsible for this state of confusion:
1. Use of wide variety of tools.

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2. Use of tools which are not perfectly measured of personality needs,
adjustment and stress.
3. Heterogenous groups of subjects with regard to characteristics like
age, ability, religion, classes, socio-economic status, etc.
4. Inadequate control of correlated variables.
5. Inability to define personality needs, adjustment and stress in a
particular field more precisely and exactly.
6. Application of diverse methods of identifying stress loaded teachers
and that personality needs and adjustment.
7. Inherent weaknesses of the tests of significance.
8. Most of the studies have been conducted in foreign countries.
9. A very small number of studies related to women teachers have been
undertaken for study.
10. No study deal with the adjustment problems of teachers at Primary
and Pre secondary school level and identify the factors associated
with the adjustment problems.
11. Both in India and abroad the research studies conducted on the stress
covers a wide variety of variables i.e. Psychological, Biological and
situational variables. A little amount of work has been done in
studying stress in context to Primary and Pre secondary school level
teachers.
12. None of research studies conducted so far is related to comparison
of stress of Primary and Pre secondary school level teachers in
relation to their personality needs and adjustment.
Deviation of the present study from previous investigation

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 The review of research literature related to the problem presented
in the foregoing pages, indicates that these studies were limited to
teachers and other professionals but very few studies have been
conducted on teachers relating to their locality, level and sex. So far as
known to the investigator no such study has so far been conducted in
India regarding the personality needs and adjustment. The present study
deviates from previous investigations in that it covers such a wide field
and collects data from relatively large number of cases. It covers B.T.C.
and Vishistha B.T.C. teaches at Primary and Pre Secondary schools level.
In the foregoing researches the survey method and in few studies
experimental method have been employed. But the present employees
survey method to study the stress problems in relation to personality
needs and adjustment. Besides this the study goes deeper through a
follow-up programme of cases to identify the factors associated with the
stress problem of teachers.
The present study covers a large sample on the basis of which
definite conclusion can be drawn to the teachers' stress inventory and
teachers' adjustment inventory has been constructed and standardized
partly in Indian conditions. The MPI a standardized test which includes a
wide variety of personality needs has been used. In the present study
design different combinations of adjustment along with the personality
needs have been researched as the predicators of stress in teachers.
Thus the researchers reasonably realised the importance and utility
of the present research study and is very optimistic about its usefulness
for educationists, psychologists, social workers, teachers and community
at large.

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