COURSE NAME: GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION (METHODOGY I)

COURSE CODE: GEO 2203 (YEAR II& DIPLOMA I)

COURSE STATUS: CORE

CREDIT UNIT: 1 CU

CONTACT HOURS: 15 Hours

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INTRODUCTION
Geography teaching methodology is a broad concept that covers the principles of
Geography education, the aims and objectives of teaching and learning Geography, the
essential tools needed by the Geography teacher, methods used to teach Geography and
the steps involved in each, as well as assessment in Geography.
This methodology has been designed by technocrats basing on the philosophy and
psychology of education. Therefore, the teacher cannot understand and effectively use
Geography teaching methodology without reference to the educational ideas advanced by
the great educationists and philosophers such as Socrates, John Dewey, Hebert Lockie,
and great psychologists such as Skinner, Pavlov and Jean Piaget.
Education has always been used as a vehicle for social, economic and political
transformation of countries. For this reason, every country formulates an education
philosophy that can be used to attain the national development goals. This philosophy
greatly determines the curriculum for that country as well as the syllabus for individual
subjects to be taught.
For these goals to be realized, every subject or field of learning should have a well-
defined and thought out methodology that can enable the learners to achieve the learning
outcomes that would enable them to effectively participate in National and self
development.

What is education?
Education refers to the organization, management and execution of a series of interrelated
programs aimed at enabling learners to acquire knowledge of the desirable traditions and
cultural heritage, skills, values and attitudes from one generation to another.
Education is both formal and informal. Formal education is acquired through the school
system whereby the learner interacts with the curriculum, instructional materials/learning
resources in order to get the desirable knowledge, skills, values and attitudes. On the
other hand, informal education is acquired within the community whereby elders pass on
knowledge, skills, culture and norms to the young generation.
Both formal and informal educations contribute to national development. However, in
teaching methodology, emphasis is put on formal education. Geography is one of the
subjects on which the learners are instructed in order to achieve the National goals, which
the nation targets to achieve by using education as a tool.
Broad Aims of Education
1. To promote understanding and appreciation of the value of national unity,
patriotism and cultural heritage. This is achieved by equipping learners with
knowledge and values that are desirable for national development.

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 2. To inculcate moral, ethical and spiritual values in the individual and to develop
self-discipline, integrity, tolerance and human fellowship.
3. To eradicate illiteracy and equip the individual with basic skills and knowledge to
exploit the environment for self-development as well as national development, for
better health, nutrition and family life, and the capacity for continued learning.
4. To inculcate a sense of service, duty and leadership for participation in civic,
social and National affairs through group activities in educational institutions and
the community.
5. To promote scientific, technical and cultural, knowledge, skills and attitudes
needed to promote development.

Aims of Secondary Education in Uganda

Secondary school education is the intermediate stage in Uganda’s Education system as it
provides a link between primary and tertiary education. This is because it prepares
individuals for further careers and skills.
It is also believed that an individual completing secondary education in Uganda should
have employable skills i.e. be able to create his or her employment using the knowledge
and skills acquired through the school system.
Depending on the national development philosophy and the need to use education as a
vehicle to realize that philosophy, the following objectives have been set for secondary
education in Uganda:
i. To instill and promote national unity, an understanding of the social and civic
responsibilities, strong love and care for others and respect for public property,
as well as an appreciation of international relations and beneficial international
co-operation.
ii. To promote an appreciation and understanding of the cultural heritage of Uganda
including its languages.
iii. To impart and promote a sense of self discipline, ethical and spiritual values,
personal and collective responsibility and initiative.
iv. To enable individuals to acquire and develop knowledge and an understanding of
emerging needs of society and the economy
v. To enable individual to develop basic scientific, technological, technical,
agricultural and commercial skills required for self-employment.
vi. To provide up-date and comprehensive knowledge in theoretical and practical
aspects of innovative production, modern management methods in the field of
industry and commerce and their application in the context of socio- economic
development of Uganda.
vii. To enable individuals to develop personal skills of problem solving, information
gathering and interpretation, independent reading and writing, self-improvement

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 through learning and development of social, physical and leadership skills such
as those obtained through games, societies and clubs.
viii. To lay a foundation for further education.
ix. To enable the individual to apply the acquired skills in solving of the community,
and to develop a strong sense of constructive beneficial belonging to a
community.
x. To instill positive attitudes towards productive work and strong respect for the
dignity of labour and those who engage in productive labor activities.
xi. To develop a positive attitude towards learning as a lifelong process.

Therefore, it is incumbent upon every teacher to focus the entire teaching-learning

process on enabling the nation to realise these aims.

Aims of teaching Geography at Secondary Level

Geography has been made a compulsory subject at lower secondary level in Uganda and
remains optional at higher level. Geography as a subject has its inherent values, to the
learner, the community in which s/he lives and to the country as a whole. All countries
world over put great emphasis on geography education because the subject equips the
learner with knowledge, skills and values which are needed for rational decision making,
sustainable utilization of resources and beneficial living.
A Geographically informed individual is able to interpret and interact with the
environment around him/her in spatial terms. Emphasizing the need for teaching and
learning of Geography, Spock and Tullipe once argued that:
“In the second half of the 20th century every one, however ill-educated is genuinely in
touch with the whole of his planet and becoming increasingly well informed about the
position the earth occupies in the immensity of the space, that is why man wants to know
more about his vast domains and of all school subjects, Geography is the only one that
can give him a picture and an explanation of it………”.
In reference to Uganda’s education system, the following are the aims and objectives of
teaching Geography:
a. To make the learner aware of and interested in and able to take care of his or her
immediate environment.
b. To equip the learner with appropriate attitudes and skills with which to interpret
and develop his or her environment; including those of collecting, recording and
analyzing information.
c. To enable the learner to acquire knowledge and understanding of the relevant
aspects of the larger environment in which the community and the country exists
by selecting topics of particular applicability to his environment.

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 d. To equip the learners with the ability to use geographical knowledge of the larger
environment in which the community and the country exists by selecting topics of
practical applicability.
e. To empower the learner interpret photographs depicting both physical and
representing all physical knowledge.
f. To enable the learner to understand fieldwork techniques and apply them in
studying a local area. This has made it necessary for teachers of Geography to
teach every topic through fieldwork.
g. To equip individuals with practical skills of map reading and map use such as
finding out the location of places and features, describing the spatial organization
of a place using a map, and following a route.
It should, however, be noted that in Uganda today the mode of instruction used by
teachers falls far short of enabling learners to realize these objectives. The major reason
is that teachers emphasize exposition of concepts to the learners with a great neglect of
understanding and acquisition of practical and generic skills, and values as well as
application of these in real life situations.

PILLARS OF LEARNING ACCORDING TO UNESCO

UNESCO as an organ of the United Nations in charge of education has analyzed the
whole value of education to individuals and concluded that, for education to be
meaningful to personal, community, national and global development throughout the 21st
century, it must be able to equip the learners with four pillars, namely:
i. Learning to know; this implies that education should be able to train the head,
(cognitive domain), to acquire new knowledge relevant to development. It further
argues that new knowledge is useful only when it can be applied to real new life
situations.
ii. Learning to be; education should be able to equip the individual with attitudes and
values, that enable him or her to appreciate himself, the community in which he
lives and the environment. This is the affective domain.
iii. Learning to do; according to this pillar, education should prepare people to be
able to use their hands to participate in activities which are beneficial to the self,
community and the Nation. This implies that an educated person in the 21st
Century should be empowered to appreciate productive labour (psycho-motor
domain).
iv. Learning to live together; education should prepare individuals for social life by
equipping them with values that enable them to effectively participate in social
aspects of life. Such values include;
 Appreciating unity in diversity
 Tolerance
 Appreciate of interpersonal differences

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A close look at these pillars reveals that education should modify the individual in order
to produce a holistic product with well -trained hands, the head and the heart.

ESSENTIAL TOOLS NEEDED FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING OF

GEOGRAPHY
The geography teacher, like any other teacher, needs three essential tools for effective
teaching. These are: The teaching syllabus, Scheme of work, and Lesson plan. Each of
these tools contributes significantly to teaching and also reinforces other tools.

THE GEOGRAPHY SYLLABUS

A syllabus is an abstract document giving the head longs as main aspects of a course of
teaching and learning, the time when every aspect is to be covered and the hours of work.
It can also be defined as a summary or an outline of a course of studies. It is, in simple
terms, defined as a document which gives the details of what should be learnt at different
levels by particular people.
Types of Syllabi
The secondary school education cycle is made up of two major syllabi, namely;
 Lower Secondary (UCE) Geography syllabus.
 A-level (UACE) Geography syllabus.
From these two, schools develop their own teaching syllabus known as the Departmental
Geography syllabus.
The Geography syllabus for Uganda
The official Geography teaching syllabus for Uganda is developed by the ministry of
Education and sports, through the National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC),
whose headquarters are at Kyambogo. At NCDC, the Geography syllabus is designed and
development by a subject specialist who together with teacher trainers, national assessors
and practicing teachers, form the National Geography panel. These subject experts are
practicing educationists who are drawn from different parts of the country.
These experts have the resources and expertise and are therefore expected to produce an
exemplary teaching syllabus to guide teachers in the schools. The teaching syllabus for
Geography, like other subjects, reflects the education policy of the nation and when the
national Geography panel is designing it, the panel members consistently refer to the key
documents containing Uganda’s education policy. When talk of the Education policy, we
mean the broad aims of the country’s education. Examples of documents that NCDC

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refers to are the Government White paper on education of 1992 and Education Strategic
Plans.
In addition to these documents, the NCDC experts usually carry out a labor market
survey to find out the kind of knowledge, skills and values the employers want in
educated people. From the official syllabus produced by NCDC, every school makes its
teaching syllabus which is made by the head of department working hand in hand with
the school administration.
The school teaching syllabus takes into consideration the peculiarities of the school and
the teaching and learning resources available.
Note: The school teaching syllabus should however be made in a manner which is
cognizant of the scope and sequence of the National Geography teaching syllabus.
Characteristics of a good syllabus
For a Geography syllabus to be effectively used as a guiding document of the teaching
and learning process, it should have a number of salient features. These include:
1) It should indicate the level at which the material outlined in the document is to be
covered. This includes specifying the class, and the time of the year when each
part of the syllabus is to be taught.
2) It should specify the purpose for which it is developed, for example the major
purpose of having the National syllabus at any level is to promote uniformity in
Geography teaching throughout secondary schools in the country.
3) It should give objectives, that is, the learning outcomes expected to be realized
when the learners undertake a certain course of Geography.
4) It should clearly specify and outline the content to be covered; which should be
fairly precise, for example, it is not enough to say, “measuring distances on a
map,” the syllabus should go ahead and state what type of distances, say, straight,
curving, or winding distances.
5) It should point out the instruction materials to be used when handling particular
concepts in the syllabus especially the most important ones, such as the globe,
wall maps, Atlas, a set of mathematical instruments or tools, graph paper, etc.
6) It should indicate the type of materials the learners need in order to learn
effectively, for example, reference text books for the learners and the major
reference text books for the teacher.
7) It should clearly point out the broad aims of education and how the teaching and
learning of Geography leads to the achieving of those aims.
8) It should specify the methods to be used when delivering lessons on the different
topics.
Note; the teacher should not however follow these methods as outlined in the
syllabus but should choose those which are most suitable to the lesson being
taught and to the age of the learners.

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9) A good Geography syllabus should suggest the mode of evaluation and
assessment in order to gauge learning against learning outcomes. For example, it
may suggest formative evaluation at the end of every lesson or syllabus unit, and
summative evaluation at the end of the term, year and cycle of education.
10) It should also indicate other sources of information relating to the syllabus and
how such sources can be reached or tapped, for example, public libraries,
departmental libraries, and heritage sites.

Given all the above characteristics, a good Geography syllabus therefore aims at
improving the teacher’s mode of instruction and maximum learner participation in the
learning process.

Arrangement of material on a geography syllabus

Syllabus design is the selection and organization of content to be covered in the
Geography syllabus. Whether a syllabus is formulated by an individual teacher or the
curriculum development center in the ministry concerned with education, there are
certain factors which are considered when selecting the subject matter and its
arrangement on the syllabus.

These principles include:

 The aims of education

 The aims and objectives of teaching Geography
 The aims of secondary school education
 The conception of the subject of Geography, that is, to see what balance to
strike when deciding on which branch of Geography to be considered on the
syllabus
 The mental development of the learners for whom the syllabus is intended
 The relationship between Geography and other subjects

There are also some other practical considerations that are worth looking at namely;

o Timetable allocation for Geography

o The demands for the external national examinations
o The teachers to teach Geography as a subject, that is, their academic
qualifications
o Resources available for teaching Geography
o Opportunities for practical work
o The design or form a particular syllabus is supposed to take usually reflects
the philosophical thinking of the country’s education system and those
developing it. For instance, the curriculum developers may decide whether the

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 syllabus is to be learner- centered, teacher-centred, i.e. based on the needs of
the subject, or community centred.

Frameworks used in the arrangement of materials on the Geography syllabus

The organization or arrangement of the selected material on a syllabus is known as the

syllabus design. The Geography syllabus can be organized using any one of the following
frameworks or approaches.

a) The regional framework; this approach looks at an area and differentiates it

from others for example it may look at a continent and divides it into regions, then
looks at the natural environment in each region and its dominant land use
practices such as agricultural practices, industrialization and urbanization.
This approach is descriptive as it concentrates on describing the different aspects
in the region chosen. It is used in syllabus design because there is plentiful supply
of regional textbooks written for students and pointing out a clear order of
describing each region.
b) Comprehensive/ systematic framework; refers to organizing material on a
syllabus in a way that emphasizes interrelationships between geographical aspects
in a given region or continent, thus it is sometimes called the different aspects
Geography framework, for example the study of a given continent such as Africa
may include; physical structure/ landforms, climate, soils and vegetation and how
each of these is related to the other; and aspects of human Geography such as
mining, industrialization, population distribution and density, transport network
and how these are interrelated and their relationships with the physical
environment. The aim of using this approach is to enable the learners look at
different regions of the world and study the systematic Geography of each region.
c) The Topic approach/ framework; here the content to be covered by the learners
is arranged on a syllabus in form of topics and sub-topics which are selected to
suit particular themes from which the learners are expected to learn certain
geographical lessons. Because of this, this approach is sometimes called the
thematic approach to syllabus design. For example, themes may be selected
together with topics which can be used to teach them;
- Hot deserts with topics such as the Sahara, California and Arabian desert
- Mid-latitude deserts with topics such as the Australian desert
- Tropical lands with topics such as tropical climate, tropical vegetation,
tropical agriculture and forestry in the tropics.

Organizing a syllabus using this approach enables the learners to be able to

compare different aspects of human and physical Geography in different parts of
the world.

d) Concentric framework; this is also known as the wide range environment

framework. Here the syllabus is arranged starting with the local areas to the local

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 region, nation, continent and finally the world. This framework has an advantage
that it enables the learner to learn from the known to the unknown, and gives him
a maximum understanding of his own environment.

SCHEME OF WORK

A scheme of work is a translation of the teaching syllabus into manageable portions that
can be covered in a specified period of time, usually a term, two weeks or one week.

A scheme of work is most commonly made for a term per class. It is one of the
professional tools used by the teacher to ensure effective teaching and learning.

It specifies the syllabus, theme or topic to be covered, the content to be covered, learning
outcomes (or objectives to be realized), teaching and learning aids, teaching methods to
be used, reference books and other sources of information and teacher’s remarks.

Reasons for Scheming

1) A scheme of work is an important evidence of prior preparedness for teaching.
2) It ensures that the teacher actually knows what he is going to do basing on the
materials to be used and content selected to be taught.
3) Scheming is done to enable evaluation of the teaching process, that is, for the
school supervisors to be able to determine how much work has been covered in
the term.
4) To alert the school administration on the teaching materials which are not in the
school, this is because within the scheme of work the necessary teaching aids are
submitted.
5) It is a sign of professionalism; this is because for a teacher to execute his duties
professionally he should be able to break down the syllabus into easy to handle
parts.
6) It enables the department to co-ordinate the teaching, for instance, in the event of
a teacher falling sick or being absent, another teacher can easily take over his or
her class by easily referring to the scheme of work.

Major elements of scheming

Although a scheme of work is generally agreed upon as a major tool in the teaching of
Geography, there is no generally agreed upon blueprint of a scheme of work.

This is because its elements can vary depending on the nature of the school, teaching
resources available as well as the materials available for learners’ participation in the
learning process.

However, the following are the major elements of a scheme of work:

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 1) It should indicate the learning outcomes to be realized by the end of the planned
period of instruction. For example; a term, a month, two weeks, or any period,
that is, the learning outcomes should be specified, and these must be precise and
achievable.
In some syllabi, for example the A-Level syllabus, learning outcomes are replaced
with objectives or behavioral changes to be exhibited by the learners.
2) It should indicate some content outline in order to achieve the desired learning
outcomes or objectives. A mere statement of topics and sub-topics is not enough
as these need to be broken down further into what will exactly be taught for easy
follow up.
N.B: Content can be brought out through Learning Activities.
3) It should indicate the teachers activities, that is what the teacher will do in order to
achieve the desired out comes.
4) It should have the sources of information or content to be used to realize the
learning outcomes or objectives; these are simply summarized as references.

Note:
Depending on the nature of the syllabus and the resources available in the school,
references can be broken into two categories, namely;
 Teacher’s references
 Learner’s references
5) A good scheme of work should indicate the teaching or learning aids (resources)
to be used and these must be stated in specific terms, for example, if it is a map,
state the title, if it is statistical data, state what it is about, or if it is a photograph
state what it shows.
6) A good scheme of work should try to break down the topics and sub-topics which
go down to learning outcomes and later form a basis for making notes.
7) It should specify the methods to be used when handling each topic and its sub-
topics, these methods should predominantly be learner centered.
8) It should have teachers’ remarks or comments at the extreme end.

Note: Remarks are made about each section of the scheme after delivering the lessons.
Again the remarks or comments should not be single word statements but should be
explanatory in order to inform the next lesson or unit if the syllabus is to be handled.

9) The scheme of work should specify the week, and the number of periods/lessons
per week. This enables the teacher to sub-divide the work to be taught in
accordance with activities in the week. Each of these activities and sections on the
scheme of work has an important role to play in the teaching and learning process.

Briefly the following can be noted:

A topic is normally what is transferred from the syllabus but the sub-topics are left to the
creativity and competence of the teacher.

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The teacher can formulate several sub-topics depending on the class to be taught and the
nature of topic. The learning outcomes are derived from the taxonomy of education
objectives.

For example, for a topic like, “The Earth and its movements” (Senior One), the
following are the learning outcomes:

The learner should be able to:

(i) understand the relationship between the Earth and the sun and how this affects
temperature and seasons-------Comprehension/understanding
(ii) draw diagrams to show the relationship between the Earth and the sun’s rays and
the causes of temperature variations and use these to show why the Earth can be
divided into tropical, temperate and Polar regions. --------- Application/skill
(iii) understand how the rotation causes day and night. -------
Comprehension/understanding
(iv) know how we can locate places on a globe by using grid including the use of
attitude and longitude. ------- Knowledge
(v) use and measure latitude and longitude. ------Skill/Application
(vi) calculate time using latitude and longitude. -------Skill/Application
(vii) appreciate how the movement of the earth in relation to the sun affects the
way people live.-------Attitude

Learning Activities

The learning activities indicated in the scheme of work should be selected according to
sub-headings but not individual points or ideas. These should point out what the teacher
and learners will do in order to realize the learning outcomes.

Teaching and learning Aids/resources

These are the materials that the learner needs to interact with, in order to learn well.

For example, for the above topic, “The Earth and its movements”, the following
teaching and learning resources could be needed;

 A globe or foot ball, a torch or bulb, and a pencil or metal rod.

 Photographs and diagrams showing the shape, position, and movements of the Earth
 Text book extracts or articles on the Earth and its movements

Teaching methods

The methods included in a scheme of work vary depending on the nature of the topic as
well as the skills, values and attitudes to be realised by the learner as indicated in the

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 syllabus. It is highly recommended that as much as possible learner - centered methods
should be used to facilitate learning. They include:

o Discussion method
o Questioning (Question- answer) method
o Field research/ field work
o Project method
o Debating
o Demonstration
o Internet and Library Research
o Guided discovery
o Role-play

Remarks

These are comments made by the teacher about a topic or sub-topic after handling it in
class. These comments should highlight how you faired with the topic or sub-topic. They
should also be able to point out the success and problems of the learners, and if problems
are stated solutions should also be pointed out, otherwise, statements like: Taught,
successfully done, completed and the like, should not be used because they are neither
informative nor evaluative.

The teacher should make comments like: “The second sub-topic was not fully covered
because learners did not have background knowledge and personal experiences about it;
a lot of time was spent taking them through the background so as to enable them to learn
effectively. To be completed in the next lesson”.

A SAMPLE SCHEME OF WORK FOR A COMPENTENCY- BASED

CURRICULUM
School: ---------------------------------------
Name of Teacher: --------------------------- Class: ------------------
Subject: -------------------------------------- Term: ---------------- Year: ------
WEEK PERIODs THEME COMPETENCY LEARNING TEACHING/ METHODOLOGY RE
/TOPIC OUTCOMES LEARNING
RESOURCES
6 4 The The learner The learner - Globe or Ball, Learner centered 
(8th - Earth understands the should be able Source of method through the 
24th and its relationship to: light(torch), following 
April moveme between the 1.understand the techniques:
2022) nts Earth and the relationship - ICT simulation to  Group work will
sun and the between the reinforce be used to

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 effects these Earth and the understanding of develop
have on our sun and how the shape of the communication,
lives. this affects Earth and its cooperation,
temperature movements good listening
and seasons(u) relative to the sun. skills,
2. Draw  Demonstration
diagrams to of how the Earth
show the moves relative
relationship to the sun
between the  Questioning will
Earth and the help in critical
sun’s rays and thinking skills
the causes of
temperature Activities will focus
variations and on:
use these to  Discovery
show why the  Explanation
Earth can be  Analysis and
divided into  Application
tropical,
temperate and
Polar Regions.

Revision questions

1. Justify the continued use of schemes of work when preparing to teach Geography.
2. Describe the characteristics of a good scheme of work.

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LESSON PLAN

This is a professional tool that documents the intended mutually related activities to be
engaged in by both the teacher and the learners in order to achieve the required learning
goals. It is a statement of the achievements to be and the specific means by which these
are to be attained as a result of the learning activities to be engaged in under guidance of
the teacher. A lesson plan can also be defined as a get set position of the teacher before
going to class. From the above definitions we note that a lesson plan focuses the teacher’s
attention on three important aspects namely:

(i) Outcomes i.e. what the learner achieves,

(ii) Definite processes and procedures to be followed by the teacher which recognise
learner activity as the basis of learning
(iii) The learner is in the foreground while the teacher is in the background.
Hence the teacher plays the role of a guide or facilitator of the learning process.

Note: Unlike the scheme of work which accommodates several topics and sub-topics to
be covered over a period of time, a lesson plan is prepared for every lesson to be taught
on a specific day.

Lesson planning is essentially an experience in anticipatory teaching. It involves walking

through the classroom experience (both emotionally and mentally) as the teacher
visualizes it. In imagination, the teacher anticipates the eager faces, inquisitive faces,
questions to arise, challenges learners are likely to encounter and ways of overcoming
them.

What qualities should a teacher possess for effective lesson planning?

1. Understanding the needs of the learners to be taught. Every class is different and
the teacher has to put these differences into consideration when planning any
lesson. For example, visual learners prefer using images, pictures, and maps to
understand information while auditory learners learn better by hearing
information and kinesthetic learners learn best when they are moving around or
doing physical activities.
2. Broad understanding of the subject matter to be taught, support materials to be
used and activities which will provide the nucleus for interactive learning
experiences during the lesson. This calls for ability to interpret the subject
syllabus and support materials such as textbooks and the teacher’s guide.

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 3. An intimate knowledge of the environmental forces that have played upon the life
of the learners collectively or individually. This knowledge enables the teacher to
choose appropriate teaching methods and learning tasks.
4. Thorough understanding of the psychology of mental processes and laws of
learning leading to the anticipated classroom situation.
5. Detailed understanding of and ability to make wise choice of sound teaching
techniques which can meet the general and specific learning needs of the learners.
To meet this quality, the teacher should be able to apply the taxonomy of learning
objectives in a classroom situation. That is to say, the teacher should be able to
ask him/hers self the question –“How can I assist the learner to know,
understand, apply, and analyse the content which I intend to teach; and also to
use it to create new ideas and products relating to real life situations?
6. Ability to create realistic timelines. The teacher should be able to narrow down
the number of learning outcomes (or lesson objectives) to the key concepts and
skills which learners should achieve in the lesson. This enables him/her to
estimate the time to be spent on each learning activity, answering learners’
questions, and to sum up key points.

Functions of a lesson Plan 

Many in-service teachers in Uganda find daily lesson planning a cumbersome and
laborious task; and so often times go to class without such a plan. This is a great
distortion of the principles and practices of good and effective teaching. It is imperative
to know that a well thought out lesson plan is an indispensable tool for effective and
beneficial teacher-learner interaction in a classroom setting. This can be justified as
follows:

1. It delimits the scope of work for both the teacher and learner and provides definite
learning outcomes and competences for each day’s interaction.
2. It spells out clear goals to be realised in each lesson. This gives the teacher the
impetus to work towards realising them.
3. It makes teaching and learning, orderly and economical in terms of time. The
lesson plan prevents the teacher from wandering through the subject content
thereby checking possible waste of time.
4. Lesson planning enables the teacher to avoid unnecessary repetition of concepts
that have been covered. This is because the evaluation done at the end of each
lesson gives a pointer to the next lesson.
5. It enhances the confidence of the teacher before the class by eliminating the
possibility of feeling nervous and insecure. This is because during the lesson
planning process the teacher mentally travels through the whole lesson and
classroom situation.
6. Lesson planning gives the teacher the opportunity to think out new ways and
means of making the lesson more interesting and beneficial to the learner. This is
done, among other things, by introducing thought provoking questions and
classroom tasks in the learning activities.

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 7. A lesson plan helps the teacher to systematize and organise the learning process
since the activities in the lesson are well knit and interconnected. This enables the
learners to acquire knowledge and skills step-by-step.
8. A lesson plan enables the teacher to prepare appropriate and adequate
instructional materials such as maps, photographs and images, statistical data,
charts and graphs, samples of say, rocks; diagrams etc.
9. Lesson planning ensures definite classroom based assessment which enables the
learners to achieve the intended learning outcomes and competences.

Steps for planning a lesson

Preparing a lesson plan needs to be done systematically so that the resultant plan will
enable the teacher to deliver the lesson purposefully, in an active way, and wihin the time
available for teaching. Follow the 6 steps below whenever you are preparing your lesson
plan.

1. Identify the learning outcomes or learning objectives

Before you plan your lesson, you will first need to identify the learning outcomes or
objectives for the lesson. A learning outcome describes what the learner will be able to
know or do after the learning experience. On the other hand, a learning objective
describes what a teacher expects to accomplish in the short term as a result of their
interaction with the learner rather than what the learner retains as the long term effect of
the teacher-learner interaction.

Therefore, learning objectives are just means to an end while learning outcomes is the
end itself. For example, if a learner lists the characteristics of rift valley lakes, it implies
that such a learner knows those lakes. If the learner explains how the characteristics of
rift valley lakes affect human activities, it implies that he/she understands those lakes.
Learning outcomes/objectives are normally derived from the subject syllabus.
2. Plan the specific learning activities
When planning learning activities you should consider the types of activities learners will
need to engage in, in order to develop the knowledge, skills and values required to
demonstrate effective learning. Learning activities should be directly related to the
learning outcomes/objectives of the topic or subtopic. They provide experiences that will
enable learners to engage in, practice, and gain feedback on specific progress towards
those outcomes/objectives.
As you plan your learning activities, estimate how much time you will spend on each.
Build in time for extended explanation or discussion, but also be prepared to move on
quickly to different applications or problems, and to identify strategies that check for
understanding. Some questions to think about as you design the learning activities you
will use are:

 What will I do to explain the topic?

17
  What will I do to illustrate the topic in a different way?
 How can I engage learners in the topic?
 What are some relevant real-life examples, analogies, or situations that can help
learners understand the topic?
 What will learners need to do to help them understand the topic better?

It is important that each learning activity in the lesson must be (1) aligned to the lesson’s
learning objectives, (2) meaningfully engage students in active, constructive, authentic,
and collaborative ways, and (3) useful where the student is able to take what they have
learnt from engaging with the activity and use it in another context, or for another
purpose.
3. Plan to assess learner understanding
Assessments (e.g., triangulation, quizzes, tests, problem sets, and performances) provide
opportunities for learners to demonstrate and practice the knowledge and skills
articulated in the learning outcomes/objectives, and for the teacher to offer targeted
feedback that can guide further learning.
Planning for assessment allows you to find out whether your learners are learning. It
involves making decisions about:
 the number and type of assessment tasks that will best enable learners to
demonstrate achievement of learning outcomes/objectives for the lesson
o Examples of different assessments
o Formative and/or summative(assessment for learning, as learning, and
of learning)
 the criteria and standards that will be used to make assessment judgments
o Assessment rubrics
 learner roles in the assessment process
o Self-assessment
o Peer assessment
 the weighting of individual assessment tasks and the method by which individual
task judgments will be combined into a final grade
o information about how various tasks are to be weighted and combined into
an overall grade must be provided to learners
 the provision of feedback

o giving feedback to the learners on how to improve their learning, as well

as giving feedback to yourself (teacher) how to improve or refine your
teaching 
4. Plan to sequence the lesson in an engaging and meaningful manner
Robert Gagne proposed a nine-step process called the events of instruction, which is
useful for planning the sequence of your lesson. You can achieve this more easily by
using Gagne’s 9 events together with Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives which help in designing engaging and meaningful instruction.

18
 Fig: Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction

(i) Gain attention: Obtain learners’ attention so that they will watch and listen while the
teacher you present the learning content.
a. Present a story or a problem to be solved
b. Use ice breaker activities, current news and events, case studies, YouTube videos,
and so on.
c. The learning outcomes/objectives are used to quickly grab learner attention and
interest in the topic
(ii) Inform learner of learning outcomes/objectives: Allow learners to organize their
thoughts regarding what they are about to see, hear, and/or do.
a. Include learning outcomes/objectives in your presentations, and in instructions for
activities, and projects
b. Describe required performance
c. Describe criteria for standard performance or demonstration of learning
(iii) Stimulate recall of prior knowledge:
a. Help learners make sense of new information by relating it to something they
already know or something they have already experienced.
b. Recall events from previous lesson, integrate results of activities into the current
topic, and/or relate previous information to the current topic
c. Ask learners about their understanding of previous concepts
(iv)Present new content: Use a variety of methods including lecture, readings, activities,
projects, multimedia, and others to present information about the current topic.
a. Sequence and divide the information into smaller bits to avoid cognitive overload
b. Blend the information to aid in information recall
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 c. Bloom's Revised Taxonomy can be used to help sequence the lesson by helping
you chunk them into levels of difficulty.
(v) Provide guidance: Advise learners of strategies to help them in learning content and of
resources available. With learning guidance, the rate of learning increases because
learners are less likely to lose time or become frustrated by basing performance on
incorrect facts or poorly understood concepts.
a. Provide instructional support as needed – as scaffolds (cues, hints, prompts)
which can be removed after the learner learns the task or content
b. Model varied learning strategies – mnemonics, concept mapping, role playing,
visualizing
c. Use examples and non-examples to simplify learning
(vi)Practice: Allow learners to apply knowledge and skills learned.
a. Allow learners to apply knowledge in pair, group or individual activities
b. Ask deep-learning questions, make reference to what learners already know or
have learners collaborate with their peers
c. Ask learners to recite, revisit, or reiterate information they have learned
d. Facilitate learner elaborations – ask them to elaborate or explain details and
provide more complexity to their responses
e. Use triangulation and other methods of classroom based assessment to find out
whether learning has taken place and the degree to which it has taken place
(vii) Provide feedback: Provide immediate feedback of learners’ performance to
assess and facilitate learning.
a. Consider using group / class level feedback (highlighting common errors, give
examples or models of target performance)
b. Consider implementing peer feedback
c. Require learners to specify how they used feedback in subsequent learning
activities or works
(viii) Assess performance: To evaluate the effectiveness of the instructional events,
test by some means to see if the expected learning outcomes have been achieved.
Performance should be based on previously stated learning outcomes/lesson objectives.
a. Use a variety of assessment methods including quizzes, exit cards, journal
reflections, written assignments (e.g. Activities of Integration), projects, and so
on.
(ix) Enhance retention and transfer: Allow learners to apply information to personal
contexts. This increases retention by personalising information.
a. Provide opportunities for learners to relate what they have learnt to their personal
experiences
b. Provide additional practice for learners to consolidate learning

5. Create a realistic timeline

A list of many (say, eight or ten) learning outcomes/objectives is not realistic, so narrow
down your list to the two or three key concepts, ideas, or skills you want learners to learn in
the lesson. Your list of prioritized learning outcomes/objectives will help you make
decisions on the spot and adjust your lesson plan as needed. Use these strategies for
creating a realistic timeline:

20
  Estimate how much time each of the activities will take, then plan some extra
time for each
 When you prepare your lesson plan, next to each activity indicate how much time
you expect it will take
 Plan a few minutes at the end of the lesson to answer any remaining questions and
to sum up key points
 Plan an extra activity or discussion question in case you have time left
 Be flexible – be ready to adjust your lesson plan to learners’ needs and focus on
what seems to be more productive rather than sticking to your original plan

6. Plan for a lesson closure

Lesson closure provides an opportunity to solidify learning. Lesson closure is useful for
both teachers and learners.
You can use closure to:

 Check for learner understanding and inform subsequent teaching (i.e. to adjust
your teaching depending on the feedback from your learners)
 Emphasise key information in the lesson
 Tie up loose ends
 Correct learners’ misunderstandings and misconceptions
 Preview upcoming topics

There are several ways in which you can put a closure to the lesson: E.g. by;

 Stating the main points yourself (“Today we have talked about…”)

 Asking a learner to help you summarize them
 Asking all learners to write down on a piece of paper what they think were the
main points of the lesson or use exit cards to write what they have learnt, what has
interested them most, challenges faced during the lesson, and what they have not
understood well.

(See examples below)

Example 1

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SAMPLE LESSON PLAN (GENERAL)
DATE……………………………………………………………………….CLASS/
STREAM…………………………………………

Subject No. of Learners Week

Boys------------------------------ Time:----------------------------
-
Duration------------------------
Girls------------------------------
--
TOTAL

TOPIC: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SUB-TOPIC:
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A). COMPETENCES
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B). LEARNING OUTCOMES
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C). INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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D). TEACHING/LEARNING RESOURCES
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
E). REFERENCES:
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
F). EVALUATION/ASSESSMENT
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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LESSON PRESENTATION
STEPS TEACHER’S LEARNER’S OUTCOMES
ACTIVITIES ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION
(--------Minutes)

DEVELOPMENT:
(-------- Minutes)
Step 1:

Step 2:

Step 3:

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SUMMARY/
EVALUATION
(------- Minutes)

WORK SHEET FOR THE LESSON

24
 (QUESTIONS/NOTES)

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Example 2

LESSON PLAN TEMPLATE FOR LOWER SECONDARY (UGANDA)

School: Date:
Subject: Time:
Teacher: Duration:
Class: Number of Boys:
Term: pupils: Girls:

Theme:

Topic:

Competency:

Learning Outcome(s):

Generic skill(s):

Value(s):

Cross cutting issue(s):

Key Learning
Outcome(s):

Pre- Requisite Knowledge:

Learners already have knowledge of: ………………………………………………….

Learning materials: …………………………………………………………………..

References: ……………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………..

LESSON PRESENTATION

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 Phase/ Step Teacher Activity Learners’ Activity

Introduction
(…….Min)

Lesson
Development

Step 1
(…..Min)

Step 2
(….Min)

Step3
(….Min)

Teacher Self-Assessment:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….

WORK SHEET
LESSON QUESTIONS / NOTES

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Characteristics of a good Lesson Plan

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1. It should preferably be in a written form; not oral or mental. This enables the teacher to keep
referring to it whenever need arises.
2. It should clearly indicate routine information namely, school name, teacher’s name, subject,
topic, subtopic, class/stream, number of learners in class; preferably by gender, date, lesson
duration, and time.
3. It should not be an isolated plan but one having a basis upon the background of the class i.e.
what learners already know about the topic or sub topic to be taught. This is called pre-
requisite knowledge.
4. Should clearly spell out the intended learning outcomes and competency. I.e. the behavioral
changes to be realised and what learners should b able to know and do as a result of
attending the lesson.
5. The plan should have well laid down instructional methods. These should as much as
possible be learner centred and suited to the topic to be taught.
6. It should include reference materials to be used during the lesson. These should include
textbooks, news paper articles/extracts, magazines, websites, and other sources of
information. The references included should be readily accessible to the learners.
7. It should have well thought out evaluation/assessment tasks. These may be oral or written
questions. They may also include performance tasks requiring the learners to demonstrate
application of learned knowledge and skills.
8. The plan should clearly specify the teaching and learning aids to be used to build the lesson.
These may include maps, photographs, statistical data, field samples, charts, diagrams,
cartoons, models etc. The learning activities should clearly point out how the learners will
engage with the learning aids selected in order to learn.
9. It should be flexible but not one to be followed slavishly. It should be known that a lesson
plan is just an instrument and a means to an end rather than an end in itself. A rigid lesson
plan limits learner participation in learning especially through questioning, discussion,
clarifying of their points of view, modeling and mapping concepts.
10. It should have strong interconnections; with one step linking to and blending well with the
next one.
11. It should provide ample time for both the teacher and learners to summarise the lesson in an
interactive way. This enables the teacher to highlight the key concepts, facts and skills
which learners should retain and perfect.
12. It should bear a worksheet containing thought provoking questions, key learning points and
brief lesson notes. These should be based on the target learning outcomes/objectives,
learners’ abilities and learning interests.
13. It should be prepared in such a way that it caters for learners with different learning abilities.
Time budgeting should take into consideration the interests of both gifted and slow
learners/time takers.

DELIVERING A LESSON

29
LEARNER- CENTERED METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY
(These are also known as inquiry or Discovery methods)
Recent developments in educational philosophy and psychology have had far reaching effects on
the methods of teaching. In the teaching and learning process, the central place has been given to
the learner, at least in theory. Any teaching-learning process which not learner-centred is not
regarded to be in accord with modern theories of education.
All over the world emphasis is now put on the need to use the right and appropriate teaching
methods if education is to play a central role in development. An effective teacher does not focus
his/her mind on the subject matter to be taught and knowledge to be imparted into the learner but
on the learner himself, that is, the learner’s interests, reactions and responses.
In the same way, a competent teacher judges the success of the lesson not by the amount of
factual knowledge passed onto the learner or portion of the subject syllabus covered, but by:
 Understanding
 Skills
 Values and
 Attitude development achieved by the learners.

These, together with knowledge constitute behavioral change in the learner. Therefore, in
modern teaching, emphasis is put on ‘’KUSVA’’ as the end result of the teaching-learning
process.
Teaching methods are quite many but it is often suggested that every teacher should select
his/her own good teaching methods depending on the nature of the topic and sub-topic being
taught. But it is also equally important to note that a good teaching method is not merely a
collection of mechanical devices, instead it results from the constant observation of certain broad
principles, which include:
- an orderly procedure of teaching
- Arrangement of subject matter which would avoid wasting time and energy.
- The distribution of emphasis during the lesson which will ensure the greatest
participation of the learners and, maintain their great participation during the lesson.

Such method should have the ability to link the learner and the teacher into an organic and
constant relationship, that is, both the teacher and the learner should be able to learn from each
other’s knowledge and experiences.
The effects of the teaching method adopted by a teacher react not only in minds of the learners
but on their entire personality, their abilities and standards of work after school, their abilities to
analyze and judge situations, their intellectual and emotional equipment as well as their attitudes
and values.
30
Good and effective teaching methods which are psychologically tested can raise the whole
quality of the learners’ life. Modern educationists therefore advocate for the use of learner-
centered teaching methods. These are methods that make the learner an active participant rather
than a passive recipient throughout the learning process,

THE QUESTIONING (Question-Answer) METHOD

Good questions by their very nature are educative and they have a prominent position in all kinds
of learning.
Questions play an indispensable role in learning, teaching and testing knowledge and values. If
used in the right way and at a proper time, questioning leads to a new means of learning and
understanding.
During the teaching and learning process, questioning is used for the following purposes;
 To test the previous knowledge of the learners in order to find the entry point at which
the teacher can start assisting them to learn more.
 To enable the learners recall something already known to them.
 To stimulate interest and effort on the part of the learner, this helps the teacher to keep
the class mentally alert.
 To enable learners to think about something and reason about it.
 Questions promote initiative and originality because they stimulate the curiosity of the
learners to discover new knowledge and ideas.
 Questions help the Teacher to find out and ascertain whether the learners are following
the lesson or not.
 Some questions are asked in order to link new knowledge with the old knowledge already
acquired.
 Further still, questions are used to revise the lesson taught and thus fix the facts in the
minds of the learners. Such questions are normally asked at the end of the lesson
 Questions are asked to secure the co-operation of the learners and also find out their
weaknesses.

Classification of questions
It is a normal practice in a classroom setting for both the teacher and the learner to ask each other
questions during the lesson, the questions are of different types and also asked for different
purposes, they can be classified as follows.

31
 Fig: Summary of the type of questions asked during a lesson

Formal questions are the ones where the questioner already knows the information he/she is
asking for. They are usually asked by the teacher.
Note however, that in some circumstances the learner can also ask some formal questions.
Natural questions are the ones where the questioner doesn’t know what he is asking and
therefore wants to learn from another person. Almost all questions asked by learners are natural
questions.
Formal questions are further sub-divided into teaching and testing questions, the teaching
questions are further sub-divided into preliminary questions and recapitulatory questions.
Preliminary questions are asked at the beginning of the lesson. They serve the following purpose:
 Testing the previous knowledge of the learner.
 Linking new knowledge to the old knowledge acquired.
 Motivate learners and arouse their interest in learning.

Therefore, preliminary questions enable the teacher to test the readiness of the learners mind to
learn. Questioning at this stage of the lesson enables the teacher to find out what the learner
knows about the topic in order to build on that knowledge and experience; thus following the
maxim - ‘from the known to the unknown.’
Recapitulatory questions are generally asked at the end of the lesson or at the end of each
session, and they serve two purposes;
 To enable the teacher to find out whether the learner has understood the key ideas and
concepts in the lesson
32
  They are used to revise the lesson covered and to give the learners a good opportunity for
further practice.

Testing /Developing Questions

These are the backbones of the lesson. In the teaching and learning process they serve the
following purposes;
 To develop a particular line of thinking among the learners.
 To lead the learners to discover facts for themselves.
 To enable learners formulate new generalizations in an active way.
 To focus the attention of the learners on important points of the lesson/topic.
 To enable the teacher to develop knowledge step by step. This enables the learners to
relate the different concepts in the lesson.
 To enable the learners use their powers of observation, comparison and concentration.
 To make the inattentive learners alert and bring them back on the truck.

A great deal is required on the part of the teacher in order to ask developing questions. The

The technique of Questioning

When using the question-answer approach, the teacher should bear in mind the following;
o The question should be asked first and then the learner requested to answer it, the leaner
should not be named first and the question asked, neither should the name of the learner be
mentioned immediately following the question. Thus the teacher should ask the question,
pause a bit and then ask individual learners to answer it. The main advantage of asking first
is to set the whole class think to find out the answers.
o Questions should be evenly distributed across the whole class, that is, no learner should be
neglected or ignored.
o Questions should not be given to the class in a regular order. Generally there is a tendency
to put either too many questions to the front benchers or to the boys in a mixed class.
o Ample time should be given to the learners to think out the answer, that is, a volley of
questions asked in ‘rapid fire’ manner should be avoided, because they upset the minds of
the learners.
o The inability of a learner to answer a question should be accepted by the teacher. The
teacher should not waste time in trying to get an answer from the learner who cannot
answer the question. A skilful teacher recognizes that the situation is hopeless, if the
learner fails to answer a question in spite of his best efforts to do so.

33
Characteristics of good questioning
 The language used by the teacher to pose the question should be simple. This enables the
learners to interpret the questions and respond to them.
 Questions should be graded, i.e. they should neither be too easy nor too difficult for the
learners: If the question is too easy for the learners they will not take any interest in
thinking about it and if it is too difficult they will get discouraged.
 Questions should not be ambiguous, lengthy or vague, for example;
‘How is weather formed?’
Or
‘Imagine you leave in a river valley; explain how you could be affected by the
environment if all forests in the area were cleared, and how you would overcome the
negative effects of deforestation.’

Instead this question should be broken into two, as follows:

Imagine you live in a river valley.

a) Explain how you could be affected by the physical environment if all forests in the
area were cleared.
b) Suggest how you would overcome the negative effects of deforestation.

 The questions should be relevant to the topic being covered in class.

 Questions should be suited to the ability of the learner to whom they are put; otherwise it
becomes hopeless if the teacher asks questions with no responses. However, they should be
challenging in order to trigger critical thinking among the learners.
 Questions once asked should not be repeated unnecessarily unless the teacher is sure the
class has not followed.
 When using the question - answer approach, the teacher should try to vary the form of his
or her questions. These should include the “What”, “How”, and “Why” questions.
 Questions should be framed in such a way that they don’t encourage guess work. The
teacher should not generally entertain responses like ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ and any other single
word answers. If the question posed calls for such a response, it should be followed by
probe questions to elicit reasoned responses.
 The questions put to the learners should be of a developing nature, i.e. should as much as
possible test their understanding or encourage creative thinking and originality of ideas.
 As much as possible, every new question should arise from the response to the previous
one and they should be in a logical sequence so that lesson development goes on properly
and lead to realization of the learning outcomes.

34
  Suggestive questions should be avoided as they do not encourage mental activity and
critical thinking. For example,
‘Isn’t rock weathering the first process in soil formation?’
 Leading questions should not be asked. For example,
“Do you know that wild life is the major tourist attraction in Uganda?” or
“Are you aware that most of the people migrating to towns and cities are looking for
jobs?”
 The teacher should also avoid asking echo-questions i.e. questions with their answers
interwoven in them.
 When phrasing questions, the teacher should avoid statements that would stop the progress
of the lesson and totally affect the teaching and learning process. For example,
“Can any one of you answer this question?” or
“Who can tell us the importance of copper mining at Kilembe?”

TEACHING GEOGRAPHY USING THE FIELD WORK METHOD

What is field work in Geography?
Field work study is a scientific method of enquiry that geographers use to investigate where
things are, why they are there, and the significance of their existence in shaping man’s activities
and behaviors.
Wooldridge (1970), defines fieldwork as the ‘art of seeing and using the accessible local ground
as a laboratory for teaching and learning Geography’.
During a fieldwork lesson learners are involved in observing, recording and interpreting for
themselves the realities of man and his environment.
In agreement with this assertion, Pritchard J. M, (1984), defines field work as, ‘the science of
selecting, observing, evaluating and reporting on Geographical phenomena in a specific area’.

Ferguson A. et al (1981) point out that field work study is an integral component of the scientific
procedure geographers use to identify and account for interrelationships using a small area.
From these definitions, it is evident that field work is the study of Geography outside the
classroom walls and setting using investigate tools and procedure.
Why is Field work study important?
Modern educationists do not look at teaching as, ‘imparting knowledge, skills and desirable
values to the learner’. This traditional way of teaching has always kept the teacher as the sole
source of knowledge and skills and the learner as a passive recipient.

35
To encourage student independence in the teaching - learning process, Chauhou, (1995), gives a
learner centered definition of teaching as; ‘it is the stimulation, guidance, direction and
encouragement of learning.’
Geography embraces this new scientific approach to teaching by encouraging field work studies.
The role of the Geography teacher is to guide students in using methods, tools and to develop
skills in problem solving.
Quite a number of reasons have been advanced to justify the use of field work studies in the
teaching and learning of Geography:
 To assist the learner to learn Geographical concepts from the known to the unknown.
 To equip learners with practical Geographical techniques which cannot be acquired
through text book reading and classroom teaching e.g. sampling, field sketching and
observing skills.
 To involve learners in real Geography at first hand i.e. to encourage direct interaction
with the reality of man and his environment
 To break classroom monotony and arouse the interest of the learner in studying
Geography.
 To encourage learners appreciate the interrelationships in man’s environment, i.e. the
cause and effect relationship which cannot be got through indoor studies.
 To give the learner an opportunity to update geographical knowledge and keep abreast
with changing patterns in the world space.
 To prepare learners for their future careers as environmentalists, Geographers, planners,
researchers and surveyors, by way of introducing them to the scientific mode of enquiry.

When should Field work be used to teach?

In Uganda secondary schools, there is a developing tradition of reserving a specific time during
‘O’ and ‘A’- level courses for conducting geographical field work studies. This is usually done in
term III of the school year in preparation for the national assessment examinations.
This is a gross distortion of the recommended approach and methodology of teaching
Geography. Teachers of Geography need to realize that;
Field work is not an alternative approach to the teaching and learning of geography. Indeed it is
the ideal mode of doing so. Ideally every syllabus topic handled in class should be taught
through a relevant field study to make the learners appreciate the spirit and purpose of
Geography.
All text book concepts need to be tested against field evidence before they are accepted as true,
e.g. river velocity and how running water shapes landscape, weather and climate, tourism and its
effects, and the development of urban centers can readily be studied through field work.
Field work should be used as method of teaching and learning from senior one to senior six.

36
Where should field work studies be done?
According to Olatunde P.C (1982), the land area, country, region or part of the earth is the field
where field work studies can be conducted. This implies that any part of man’s surroundings
outside the classroom wall is a field that can be used as a testing ground for text book theories
and verifying concepts.
There is a tendency of carrying out field work studies in only specified places such as fish
landing sites, plantation farms or places of fascinating landscape. Most of such studies end up
being field tours. Thus the student’s immediate environment should always be used as the most
ideal field for teaching and learning geography.
Field work studies can be done in both rural and urban areas as well as on physical features and
land use activities.

Planning a field work lesson

Ideally, a field work study should be organized on the syllabus topic currently being covered in
class. This however, is not always the case in practice. Every field work study should be
prepared in such a way that it achieves the national education objectives to be realized through
geography as a discipline.
The lesson should benefit the learner by enabling him/her to acquire several aspects of practical
learning, i.e. skills which the learner can use in real life situations even long after schooling. The
lesson learning outcomes should focus on assisting learners to acquire the following:
(i) Map work skills such as;
- Map orientation in the field
- Up-dating the existing base map.
- Relating symbols to the features on the ground.
(ii) Skills of practical investigation such as;
- Interviewing skills
- Sampling skills
- Preparing and administering questionnaires
- Observing skills.
(iii) Recording techniques
- Drawing annotated field sketches
- Note-making based on the field observation
- Applying statistical (quantitative) symbols and drawings to data
representation.
(iv)Reporting about a local area.
(v) Analyzing geographical relationships e.g. between physical features and land use
activities.
(vi)Awareness on the importance of environment conservation for sustainable use of
resources and development.

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Stages in organizing a field work lesson
Having decided the syllabus theme/topic to be investigated in the field, the teacher and his
students should organize a practical study. This involves three inter-connected phases and each
phase involves several activities.
a).Pre-field preparation stage

 Identifying the topic of the study. The topic chosen should arise from the Geography
syllabus; preferably the one being covered in class, should be of reasonable length and
clear on the subject matter to be covered and the scope of the study. The topic should be
simple as possible and should match the level of learning.
 Choosing the site or area to be studied. This requires the teacher to have detailed
knowledge about the suggested area.
 Carrying out a reconnaissance or a pilot study of the chosen area. This enables the
researcher to set achievable objectives and select suitable methods and tools to be used
 Setting objectives of the field study.
 Selecting suitable research methods of enquiry.
 Organizing tools/equipment to be used during data collection.

 Briefing and forming research groups.

b). Field excursion or Data collection

This stage involves applying the pre decided methods to collect data about geographical
phenomena. During this phase the teacher assists learner to make scientific enquiry through:

 Sampling of specimens and respondents

 Orientating and reading local area maps
 Interviewing the local people
 Administering questionnaires
 Taking measurements
 Analyzing existing information and relating it to what is actually being seen in the field.
This may involve reading textbooks, magazines, exiting field reports, photographs,
news paper articles and any other grey literature.
 Recording information about the field through making notes, tabulating data,
constructing and annotating field sketches, etc.

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N.B It’s during this phase that maximum discovery and learning are achieved. Therefore,
there is need for close supervision and guidance from the teacher.

c). Follow-up discussion/exercise

The purpose of this final phase is to re-organise the data collected from the field and fostering
comprehensive understanding of the local geography through intellectual reflection aided by
empirical data. There should not be time lag between data collection and the follow up
discussion. During the follow up phase learners do the following activities:

 Groups or individuals present their findings and make comparisons of the findings
 Re-organizing and editing the raw data presented
 Analyzing data using simple data processing techniques
 Interpreting data to come up with meaningful findings and logical conclusions
 Improving upon field sketches
 Illustrating data using quantitative diagrams and graphic techniques
 Making conclusions and recommendations
 Writing up a detailed report/essay of the geography of the area studied

N.B: Evidence from various schools around the country shows that this stage is not always
emphasized; hence learners end up not feeling the worth of the whole field study.
Challenges encountered during field work studies
Most field studies are not successfully conducted owing to several challenges that usually arise.
Both the teacher and the student may remain at cross roads, a situation that turns the study into a
mere field visit or tour. Such challenges include;
1. Poor selection/ choice of the study area. The distant fields always affect the learning
process as learners get exhausted in transit.
2. Field work studies are sometimes detached from syllabus topics and learners fail to see the
worth of the whole exercise.
3. Destruction from the multi variate elements of the physical and social environment in the
field. This affects learner’s concentration and interest in the geographical aspects of the
study. Learning rarely takes place.
4. Low learner and teacher competence in field sketching and mapping. Many times learners
fail to differentiate between key sketches such as a locational map and a site map, a sketch
map and panorama, or a line transect and land use map.

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 5. Lack of a defined procedure of selecting field samples of say, respondents, soils, rocks,
and other specimens. Biased samples yield inaccurate results.
6. Inadequate skills of designing research tools such as questionnaires, interview guide and
record sheets. Thus data collected sometimes do not correlate with the overall aim of the
study.
7. Lack of a uniform recording procedure to ensure similarity in findings. Many students
grossly fail to record the required facts about the field.
8. Large classes make field work studies very difficult to conduct.
9. Timing of the study. This mainly arises from examination oriented teaching. Student look
at field work much more as a means to scoring good grades than as a scientific approach
to the study of Geography.
10. Limited resources for practical study e.g. magnetic compass, topographic maps, soil
augers, PH indicators, measuring tapes and others.

Way forward
1. Teachers should choose areas of study within a reasonable distance from the school.
What is important is spelling out contrast between the school campus and the field to be
studied.
2. To maintain students’ interest in the study up to the end, the study should be action
packed, that is, planned in such a way that there is no free time or breaks.
3. As much as possible the study should be related to the topic currently being covered in a
class or one that has just been covered so that relevance to the syllabus is maintained.
4. Low competence in sketching and mapping arises from lack of adequate practice.
Teacher training institutions have done very little in developing teacher’s abilities to
handle practical Geography. Thus frequent practice on the sketches will perfect drawing
skills.
5. Assist learner to acquire drawing skills in every lesson taught. Mapping should be
developed all the way from abstracting simple objects, through a group of objects, to
complex landscape.
6. Define the procedure to be used to pick samples of respondents, soils and other
phenomena during the preparation phase; systematic random sampling and purposive
sampling are ideal.
7. Design questionnaires and interview guides by arranging questions in accordance with
the objectives of study and in a chronological order, the easiest questions first and the
most challenging ones last.
8. To ensure uniformity of recorded data, prepare data sheets before going out to the field.
Tables, templates for maps and other field sketches are very useful.

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DISCUSSION METHOD
Meaning and significance

This is one of the teaching methods that have been used to cause learning since time in
memorial. It has been described as a thoughtful consideration of the relationships involved in a
topic or problem under study. It is concerned with analyzing, comparing, evaluating and making
conclusions about relationships.

During the Geography lesson, group discussion is aimed at uniting and integrating the
knowledge and ideas of the learners in class. During the lesson a group discussion involves
organizing, arguing out and relating facts, thus it is at times called the brain-storming method.

Group discussion encourages the learners to direct their thinking process towards the problem
topic being studied: and to use their experiences for further clarification and consolidation of the
learning material. For example, if the teacher is delivering a lesson on Agriculture in Uganda or
East Africa, he/she may break it into sub-topics such as; ‘factors influencing the distribution of
Agricultural activities’, ‘problems facing Agriculture’, and assist learners to discover facts about
each sub-topic through a classroom discussion.

During their discussion they will share their experiences and knowledge, critically examine the
ideas they raise and agree on factual knowledge.

Discussion is to be distinguished from Debate, in that:

 In a debate the participant seeks to prove a point right rather than discovering the truth,
while in discussion, learners strive to reach at factual knowledge.
 Debate may also be characterized by uncontrolled exchange of verbalism, while in a
discussion participants make supplements and corrections.

Discussion has become a desirable method in the teaching and learning process because it’s very
important in stimulating mental activity, developing fluency and ease of expression, it promotes
clarity of ideas and also trains the learners in the best ways of presenting their facts and ideas. An
exchange of ideas and opinions gives learners’ valuable training in reflective thinking.

Essential components of a discussion

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 o There should be a leader for the whole class or group of learners, this is usually the teacher
whose major role is to direct and control the discussion so that it does not catapult into a
heated debate.
o There must be a group of discussants, these are the learners, the size of the discussion
group varies depending on the size of the class, and for example, a class of 40 learners
may be divided into 4 groups each of which elects its chairman and a secretary.
o A discussion should have a topic or problem to be discussed e.g. ‘the importance of
plantation Agriculture in the tropics’.
o There should be content, i.e. body of knowledge to be generated by the discussion
otherwise it is useless to organize a discussion on an empty topic, for instance, ‘the
importance of the Atmosphere’.

Organizing a group discussion

When teaching geography through the discussion method, there is a systematic procedure that
should be followed by the teacher in order to maximise learning. This procedure is as follows;
1. The teacher begins by introducing the topic or problem of study. This involves giving
explanation to the learners about what is going to be studied in order to provide the basis
for the discussion.
2. The teacher organises the learners into appropriate groups using well thought out criteria.
Groups should be balanced to cater for personality differences and learning abilities of
the individual learners. Random grouping is by far the most effective technique of
organising the learners. E.g. by using the Rotary method, counting, free mingling, etc.
3. For easy reference each group should is assigned an identity using numbers, the alphabet,
colours, or names. Learners should be given the liberty to choose their identity. This
enables them to learn with interest.

N.B: The composition of groups should not be permanent. The teacher should re-organise
and reconstitute them as often as possible. What do you think are the advantages of
doing so?
4. The teacher guides groups to elect their leaders, normally a chairman and secretary to
guide the discussion.
5. Either, the teacher begins to engage the learners by giving each group stimulus materials
(e.g. textbooks, newspaper extracts, photographs, cartoons, diagrams, or a scenario) to
enable them get facts for themselves; followed by activities or tasks to be responded to.
Or s/he may use activities as presented in the Learners’ Book

6. Each group discusses and generates its own ideas under the guidance of the chairman.
Then the secretary jots down the ideas agreed upon by the group. This enables the
learners to co-create or construct their own knowledge and generalisations.

42
 7. As the learners discuss in small groups the teacher moves around the classroom
observing the learners, and asking them questions with the aim to assist them to learn
effectively and to develop the intended skills.
8. Then teacher leads a whole class discussion by calling upon the groups to present their
knowledge or views about the topic. As each group presents its views other groups critic
the presentation, ask questions, and suggest amendments to be made, if any.
9. As the learners they may get off truck and when this happens the teacher comes in
immediately to get them back on the truck.
10. As the learners discuss, the teacher summarises their ideas on the chalkboard, manila
chart, or any other medium in order to guide them to make their own notes.
11. The teacher should have prepared a list of expected points/ideas which would be used as
guidelines for organizing the learners’ ideas. This enables the teacher to focus the lesson
on the expected concepts, facts and generalizations.

Note: during the discussion there is maximum interaction, amongst the learners and there is little
input from the teacher. The major aim is to allow learners generate their own learning
experiences. This is summarized in Figure 1 below.

Directing a group discussion

A teacher has to show great patience and skill to ensure that a group discussion goes on along the
right lines and in an appropriate environment.
The following should be noted when conducting a classroom discussion:
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 o Learners should be made aware of the importance of the topic to be learnt by discussion;
its nature and scope. This gives them an opportunity to sort out the information relevant
to the topic.
o The discussion should be confined to the important aspects of the topic to avoid learners
dwelling on trivial issues. Learners should be encouraged to participate in the discussion
with every one taking an active part.
o When directing the discussion, the teacher should invite for ideas and views from the
learners without pressure or embarrassment.
o Co-operation rather than competition should be encouraged among learners during the
discussion and the teacher should make all possible efforts to develop the spirit of team
work among the learners.
o Doubts, mistakes and wrong interpretation of concepts should be cleared by the teacher
promptly before they become part of the learners’ knowledge and understanding.
o Facts and points raised by the different learners should be evaluated i.e. weighed against
one another in order to spell out those which are more important than others. After the
evaluation, the points raised by the learners should be summarized, this is usually done
by the teacher who jokes them down on the chalk board to assist learners build on their
own notes.
o The teacher should guide learners to honour differences of opinions and views throughout
the discussion. The goals of the discussion should be kept in mind.
o During the discussion the teacher should not allow a few learners to dominate the class or
lesson, he/she should prompt even the shy learners to participate in the discussion by
calling upon them to give their views and experiences.
o Shy learners may be given training by organising them to discuss in small groups first so
that the teacher removes their hesitation while discussing in the larger groups.

Merits of the discussion method

1. It helps in clarifying issues since learners exchange their views under the guidance of the
teacher.
2. It helps the learners in crystallizing their thinking because during the discussion they think
out points, relate them to the subject matter or the topic being studied and then find a way
of passing all the information to the rest of the learning group/class.
3. It helps learners in discovering what they didn’t know and major aspects which they have
always over-looked.
4. It encourages more reflection, in other words, learners think deeply about what they are
discussing, thereby taking the learning process further from rote learning to understanding.
5. Group discussion represents a type of pooled knowledge, ideas life experiences and
feelings of several persons. This encourages learners to learn from one another.
6. It develops team spirit because it breaks barriers of selfishness as it encourages learners to
share their own knowledge and experiences.

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 7. It encourages learners to develop the value of tolerance, this is because they tolerate and
appreciate views which are at variance.
8. It provides opportunities to the learners to learn together, make suggestions, share
responsibilities, comprehend the topic of study, and evaluate their findings and to
summarize the results of the discussion.
9. It provides opportunities to the learners to speak distinctly i.e. stand and speak
confidently, respect the ideas of others, share interests and also understand together as a
group.
10. It helps the teacher in discovering the talented learners who have the potential to become
good leaders, good orators (public speakers) and other hidden talents.

Demerits of the discussion method

1. It is time consuming as learners spend a lot of time haggling over issues and ideas,
therefore if not well controlled learners may cover very little during the lesson.
2. It encourages a few learners especially the bright ones to dominate the lesson or
discussion, these may drag the whole class, thereby disadvantaging the shy and the slow
learners.
3. It is not suitable for all topics especially which are one sided and may not need to be
discussed, for example some topics on physical Geography, such as, ‘the structure of the
earth’ (A-Level), may not be taught using the discussion method. They need
demonstration.
4. The discussion method may, sometimes, lead to unpleasant feelings and create emotional
tensions in class. For example, topics such as, ‘Famine in Africa’, or ‘Problems faced by
slum dwellers, usually invoke personal feelings.
5. The discussion method may go off truck especially when the learners get involved in
unnecessary arguments which are in most cases based on personal feelings. This will
definitely affect learning and coverage.

Revision questions
1. a). Choose any one topic, from the Geography syllabus for ‘A’- level in your own
country and demonstrate how you would teach it using the discussion method.

b). Discuss the merits and limitations of using the discussion method in the teaching and
learning of Geography.
2. a). Describe the principles of the project method as used in the teaching and learning
process.
b). Assess the effectiveness of using the project method in the teaching and learning
of Geography

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THE PROJECT METHOD
It is the outcome of the pragmatic education philosophy of John Dewey, a well-known American
philosopher and educationist. It was developed and perfected by Dr. William Headkilpatric, of
the University of Columbia. The method came up as a revolt against the traditional environment
of the school which is usually characterized by passivity and lacks keenness and real life.
Much of the subject content taught and many behaviors found in school do not conform to the
desirable social life in the world outside school.
The project method is, therefore, an expression of the wide spread dissatisfaction with the
bookish, encyclopedic and passive methods of teaching whereby learners are obedient masses
who are carefully drilled and spoon fed with facts and information.
Traditional teaching methods do not provide room for learner activity, creativity and originality.
Principles of the project method
1. The principle of activity; According to this principle, children are by nature active. They
love activity because the instinct of curiosity and construction to make the active by nature.
Thus such opportunities should be provided to the learners by providing them with physical
and mental activities to make active and learn things by doing.
2. The principle of purpose; According to this principle, knowledge of purpose is a great
stimulant and greatly motivates the learner to realize his/her own goal. The learner must
have an ideal purpose for learning everything which usually motivates learning. Therefore
the teacher of Geography should always explain to the learners the aim of the project they
undertake and how they benefit from it even in the life after school.
3. The principle of experience; it is argued that experience is the best teacher and what is real
must be experienced. Learners learn new facts and information through experience.
Therefore, the Geography teacher should engage learners in practical projects where they
work in groups to get and share meaningful experiences starting from their early age.
4. The principle of reality; life is a real obligation and for it to be meaningful, it must be real.
A child who lives in life of reality must be trained as such through his/her education. This
can be done when the teacher uses the project method whereby learners are presented with
real life experiences, such as controlling soil erosion in the school compound, applying
scientific methods of maintaining soil fertility on the school compound etc.
5. The principle of freedom; the desire for an activity should be spontaneous and not forced
upon the learners by the teacher. The learner should be free from impositions, obstructions
and restrictions so that he/she may express his/herself freely and fully. He must be given
freedom to choose an activity to do and to do it with his interest and ability. This enables the
learners to learn with interest.
6. The principle of utility; according to this principle knowledge would be worthwhile only
when it is useful and practical. The traditional system of teaching simply stresses formal and

46
 vital information for its own sake and it’s of little utility to the learner. A geography teacher
uses the project method in order to assist learners develop desirable skills, attitudes and
knowledge which are of great importance from the practical point of view. For example a
S.2 class may be organized to undertake a project on recycling waste materials on the
community around the school which would enable them to develop a positive attitude
towards conserving the environment through proper disposal of the wastes and would earn a
living by getting money from the products of the recycled wastes.

Steps involved in the project method

1. Providing a situation; before learners undertake a project, the teacher begins by providing
them with a real and worthwhile situation in order to enable them to appreciate the need to
participate in it. This enables them to feel a spontaneous urge to carry out the project.
2. Choosing and purposing; purposing is the round which the project moves. The project
chosen by the learners should be able to satisfy a definite need or purpose. E.g. reducing on
pollution in the community, enhancing rainfall totals in the area through planting and
nurturing trees, renewing soil structure and fertility on school land, etc. better results and
satisfaction comes only through self made choice.
3. Discussion; learners should be guided when they are discussing how to go about the chosen
projects. Such discussions should be democratic as this helps majority participation in the
project. The teacher should merely guide but not impose options.
4. Planning; after discussing the project with the learners, the teacher goes ahead to draw their
attention to the need of planning before carrying out any project activity. The task of
planning is quite difficult because poor planning leads to failure of the whole project.
During planning the teacher emphasizes the need to identify the necessary resources needed
to carry out the project.
5. Carrying out the plan (execution); this is the longest process and requires a lot of work and
commitment from the participants, the whole project is supposed to be carried out through
the co-operative efforts of all the learners. Various activities involved in carry out a project
should be allocated to individuals according to their interests and abilities. At this stage the
teacher should provide sufficient guidance to the learner and should discourage bad groups
from continuing with the project.

Note: This is the stage in the project when the learners realize maximum learning by attaining
useful experiences, skills and values.
 Judging; after completing the implementation stage the teacher assists learners to review
the work and encourages them to make constructive criticisms as a group. This trains
them in critical thinking and reasoning. This enables the learners to learn lessons from the
mistakes made at the various steps of the project.
 Recording; Learners should be encouraged to keep a complete record of all activities
connected to the project. The project book should give a complete picture of the whole

47
 project. It should point out the procedure right from providing the situation, choosing the
project, planning the project, project implementation, duties assigned to the different
learners during the project, difficulties and challenges faced as well as the experiences,
skills and values learnt from the project.

Qualities of a good learning project

1. It should be timely i.e. in most cases the project should be related to the topic currently
being covered on the syllabus in order to encourage maximum learning and should also
suit a particular mental and chronological age of the learners.
2. Usefulness, when designing a project for learners, emphasis should be put on practical
aims, i.e. it must be designed to fulfill a long standing learning need whereby learners as
adults should be capable of applying experiences, skills and values learnt during their
school life.
3. The project should be interesting to the learners i.e. it must make an appeal to the
emotional needs and diverse interests of the learners.
4. The project should also be challenging to the learners i.e. it should neither be too simple
nor be too difficult for them, a simple project kills the learners’ interest especially if they
do not see any new knowledge and skills to get from it.
5. The project should be economical i.e. it should not unnecessarily tax the pockets and
energy of the learners in school. It should not cost a lot of time either since the learners
have to engage in other aspects of learning.
6. It should be rich in experiences, many experiences of associable nature should be
provided for in the project i.e. team work, patience and tolerance, environmental
conservation and awareness, patriotism and others.
7. It should be capable of relating with other subjects of the curriculum and practical
activities in real life.
8. The project should emphasize co-operation and inter-dependence among the learners. It
must be implemented in such a way that the learners are kept busy and active both
physically and mentally with each working on a particular task.
Merits of the project method
1. The major merit is that it causes learning in accordance with the laws of psychology,
namely:
o The Law of readiness, which states that human beings learn most when their minds
are ready to receive knowledge and skills.
o The Law of exercise, which emphasizes that for the learning process to be effective, it
must be practiced. The project method can do the best when the learner learns by
doing.
o The Law of effect, this states that if learning is to be effective, it must be
accompanied by happiness. The project method brings the learners leisure when they
manipulate the nature and they come up with desired goals.

48
 2. It correlates with all other subjects. I.e. giving unity to the curriculum. The water tight
treatment of the various subjects which is commonly found in our schools does not bring
together the curriculum.
3. It trains the learner a democratic way of life because it improvises sufficient opportunity
to the learners to work co-operatively for a common purpose.
4. It gives training in citizenship because it impacts skills into the learners, discipline, co-
operation, resourcefulness, independence, open-mindedness and tolerance.
5. It helps learners to up hold the dignity of labor because learners perform all activities
using their own hands and develop a taste for all kinds of work.
6. It encourages problem-solving, this is because it discourages learning by memorizing
facts and instead it encourages thinking and reasoning.
7. It provides freedom to the learners because the learners choose their own projects and
work with great enthusiasm to complete the projects. They don’t feel tired since they
work in a related atmosphere.
8. It minimizes class indiscipline since learners break into groups and each group remains
busy on the chosen project.
Limitations of the method
Several arguments have been advanced to highlight the workers of the teaching of Geography
through the project method. They include the following:

1. It neglects intellectual work (ability to think and use of logic), this is because there is a
wide spread misconception that project method puts emphasis on hand work because it
keeps learners designing Geographical models and working on Geography tasks to
realize the end result.
2. It is not suitable for teaching all topics in Geography and as such it can’t cause learning if
not supplemented with other methods.
3. It does not observe an established time-table because the project cannot be done during
the Geography lesson, but hits into the time for other subjects and activities; therefore it
affects the routine work of the school.
4. It is costly as it requires some money to buy materials to be used on the project; therefore
some schools may not afford teaching Geography through the project method.
5. It is not suitable for the anti-social and shy students, thus some learners who are not
willing to take part or responsibilities in the project remain in the backgrounds or do very
little work.
6. It is unsuitable for teaching Geography especially where teacher’s longevity is affected
by transfers and movements from one school to another. Other teachers may not be able
to take on the learners working on a research project.

A close look at the above limitations clearly brings out the fact that most of limitations are unreal
and without much significance: thus the project method is still recommended as one of the
modern learner-centered methods of teaching Geography especially since the traditional

49
Teacher-centered methods have been tried and found unsuitable for meeting the needs of the
learners and the changing needs of the society over time.

Other learner-centered methods of teaching Geography

 Role-play: This involves organizing learners into a group to act real life experiences during
which process they learn lessons which are of a Geographical nature.
 Debate: A verbal activity in which two or more differing viewpoints on a subject are
presented and argued. It usually involves dividing the class into two groups with each
group giving their views and observations about a selected motion or topic. During the
debate each side tries to prove its point right.
 Demonstration method or simulation: This involves using learning aids to demonstrate
situations and experiences in the real world, for example, soil erosion by running water, a
volcanic eruption, drifting of continents, mass wasting etc.

Task

Conduct an Internet or library search and write detailed notes about each of the following
teaching methods:

(i) Role play,

(ii) Debate,
(iii) Demonstration

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