2.

0 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 REVIEW OF CONCEPTS

2.1.1 THE AUDIENCE, PERCEPTION AND THE MEDIA

According to Cambridge English Dictionary, an audience is the

(number of) people watching or listening to a particular television or radio programme, reading a

particular book, or visiting a particular website. An audience can be defined in different and

overlapping ways: by place  (as in the case of local media); by people (as when a medium is

characterized by an appeal to a certain age group, gender, political belief, or income category);

by the particular type of medium or channel involved (technology and organization combined);

by the content of its messages (genres, subject matter, styles); by time (as when one speaks of

the “daytime” or the “part-time” audience, or an audience that is fleeting and short term

compared to one that endures).McQuail (1997). According to Oxford English Dictionary (1989)

the word audience first appeared in the 14 century. Its original usage implied a hearing, as in

“giving an audience”. (For example, the Pope gives audience every Wednesday in Rome.)

Eventually, that definition expanded to include an “assembly of listeners”. Not until the mid-19th

century, however, did the word take on a more modern meaning by denoting the readers of a

particular author or publication. With the advent of electronic media in the early 20th century, the

word came to be used for its large number of receivers (mass audience).Francis .

Audience is the important part of communication process. By media audience we mean the

recipients of Mass Media messages. There is the audience of newspaper, television, radio,

theatre, film and non-broadcast media. Audience of the above media are heterogeneously

scattered. Amanda Stevenson(2014). They are a mixture of age, sex, profession, education and
social class etc and are strangers to one another. Audience is the ultimate source of Mass Media

revenue. If there is no audience to purchase movie tickets and recording, subscribe to newspapers

and magazines and attend to radio and TV programmes, no mass medium could stay in business.

The messages of TV newspapers and film etc are determined according to the nature and

behaviour of the target audience.

Mass media audience can be categorized in different ways, they can be cateogorised under two

main categories, which are the active and passive audience. An active audience is one that

actively engages with the text. They do not simply accept every media message. They question

what they see and develop their own interpretation of a media product based on their life

experiences, education, family and cultural influences. „Bottom up‟ theories generally assume an

active audience. Theories such as “Uses & Gratification” and “Postmodernist theory” assume

that audiences are active. Active Audience Theory argues that media audiences do not just

receive information passively but are actively involved, often unconsciously, in making sense of

their personal and social contexts. Decoding of a media text may therefore be influenced by such

things as family backgrounds, beliefs, values, culture, interests, education and experiences. A

passive audience is an audience that merely observes an event rather than actively responding to

it. A passive audience does not actively engage with a media text. A passive audience is one that

does not question the message that the media is sending and simply accepts the message in the

way the media outlet intended. Anna Higginson. (2013)

Mass media audiences can also be put into categories which are; The Elite Audience which

comprises of highly educated people and their number in the society in relatively small, the Mass

Audience represents the dominant majority in a society. They are relatively average people.

Mass audience represents almost all segments of the society, the Specialized Audience which
refers to the special interest groups in the society and the Interactive Audience which consists of

those who have control over the communication process in a society. They may be newspapers

journalists or Radio or TV broadcasters. Amanda Stevenson. (2014)

To media producers, the audience is important because without an audience there would be no

media. It is important for them in order for them to be successful. Companies are set up to carry

out audience research for media producers to see how many people would be interested. If they

didn't get as much interest as they hoped, then they would make some changes and re-think what

they could do to improve. Media producers spend a lot of time and money finding out who the

audience for a programme or media product might be. They research so they can then make

something along the lines of a film or music video which would be associated with a particular

group of people. Rebecca Sudan (2017).

Mass media plays important role in the life of people. It forms human opinion, media entertains

and informs, it creates the image of people and ruins it, advertising, promotion, and other

specific purposes are important for the life of people. However, audience also plays important

role in mass media. The exchange of influence is occurred. Therefore, it may be said the

audience forms the meaning for media. What does it mean? Mass media is the source of

information which is directed at people, therefore, audience is the source of inspiration for mass

media. When creating different programs, releasing some information, etc., mass media bases its

data on human beings who live in the society. Therefore, the role of audience in media meaning

making is essential. This point of view can be seen in several examples, for instance in Stuart

Hall’s (1981) encoding/decoding model of communication as the way to show that public get

meaning from information disseminated by the media and this meaning forms the directions of

mass media and creates varied programs and sources of information.

The role of audience in mass media is great as in case the audience is not interested in the theme

presented either on TV or in newspapers the material is a failure. Amanda Stevenson (2014). For

example, if a TV program is interesting, if the theme highlighted there is actual and deserves

attention, people will watch it, the newspapers will write about it and the critics will talk about it.

Therefore, other programs will be directed in the same way. Another program will be created on

the basis of the same topic or it will be devoted to the relevant idea. Audience creates the image

for the programs, it makes programs and news editors deal with it.

Watching this or that TV program people express their opinion. Mass media considers and

analyzes this point of view and on the basis of this data forms the range of themes which are to

be highlighted. Mass media creates the themes which are interesting for the audience.When

audience expresses its opinion either in favor or against some theme, the mass media reacts on it.

It should be mentioned that reaction directed at the information may be either negative or

positive. Each type of information causes media meaning. IvyPanda(2019). For example, when

the content presented on TV does not suit the audience in its meaning, it does not mean that the

audience does not want to consider it, the audience is just dissatisfied with the meaning. The

same is with the positive information people consider, if the content is positive and does not have

any negative issues, it does not mean that the audience wants to get it. Information in the modern

world is an available source, therefore, when people consider media, they are interested in the

content that attracts them. Media has several specific measures which help them consider the

point of view of the audience.

The opinion of the audience is important for those who create news as whether the news is

interesting or not depends the rating of the show. If people are not interested in watching this

specific show, it means that the team failed to cope with the task, to search for the data which
may be interesting for people. The meaning of media is the programs and data presented for

people. Audience is the target for media. In creating the programs and releasing programs the

media should refer to the opinion of the audience as they create the rate.

Perception is the processing, interpreting, selecting and organizing of information. Perception

can affect the communication process in the sense that it is about how the same message can be

interpreted differently by different people. 'Audience' is a very important concept throughout

media studies. All media texts are made with an audience in mind. Therefore, it is important to

understand what happens when an audience "meets" a media text. Perception of information in

the media rests in the side of the audience and understanding of audience is a very important

concept throughout media studies. All media content is made with an audience in mind, it is

necessary to understand what happens when an audience consume a media content, and the first

thing that happens in the consumption of media content is the perception.

People are exposed to information about the world by the news media. While the information

shapes one’s opinions about the world, attitudes towards the media themselves are also

developed in the course of news consumption. Opinions about the media may be generalized, or

targeted to the way specific topics are covered by news media. Yariv Tsfati and Jonathan Cohen

(2013). Audiences have a complex relationship with the products they consume. Media

producers intend audiences to read their product in a certain way, yet for many reasons, audience

members read and enjoy a product differently. The effectiveness of communication depends

largely on the understanding of the message being passed between the sender and the receiver.

Audience perception towards a programme/message can either effect the message positively or

negatively.
To conclude, it is clear that there is strictly no correct theory that backs up the idea that the media

audience is only passive or only active. In today’s sophisticated world, audiences are the

participants and creators of media Harrison (2013), for the gap between producer and receiver

has been narrowed. Audiences are still however undoubtedly capable of being passive receivers

of the media, as individual interpretation through beliefs, contexts and knowledge is the real

subject of how audiences receive the media today. Livingstone (2003).

2.1.2 TELEVISION REPORTAGE OF PROTESTS

Research shows that mainstream news organizations have struggled to accurately and fairly

portray protests that challenge the political and societal status quo (e.g., Gamson and Wolfsfeld

1993; Gitlin 1980). Media attention to protests tends to be negative, stigmatizing protesters as

deviant and depicting protests as violent (Chan and Lee 1984; McLeod and Hertog 1999). Many

factors can cause the quantity and quality of journalism narratives to fluctuate, including the

intensity of conflict and radical nature of protester tactics (Almeida and Lichbach 2003; Amenta

et al. 2012), type of protest (e.g., Boyle et al. 2004), media outlet (e.g., Rohlinger et al. 2012;

Rucht 2011), and proximity of the protest to the news organization (Kilgo et al. 2018a).

Technological, political, economic, and societal changes are factors behind the global increase in

protest activity since the 1980s (Carothers and Young 2015), and digital technologies have

created new venues to increase a protest’s visibility and extend protesters’ reach (Bennett and

Segerberg 2012).
Scholars across disciplines have scrutinized press coverage of collective action, exploring the

institutional, organizational, and individual influences that shift the quality and quantity of

coverage. Many different structural, organizational, and institutional features of media

production and social disruption affect media coverage of social movements. However, most

scholars have shown that the institutional logics of the mainstream media do not favor social

movements (Gans 1979), and only the most appealing or newsworthy features of a movement are

likely to result in news coverage (Almeida and Lichbach 2003; Gitlin 1980). Other factors that

influence media production include the distance of the protest to the media source (Oliver and

Myers 1999), conflict orientation and newsworthiness of the protest (Amenta et al. 2012),

organizational ideologies and professional routines (Herman and Chomsky 1988; Rohlinger et al.

2012), and protest sponsorship and support (McCarthy et al. 2008; Oliver and Myers 1999).

Scholars have also found that structural and organizational biases built into the norms and

routines of traditional journalism have contributed to consistently detected press patterns that

marginalize and delegitimize social movements (e.g., Chan and Lee 1984; McLeod and Hertog

1999). These patterns, known as the protest paradigm, are ultimately created by the symbiotic

but imbalanced relationship between activists and the press. This relationship develops in the

following way: (1) the press does not cover movements that do not engage in newsworthy

activity; (2) advocates stage events to attract media attention, which they need to distribute their

message to broader audiences and to signal their strength; and (3) journalists then cover these

staged events without generating substantive information about the event’s background or the

grievances or agendas of the movement behind the protest. The paradigm thus is a paradoxical

situation: Movements must adapt and appeal to media logic to receive coverage, but when they
do, protest coverage tends to demonize protesters, characterizing them as menaces to society,

marginalizing their voices, and under or inadequately reporting the grievances, demands, and

agendas of movements.

2.2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Media have traditionally been seen as vital resources for organized social protest. Groups

concerned about environmental degradation, rights of minorities and abuses of political power

regularly look to media to transmit their views to the larger society aid its centers of power. .C

Olien, P Tichenor, G Donohue.(1989). The media especially television is a very important source

of information regarding protests. For a long time people have gotten most of their information

from conventional media and even with the advent of contemporary media, conventional media

like television is still a vital and more trusted source of information.

A historically held belief is that media are not only available to social protest, but have an

obligation to report grievances as well as any conditions of the environment which the public

have interest in and, therefore, has a right to know.C Olien, P Tichenor, G Donohue.(1989). It is

the job if the media to give information to the public on important events happening around them

including when it comes to protests because protests have to do with the interest of the public.

Therefore, because protests and events surrounding protests are always things of public interest

and it is necessary for the media to report issues that will be of interest to the public because

these Kind of reports are what the public want.

Reporting social disparities is at the heart of the belief that media are a" Fourth Estate,"

performing a watchdog role in society.This idea traces back to 17th and 18th century European

views, often attributed to Edmund Burke and Thomas Carlyle, that parliaments, the nobility, and
religious agencies can never perfectly represent all classes, interests, inequalities and shades of

opinion. This conception, the press is a necessary channel, independent from the other Estates

and a safety valve for social strains.C Olien, P Tichenor, G Donohue.(1989). The media is seen

as a mirror for the society in the sence that it serves as a voice for the public and represent the

opinions of everyone in the society which other groups within society cannot do. Protests are

seen as the public's views on a particular issues and the media serves as a mirror for the society it

is necessary for them to share the views of the public when it comes to protests as that is what it

means to be the mirror of the society

If protest is going to spread from one individual to another, from one group to another, or from

one location to another, information about prior events must travel along these same paths. The

paths that connect individuals, groups, and locations form a communication network that allows

protest to diffuse..Daniel J Myers, (2000).

These communication networks differ in a number of respects and these differences have

important ramifications not only for where and when protest will become" contagious," but also

for the overall trajectory of the protest wave. Sometimes communication networks are driven by

previously existing acquaintance structures between individuals. In these kinds of networks,

protest can be passed from person to person by word of mouth communication. Another

communication network that can diffuse protest is the mass media. Although less personal

influence is involved the mass media has a considerably longer reach and in the case of

electronic media, provides instantaneous information throughout its network.Daniel J Myers,

(2000). Communication is essential during protests as it allowsfor proper flow and management

of the protest and for getting the message of the protest across which allows you for diffusion of

the protest and one of the communication networks used during protests is the mass media i.e
television. Therefore, communication during protests using different communication networks

like television is used for diffusion of the protest because once the message of the protest is

gotten across and listened to the job of the protest is done.

2.3 EMPIRICAL STUDY

A 2010 study that analyzed 40 years of protest coverage in five major newspapers, including The

New York Times and The Washington Post, found that the papers depicted protests — even

peaceful ones — as nuisances rather than as necessary functions of democracy. To illustrate this

point, the study pointed to a 1992 Seattle Times story that described a protest as thus: “The

demonstrations began with a University of Washington protest and march from the campus that

snarled traffic on Interstate 5 yesterday afternoon.”

Centering protest coverage around the impact on traffic, local businesses, and property is one

way that the protest are normally framed. And according to the study, that “annoyance” framing

increased over time — newspapers were more likely to frame a protest as a nuisance in 2007

than in 1967. The study also found that protests over liberal causes were framed as nuisances

more often than protests over conservative causes.

This means that, role of protest is to publicize grievances from people who typically exist

outside of traditional power structures. It’s why freedom of assembly is written into the

Constitution, along with freedom of the press. And the role of journalism is to hold powerful

people and institutions accountable to the broader public. But that’s not possible if the way we

report on protests is biased from the start.

Also, in a 2018 study conducted in South Korea called the protest participation experiences and

media uses in urban protests: a conceptualization and empherical examination based on the
2016/2017 candlelight protests which showed that the current study shows that changing protest

experiences are related to media use patterns and that by using various forms of media protestors

can communicate information about the protest to each other and are able to get the message

behind their protest known. The results of the study also showed that 2.05% of people out of

20% in the section of study for finding out method of getting information about the protest were

dependent on television while 7.8% were dependent on social media because it gave them( the

audience) a better platform for getting their ideas, thoughts, messages across.

This means that the media has an important role in social movements like protests and that even

television even though it doesn't give a platform for proper public opinion it still serves as a

means for getting information regarding protests. This study gave the recommendation that

future research should examine the dynamic uses of various media more systematically before,

during, and after protests to better understand the experiences of networked citizenship in today’s

media environment.

2.4 THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK

The theoretical frame work as chosen for this study is based on the individual differences

theory. The rationale for selecting this theory variously described by Akinfeleye (2008) as

“theories in human development” and Aina (2003) as “media effect theory”; is that the theory

bothers on audience reactions to the media messages. Since this study examines the audience

perception of AIT’s reportage of protest using ENDSars protest in Lagos state, as the theory

suits the profile of this research study.

Individual difference theory

 This theory was propounded by Henry De Fleur 1970. De fleur posits that we humans

are genetically, biologically, physiologically, and psychologically different and therefore we

shall respond and behave differently even as identical twins will still behave differently; no

matter the levels of similarities of their identities to media messages Akinfeleye (2008).

In responding and behaving differently to mass media content as the case may be,

individuals consume mass media content to satisfy specific needs. The needs may be for

information (e.g. providing statistic about players and the team), integrative (offering a sense of

belonging to a group of similarly interested people), effective (e.g. by providing excitement) or

escapist (helping to release pent up emotions).

In other words, this theory rejects the notion of uniform reaction to media fare as given by the

Laulet Theory. It states that the audience reaction or behavior to media messages differ in

attitudes, personal preferences, perception values need and the psychological makeup of

individuals.

It clearly points out that people use media fare selectively because messages contain

stimulus that interact with the specific personality feature of the audience, hence creating

difference in perception, cognition and responses Aina (2003). Therefore, Onabajo et al

(2008) states that;” the psychological processes, selective retention, selective attention and

selective exposure help an individual to decide what to pay attention to, what to see or

perceive from that which he attends to “.

What this means is that the audience or viewers of AITs reportage of the ENDSars

protest is based on their biological, genetic, physiological and psychological differences will
show different viewership behavior to messages on protests by AIT which is the media message

in this research.
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