Jpair Vol 32 - July 23 - C

EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor in Chief
José G. Vargas-Hernández, Ph.D.

University of Guadalajara, Mexico
Associate Editors:
Gul Muhammad Baloch, Ph.D

Taylor's University, Malaysia
Al-Assad Omar, Ph.D.

Dar Al Uloom University, Saudi Arabia
Jamilah Yusof, PhD

Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei
Editorial Consultant
Genaro V. Japos, Ph.D.
IAMURE Multidisciplinary Research, Philippines
Managing Editor
Irish Jane P. Balios
Philippine Association of Institutions for Research, Inc.
Executive Editor
Kaye Hazel A. Aunzo
Philippine Association of Institutions for Research, Inc.
AIMS AND SCOPE

The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research aims to publish new discoveries in the various
disciplines of knowledge which are contributed by member researchers.
The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is an international peer reviewed, scientific, online,
indexed, cross-referenced and ISO Certified journal that provides a platform for global researchers
to publish their research findings for advocacy and utilization.
International Peer Reviewed Journal
Volume 32 • March 2018
Print ISSN 2012-3981 • Online ISSN 2244-0445
© 2018 by JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research

All rights reserved.
JPAIR is a joint publication of 111 colleges
and universities in the Philippines.
JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research
Table of Contents
1 Grounded Theory: A Practical

Overview of the Glaserian School
Carlos Biaggi & Safary Wa-Mbaleka
DOI:
30 The Manifestation of Socio-Cultural Components in the

Informal Oral Communication Practices of the Teaching
and Non-Teaching Personnel in the Philippines: An
Ethnographic Inquiry
Ruby D. Tagocon & Ismael N. Talili
DOI:
53 Beliefs, Health-Seeking Practices, and Effects of

Childlessness: The Experiences of Married Women
Luzviminda P. Relon
DOI:
67 Production and Quality Evaluation of Probiotic

Malunggay (Moringa oleifera Lam.) Ice Cream
Jessa B. Gisulga
DOI:
90 Jigsaw Technique in Learning Physics

and Problem-solving Dimensions
of Senior High School Students
Giovanni Pelobillo
DOI:
vi
110 Development and Evaluation of Nipa

(Nypa Fruticans) Vinegar Powder
Mario A. De Castro Jr.
DOI:
124 Profile and Level of Competence of Information and

Communications Technology (ICT) Coordinators among
Secondary Schools in the Division of Davao del Sur
Julcon Avanceña Araiz
DOI:10.7719/jpair.v32i1.579
149 Influence of Language Learning Strategies to the

English Proficiency Test Performance of College
Students
Harieth C. Cawagdan – Cuarto & Emelinda E. Rivera
DOI:
164 Cooperative-Collaborative Learning in Enhancing

Creative Writing Performance
Dandy G. Acuin, Mona Lisa D. Petallana
& Geraldine C. Esperas
DOI:
174 The Validity of Astronomical Calculation

in Determining the Lunar Month
Áleem Morad S. Umpa
DOI:
205 Enhancing the Demands of ZAMPEN-SUCs AFNR

Graduates through Curriculum Intervention
Using Modular Approach with High S &T Content
Chona Q. Sarmiento & Paterna J. Saavedra
DOI:
vii
EDITORIAL POLICY
The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is open to the global community of
scholars who wish to have their researches published in a peer-reviewed journal.
The journal is produced using a Quality Management System certified for ISO
9001:2008 by the Anglo Japanese American Registrars, Inc. To facilitate cross
referencing, linking and citation tracking, the journal adopts Digital Object
Identifier (DOI) for every article. Contributors can access the journal website at
www.philair.ph/publication.
Articles are contributed by member and non-member researchers of the
Philippine Association of Institutions for Research. The frequency of issue is
four times a year. The efficiency and effectiveness of the editorial review process
are critically dependent upon the actions of both the research authors and the
reviewers. An author accepts the responsibility of preparing the research paper
for evaluation by independent reviewers. The responsibility includes subjecting
the manuscript to evaluation by peers and revising it prior to submission. The
review process is not to be used as a means of obtaining feedback at early stages
of developing the research paper.
Policy on Retraction
Retraction is an act of the journal publisher to remove a published article
from the digital file due to post publication discovery of fraudulent claims by the
research, plagiarism or serious errors of methodology which escaped detection in
the quality assurance process. Complaints by third party researchers on any of
the grounds and validated by the editorial office trigger the retraction but only
after the writer has been notified and allowed to present his side in compliance
to due process.
Policy on Digital Preservation

Digital Preservation is the process of storing systematically electronic files
in multiple formats such as compact discs; cloud computing, Google drive,
email accounts, external hard drives, among others. This is to guarantee that in
conditions where the website crashes, there is natural calamity, fire and other man
made destructions, virus invasions, the files are preserved.
viii
Policy on Handling Complaints

If the Journal receives a complaint that any contribution to the Journal infringes
copyright or other intellectual property rights or contains material inaccuracies,
libelous materials or otherwise unlawful materials, the Journal will investigate
the complaint. Investigation may include a request that the parties involved
substantiate their claims. The Journal will make a good faith decision whether to
remove the allegedly wrongful material. A decision not to remove material should
represent the Journal’s belief that the complaint is without sufficient foundation,
or if well-founded, that a legal defense or exemption may apply, such as fair use
in the case of copyright infringement or truthfulness of a statement in the case
of libel. Journal should document its investigation and decision. If found guilty
after investigation, the article shall be subject to retraction policy.
Policy on Conflicts of Interest

The Journal will only publish articles after the author(s) have confirmed that
they have disclosed all potential conflicts of interest.
Publication Ethics and Publication Malpractice

The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is committed to uphold the highest
standards of publication ethics and takes all possible measures against any
publication malpractices. All authors submitting their works for publication
as original articles attest that the submitted works represent their authors’
contributions and have not been copied or plagiarized in whole or in part from
other works. The authors acknowledge that they have disclosed all and any actual
or potential conflicts of interest with their work or partial benefits associated with
it. In the same manner, the Journal is committed to objective and fair double-
blind peer-review of the submitted for publication works and to preventing any
actual or potential conflict of interests between the editorial and review personnel
and the reviewed material. Any departure from the above-defined rules should
be reported directly to the Editor-in-Chief who are unequivocally committed to
providing swift resolutions to any of such type of problems.
The Peer Review System

Definition. Peer review (also known as refereeing) is the process of subjecting
an author’s scholarly work, research or ideas to the scrutiny of others who are
experts in the same field. Peer review requires a community of experts in a given
(and often narrowly defined) field who are qualified and able to perform impartial
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review. Peer review refers to the work done during the screening of submitted
manuscripts and funding applications. This normative process encourages authors
to meet the accepted standards of their discipline and prevents the dissemination
of unwarranted claims, unacceptable interpretations and personal views. Peer
review increases the probability that weaknesses will be identified, and, with
advice and encouragement, fixed. For both grant-funding and publication in a
scholarly journal, it is also normally a requirement that the subject is both novel
and substantial.
Type. The double-blind review process is adopted for the journal. The
reviewer/s and the author/s do not know each other’s identity.
Recruiting Referees. The task of picking reviewers is the responsibility of

the editorial office. When a manuscript arrives, an editor solicits reviews from
scholars or other experts to referee the manuscript. In some cases, the authors
may suggest the referees’ names subject to the Editorial Office’s approval. The
referees must have an excellent track record as researchers in the field as evidenced
by researches published in refereed journals, research-related awards, and an
experience in peer review. Referees are not selected from among the author’s close
colleagues, students, or friends. Referees are to inform the editor of any conflict
of interests that may arise. The Editorial Board often invites research author to
name people whom they considered qualified to referee their work. The author’s
input in selecting referees is solicited because academic writing typically is very
specialized.
The identities of the referees selected by the Editorial Board are kept unknown
to research authors. However, the reviewer’s identity can be disclosed under
some special circumstances. Disclosure of Peer Review can be granted under
the following grounds: as evidence to prove that the published paper underwent
peer review as required by the university for ranking and financial incentives, for
regulatory bodies and as required by the Commission on Higher Education, and
for accreditation of academic programs. Request for peer review results shall be
made in writing.
Reviewers and editors are responsible for providing constructive and

prompt evaluation of submitted research papers based on the significance of their
contribution and on the rigors of analysis and presentation.
x
Peer Review Process. The Editorial Board sends advanced copies of an author’s
work to experts in the field (known as “referees” or“reviewers”) through e-mail
or a Web-based manuscript processing system. There are two or three referees for
a given article. Two are experts of the topic of research and one is an expert in
research and statistics who shall review the technical components of the research.
These referees return to the board the evaluation of the work that indicates the
observed weaknesses or problems along with suggestions for improvement. The
board then evaluates the referees’ comments and notes opinion of the manuscript
before passing the decision with the referees’ comments back to the author(s).
Criteria for Acceptance and Rejection. A manuscript is accepted when it
is (1) endorsed for publication by 2 or 3 referees, (2) the instructions of the
reviewers are substantially complied; (3) the manuscript passed the plagiarism
detection test with a score of at least 90 for originality; and, (4) the manuscript
obtained a score of 90 percent for grammarly software, otherwise the manuscript
is rejected. The referees’ evaluations include an explicit recommendation of what
to do with the manuscript, chosen from aoptions provided by the journal. Most
recommendations are along the following lines:
• Unconditional acceptance
• Acceptance with revision based on the referee’ recommendations
• Rejection with invitation to resubmit upon major revisions based on the
referees’ and editorial board’s recommendations
• Outright rejection
In situations where the referees disagree substantially about the quality of a

work, there are a number of strategies for reaching a decision. When the editor
receives very positive and very negative reviews for the same manuscript, the
board will solicit one or more additional reviews as a tie-breaker. In the case of
ties, the board may invite authors to reply to a referee’s criticisms and permit
a compelling rebuttal to break the tie. If the editor does not feel confident to
weigh the persuasiveness of a rebuttal, the board may solicit a response from
the referee who made the original criticism. In rare instances, the board will
convey communications back and forth between an author and a referee, in effect
allowing them to debate on a point. Even in such a case, however, the board
does not allow referees to confer with each other and the goal of the process
is explicitly not to reach a consensus or to convince anyone to change his/her
opinions.
xi
Comments
The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research welcomes submission of comments on
previous articles. Comments on articles previously published in the journal will
generally be reviewed by two reviewers, usually an author of the original article
(to assist the editor in evaluating whether the submitted comment represents the
prior article’s accuracy) and an independent reviewer. If a comment is accepted
for publication, the original author will be invited to reply. All other editorial
requirements, as enumerated above, apply to proposed comments.
Technology-based Quality Assurance

English Writing Readability. Readability tests are designed to indicate
comprehension difficulty when reading a passage of contemporary academic
English. To guide teachers and researchers in the proper selection of articles
that suit the comprehension level of users, contributors are advised to use the
Flesch Kincaid readability test particularly the Flesch Reading Ease test. The
interpretation of the score is as follows:
Score Notes
90.0 – 100.00 Easily understandable by an average 11 year old student
60.0 – 70.0 Easily understandable by 13 to 15 year old students
0.0 – 30.0 Best understood by university graduates
Gunning Fog Index. Developed by Robert Gunning, an American

Businessman in 1952, Gunning Fog Index measures the readability of English
writing. The index estimates the years of formal education required to understand
the text on a first reading. A fog index of 12 requires a reading level of a US
high school senior (around 18 years old) or third year college / university in the
Philippines.
Plagiarism Detection. Contributors are advised to use software for plagiarism

detection to increase the manuscript’s chances of acceptance. The editorial office
uses licensed software to screen research articles of plagiarism. The standard set is
95 percent original to pass the plagiarism detection test.
Appropriateness of Citation Format. Contributors are advised to use the

citation format prescribed by the Harvard System.
xii
Word Count, Spelling and Grammar Checks. Contributors are encouraged

to perform word count for the abstract (200) and the full text (about 4000 to
6000). Spelling and grammar checks should be performed prior to submission.
The standard set is 90 percent to pass the Grammarly Software.
xiii
author guidelines
All journal contributors are required to follow the prescribed journal format
set by PAIR. Each element in the entire manuscript is presented in detail to ensure
that the authors can fully follow the procedure from manuscript preparation
down to its final revision.
Initial Submission
Articles (in Word format) should be submitted to journals@philair.ph for
initial evaluation. After the first assessment and 1st Technology-Based Quality
Assurance (Grammarly Test, Plagiarism Test, Readability Test and Reference-
Checking), the editorial office shall inform the author whether his paper has been
accepted or rejected for publication in accordance to the qualifying standards set
by PAIR.
I. Qualifying Standards for Electronic Submission
A full manuscript should pass the following criteria:
Criterion 1: Scope, Newness and Relevance/Applicability to International

Community – 45%
• The scope (extent of what one intends to cover) of the study is wide-
ranging.
• The aspects of the paper such as, but not limited to, methods and results
are seemingly new.
• The entire paper is interesting to read by other nations.
• The research results have international character and applicability.
• The quality of academic writing reflects the nature and nuances of the
discipline.
• The quality of academic writing is graduate level.
Criterion 2: Results of Plagiarism, Grammar and Readability Check – 20%
• The manuscript obtains the minimum result: plagiarism detection – 95%;

grammar check – 90%.
xiv
Criterion 3: Quality of References – 20%
• Sources (journals, books, and other references) are traceable online unless
otherwise a justification is made.
• Journals are internationally refereed and indexed.
• Journals are not listed in Beall’s list of stand-alone journals and predatory
publishers.
• Articles on Wikipedia and gray literature (non-scientific sources) must be
avoided.
• Scientific sources cited were published preferably in Year 2010 onwards
unless otherwise a justification is given.
Criterion 4: Completeness of Parts – 15%
• Each part of the manuscript contains appropriate and sufficient substance.

• The paper demonstrates the following parts:
1. HEADING
Title
Name of the Author(s)
ORCID No.
Email Address
Affiliation
Address
2. ABSTRACT
3. KEYWORDS
4. INTRODUCTION
5. FRAMEWORK
6. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
7. MATERIALS AND METHODS (for experimental researches)
METHODOLOGY (for non-experimental researches)
8. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
9. CONCLUSIONS
10. TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH
11. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
12. LITERATURE CITED
xv
Manuscript Formatting Guide
TITLE
• Boldface
• 12-15 characters
• Title by result (preferably)
• Catchy, interesting, relevant to international audience
• Language universally understandable
• Set the first letter of each key word in uppercase
For example,
Title by Scope: Categorizing Communication Strategies in the Oral

Expositions of Tourism Management Students (X)
Title by Result: Fillers, Mime and Self-Repetitions as Most Frequently Used

Communication Strategies in Oral Expositions (√)
HEADING
• Name of Author/s (First name, Middle Initial, Last Name)
• Boldface
• Sentence case
• ORCID No. (Register to orcid.org to obtain your orcid no.)
• Gmail address or webmail address (It is a policy of PAIR pursuant to our
ISO standards that no contributors shall use yahoomail)
• Affiliation (Institution or Organization)
• Address (City, Country e.g. Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines)
For example,
Rommel V. Tabula
http://orcid.org 0000-0003-2691-6749
rommeltabula127519@gmail.com
Mariano Marcos State University
Batac City, Philippines
xvi
ABSTRACT
• Should contain 190 (minimum)- 210 (maximum) words
• The Abstract must contain five parts written in one paragraph: Introduction
to the topic, chief purpose/objective, method, results, and conclusion.
For example,
The van Hiele levels of thinking has five reasoning levels, namely, holistic,
analytic, abstract, deductive, and rigorous. This study aimed to determine
the effects of spatial activities to the students’ van Hiele Levels of thinking.
It evaluated the van Hiele levels of geometrical reasoning taking into
account the van Hiele level they reflected and their mathematical accuracy
after exposure to spatial activities. Pretest-posttest design was used in this
study. Sixty third-year high school students from five sections were the
subjects with 30 students each in the control and experimental groups.
The results revealed that only Level 1 in the post-test was significant.
As to the type of reply, the post-test results showed that the control
group acquired low acquisition to high acquisition in each level while
the experimental group had low acquisition to complete acquisition in
each level. Only Level 2 in the control group and Levels 3 and 4 in the
experimental group could predict Mathematics grade. The control group
had weaker reasoning capabilities in answering geometry problems; while
the experimental group increased their level of reasoning, and thus, were
able to answer geometry problems. This study concludes that the exposure
to spatial activities would enhance the levels of reasoning of the third-year
students in the study of geometry.
KEYWORDS
• Indicate the discipline of the study, concepts studied, research design/
process and setting of the study (city and country) as keywords.
• Set keywords in sentence case.
For example,
Keywords — Linguistics, communication strategies, descriptive design,

Batac City, Philippines
xvii
INTRODUCTION
The Introduction should contain:
First Section
• Global situational analysis of the problem supported by the
literature from different continents
Second Section
• Regional situational analysis supported by literature from the region of
the study. Researchers from the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) such as Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos,
Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam must
include literature from these countries to capture the ASEAN perspective
in the study.
Third Section
• Gap in the literature that the study intends to address
• Differentness of the study from other previous studies
• Compelling reasons of the writer for choosing the problem
FRAMEWORK
• (Optional for experimental researches)
• It should contain basic explication of the meaning of the variables of the
study.
• Present the framework in either schematic or textual form merging the
theories discussed in which the study was anchored.
• Remove diagram unless very essential.
• No framework is required (for experimental study).
OBJECTIVES
• State the OBJECTIVES of the study in paragraph form.
• Use objectives that show what the researcher shall do with the data and not
words to indicate what the researcher intends to do as a research process.
• Write the objectives in paragraph form setting one from the others by a
number in close parenthesis.
xviii
METHODOLOGY
For Pure Sciences:
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Research Design
Research Site
Participants
Instrumentation
• Construction, try-out, reliability and validity
Research Ethics Protocol
• Informed consent
• Clearance from the Ethics Review Board
• Gratuitous permit from a government agency for floral and faunal
studies
• Permit from the head of the indigenous peoples of the research sites
• Representative of animal welfare society for clinical studies involving
animals
Data Collection
Statistical Techniques
• No formulae needed
For Social Sciences:
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
Research Site
Participants
Instrumentation
• Construction, Try-out, Reliability and Validity
Research Ethics Protocol
• Informed consent
• Clearance from the Ethics Review Board
Data Collection
Statistical Techniques
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

• Sometimes termed DISCUSSION only for theoretical papers
xix
• Answers to objectives
• Highlight salient findings of the study supported by literature.
• Use keywords from objectives as side-head of the Results and Discussion.
• Intercontinental support of the data (in-text citation)
• Summary tables and significant results
• Validation of the theory used (integrated)
• Provide a critique on the methods and theories used in the last paragraph.
Important notes:
• Do not include the links in the body, use names of authors and/or agencies
instead
• Do not present the same data in both a Table and Figure - this is considered
redundant and a waste of space and energy. Decide which format best
shows the result and go with it.
• Do not report raw data values when they can be summarized as means,
percents, etc.
CONCLUSIONS
• In paragraph form, not broken down
• Highlight new discovery (if any) that you obtained only after completing
the study, something (not found in the literature) which contributes to
new knowledge.
• This section supports or negates previous conclusions, validates theory
used and/or generates new theory.
TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH
• Paragraph form, not broken down
• This part describes the various forms of popular and innovative media that
translate scientific information into ways that can be understood by users
of the research.
• This includes but not limited to: policy, song, dance, illustrational books,
drama, storytelling, brochures,posters,paintings, radio play and video
clips.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
• (Optional)
• Limited to funders of the research
xx
• Acknowledge service agencies that funded the study (required).

• Sources of data mined, e.g. WHO, UNESCO
LITERATURE CITED
No. of literatures cited:
• At least five from each continent
Quality:
• Use recent sources (at least from year 2010 onwards unless otherwise a
justification is given
Order:
• Arrange in alphabetical order
Inclusion:
• Include all the names of authors which are cited in the body of your paper
Spacing:
• Double space in between referenced literature items; single space in
between lines of each literature cited.
Referencing Styles:
• All references used in the manuscript should be traceable online.
• Authors are cautioned from using gray literature (any work that is NOT
scientifically peer reviewed and published in internationally indexed
research journals).
• Prefer references which have earned citations already.
• The count is provided at the lower left side of every title. On the lower
right is the word “cite”, click on this to get three options MLA, APA
and Chicago styles. Choose the appropriate style for your study. If you
decide to use MLA, then we prefer footnotes/endnotes. No reference list
is required if you have endnotes. Copy and paste the citation given, add
the URL of the source with the phrase retrieved on (date) from (URL).
Without URL, we choose to interpret the source as print only, and hence,
not traceable online.
• Include those works cited in the text. Each entry should contain all
information necessary or unambiguous identification of the published
xxi
work. Literature must be traceable online from peer-reviewed, indexed,

cross-referenced journals in reputable databases.
For example,
Bei, G. X. (2012). Effects of Immediate Repetition in L2 Speaking Tasks: A

Focused Study. English Language Teaching, 6(1), p11.
NOTE: Do not label this section “Bibliography”. A bibliography contains

references that you may have read but have not specifically cited in the text.
Bibliography sections are found in books and other literary writing, but not
scientific journal-style papers.
ADVISORY FOR LITERATURE CITED
1. Traceability refers to the verification by independent parties of the original

references using online technology through direct access to the website as
point of source.
2. When the literature cited is copied and searched in the google scholar,
the original source comes out either as full paper or abstract. The verifier
can check if the source is scientific or grey literature, if the interpretation
as written is true to the original intent, if the ideas used were accurately
taken, if the writer copy pasted the portion in the original material, and if
the writer plagiarized the source.
3. The URL of the online article as reference must be copied and pasted in
the end part of the reference with the words “retrieved on (date) from
(copy the URL)”. Without the URL the reference is understood as print
only and hence has inherent problem of poor traceability.
4. When the URL link is dead, the reference must be replaced.
5. Most URLs are long and cumbersome to attach and read. This must be
shortened by copying and searching for the URL short version in goo.
gl. Upon searching there for the short version, the computer asks you to
enter a number combination that is given in a box and entering it into a
designated box. The short version comes out and you will now replace the
long version with it.
6. In text citations can use et al when there are more than two authors. But
in the reference list, all authors must be listed since et al is never allowed.
xxii
This is because all authors need to earn the citation counts of their paper.
Citation count can not happen when other authors are omitted because
they are listed after the first author.
7. Print sources are accepted only when there are justifications made why
there are no online version, such as original documents which can not be
published for reason of confidentiality of content, the original material has
no online version yet, among other explanations. In which case, a scanned
copy if available should be attached to the article for validation during the
peer review process.
8. Missing info happens during the documentation of the reference. To avoid
this problem, the reference in the google scholar has three versions, MLA,
APA, CMS, you copy the version you choose after you click CITE in the
lower right portion of the reference title. Then, click the title to direct you
to the original source. Copy the URL as in #3 and find the short version
as in # 5.
9. Alphabetize the references. Do not segregate as books, periodicals, among
others.
10. Examine the final list if these references have intercontinental
representation. This is to avoid a limited point of view. Since journals
have global readership, references from various continents give a balanced
view and a global perspective to the article regardless of scope.
11. Search in the web what constitutes grey literature and check your
references for it. Replace grey literature.
12. Most importantly, obtain soft copies of all your references and test them
for plagiarism content using plagiarism detector software. Check the
portion you are using if it is not plagiarized. Plagiarism is genetically
transferred from one source to another and is not removed by mere
attribution of source. Replace sources with high plagiarism content. Using
a table, summarize plagiarism test results for all references implementing
a standard of 90 percent originality and less than 5 percent of plagiarism.
If you are using Turnitin, the standard is less than 10 percent of similarity.
xxiii
Vol. 32 · March 2018 JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is produced
Print ISSN 2012-3981 • Online ISSN 2244-0445 by PAIR, an ISO 9001:2008 QMS certified
DOI: by AJA Registrars, Inc.
Journal Impact: H Index = 3 from Publish or Perish
Grounded Theory: A Practical

Overview of the Glaserian School
CARLOS BIAGGI
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0276-6275
carlos.biaggi@meu.edu.lb
Middle East University
Sabtieh, Lebanon
SAFARY WA-MBALEKA
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7292-1058
Wa-MbalekaS@aiias.edu
Adventist International Institute of Advanced Studies
Cavite, Philippines
Originality: 98 • Grammar Check: 98 • Plagiarism: 2
ABSTRACT
In many parts of the world, qualitative research is still new. This can be
evidenced in the limited number of qualitative research theses, dissertations, and
journal article publications in Asian higher education institutions and journals.
In fact, many institutions hardly offer qualitative research courses in their
graduate programs. However, qualitative research is steadily growing. More and
more people in many different fields are embracing it. Looking at the historical
foundation of qualitative research, it is important to recognize the first publication
of a qualitative research design by Glaser and Strauss (1967) half a century ago.
This book is generally accepted as the pioneering work in the field of qualitative
research. This manuscript presents an overview of what the classical grounded
theory by these two pillars of qualitative research is all about and examples of
1
how to implement it effectively in carrying out a research study. This manuscript

is intended to provide a practical understanding of grounded theory for novice
qualitative researchers and a refresher for experienced ones.
Keywords — Grounded theory, Glaser, qualitative research, Philippines
INTRODUCTION
Glaser and Strauss (1967) created the grounded theory (GT) methodology
as a methodology to generate theory from data generated from the qualitative
research methods. This was meant to be a response to the ‘grand theorists’ of that
time (Holton & Walsh, 2017). In the 50 years since its initial use by Glaser and
Strauss, GT has become the most used qualitative research design in the world
(Bryant & Charmaz, 2010; Birks & Mills, 2015) or so do many claims. However,
the methodology has been misunderstood and misrepresented (Charmaz, 2014),
leaving novice researchers confused and disoriented. Hence, the purpose of this
paper is to describe the main characteristics of GT, with the aim of assisting
researchers wishing to use the methodology for the first time. As we describe
different aspects of the methodology, we will illustrate it with our own journey
and experience from using it. In the following sections, we will describe GT
as a research design, the most frequently used types and sources of data, and
options for data analysis and treatment. Then, we will offer conclusions and
recommendations for successful use of grounded theory.
Defining Grounded Theory as a Research Design

Glaser and Strauss define grounded theory as “the discovery of theory from
data–systematically obtained and analyzed in social research” (1967, p. 1). It
involves a “systematic, inductive, and comparative approach for conducting an
inquiry for the purpose of constructing theory” (Bryant & Charmaz, 2010, p.
1). Even though today the term GT is also used to describe a method used to
analyze data, the true key goal of GT is to generate a theory grounded in the data
(Urquhart, 2013). Therefore, based on its purpose, GT is primarily a research
design, as well as a method of data analysis.
Part of the confusion is due to differences in the application of the
methodology between the two creators (Glaser and Strauss), and subsequent
differences in researchers that followed. Hence, it is important to understand the
key differences between GT schools. In this section, we describe and distinguish
2
between the different GT schools. Next, we compare the procedures used in the
two main schools. Then, we briefly explain for which studies GT is suitable, and
the key characteristics of a theory. And finally, we address a debated issue, the
positioning of the researcher.
GT Schools
Bryant and Charmaz (2010) suggest that the different current variations
of GT can be classified into three main schools: the Glaserian, the Strauss and
Corbin, and the Constructivist schools. The Glaserian, and Strauss and Corbin
schools began due to a split between the founders of GT based on methodological
and theoretical differences (Bryan & Charmaz, 2010). Strauss and Corbin
(1990) offered a conditional matrix to help the conceptualization process, thus
proposing a more formulistic methodology. The matrix is “an analytic device
to stimulate analysts’ thinking about the relationships between macro and
micro conditions/consequences both to each other and to process” (Strauss &
Corbin, 1998, p. 181). On the other hand, Glaser (2002; 2013) claims to lead
the traditional school (following the original 1967 methodology), arguing that
the researcher should let the theory emerge freely from the raw data without the
use of any restrictive formula. Later, Strauss and Corbin (1998), and Corbin and
Strauss (2008) clarified that their paradigm or perspective is only one of many
that can be applied. The third school, the Constructivist school, proposes that
theory is to be mutually constructed by participants and the researcher, focusing
on the interpretative and discursive elements of social experiences and meaning
(Charmaz, 2005; Clarke, 2005). Glaser (2002b) contends that Charmaz (2000)
collected her data over a protracted period, and hence constructivist data is
simply another type of data.
Interestingly, while some authors (e.g., Birks & Mills, 2015; Mills, Bonner,
& Francis, 2006) advocate philosophical differences underpinning each school,
others (e.g., Charmaz, 2006; Glaser, 2005; Urquhart, 2013) suggest that GT
is philosophy-neutral, and recommend looking at it “as a container into which
any content can be poured… rather than seeking an inherent philosophical bias
that may or may not be present in the method” (Urquhart, 2013). For Glaser
(2005), the philosophical debate reduces the potential of GT. Nevertheless, to
have an idea of the assumed philosophical differences, some researchers place
the Glaserian School as critical realist (within post-positivism), the Strauss and
Corbin school as interpretivist (with influences of pragmatism and symbolic
interactionism), and the Constructivist school as its name indicates (e.g., Annells,
3
1996; Birks & Mills, 2015; Madill et al., 2000). Critical realist ontology assumes
that “reality can never be perfectly apprehended” (Burrell & Morgan, as cited
in Brand, 2009, p. 438), and hence the best possible understanding is achieved
through critical consideration. Interpretivist ontology assumes that humans
impose perceptions into the world, thus creating reality (Morgan & Smircich,
1980), while constructivist assumes local and specific constructed realities (Guba
& Lincoln, 1994).
Characteristics of the Glaserian School

Following the Glaserian school, Urquhart et al. (2010) and Urquhart (2013)
describe GT as having four key characteristics: theory building is its purpose;
ignorance of preconceived ideas, constant comparison, and theoretical sampling.
The purpose is theory building. The primary purpose of GT as used by

Glaser and Strauss (1967) was the development of theory grounded in qualitative
data. Thus, while secondary goals may be achieved through GT (such as qualitative
data analysis), the key objective is theory building. While other qualitative
designs such as phenomenology emphasize the lived and subjective experiences
of participants and report data in a fairly raw form, GT is concerned with the
theoretical statements that are abstracted from those experiences (Suddaby, 2006).
Researchers, therefore, need to have theoretical sensitivity (Urquhart, 2013); that
is, the ability to immerse in the field, ideas, and context where theory is being
sought (Glaser, 1978), because it enables them to conceptualize the theory within
the data. This is critical since a study that claims to use GT but does not result in
a theory is not a GT study.
Theoretical sensitivity is the researchers’ “openness to new or unexpected
interpretations of the data, the skill with which they combine literature, data,
and experience, and their attention to subtleties of meaning” (Suddaby, 2006, p.
640). In other words, theoretical sensitivity is “the ability to see relevant data and
to reflect upon empirical data material with the help of theoretical terms” (Kelle,
2005, para.11) in the process of theory building.
Ignoring preconceived ideas. The second characteristic, ignoring

preconceived theoretical ideas, has brought much controversy. Glaser’s (1992)
dictum is to ignore literature in the substantive field of inquiry until the theory
is developed from data has advanced enough to relate to existing literature. The
reason for this dictum is to assist the researcher in preventing existing theories
4
from contaminating, stifling, or impeding the generation of categories from the

data. It is based on this assumption that in GT studies, the existing literature is
one of the sources of data and usually no theoretical framework should be used
before the beginning of the study. Glaser (2013) proposes, “when using GT,
forget what you are supposed to find and just see what you are finding” (p. 5). A
GT theory should be “free of preconceived frameworks of any kind” (Holton, as
cited in Glaser, 2013, p. 5).
Similarly, Urquhart (2013) recommends allowing “the data to tell its own
story in the first instance, build a theory, [and] then, subsequently, engage your
theory with the theory[ies] that you thought you might impose initially. You can
then see if your emergent theory confirms or challenges existing theories” (p.
17). Likewise, Suddaby (2006) points that there is a danger that prior knowledge
may “force the researcher into testing hypotheses, either overtly or unconsciously,
rather than directly observing” (p. 635). However, he explains that there is no
justification for the ignorance of existing knowledge. Hence, Suddaby (2006)
suggests reviewing several substantive areas (rather than reviewing research that
focuses on a particular substantive area), being “aware of the possibility that you
are being influenced by preexisting conceptualizations of your subject area” (p.
635), while unleashing new theory (rather than elaborating existing theory). In
addition, he recommends researchers to continuously remind themselves that
observations are a “function of both who you are and what you hope to see” in
the study under exploration (Suddaby, 2006, p. 635). We propose you ignore the
literature in your substantive area of study until your theory is developed. Then,
use the extant literature as a source of data from which to theoretically sample.
Constant comparison. Thirdly, the process of analysis and conceptualization

is achieved through constant comparison—the iterative process of deriving
categories and more abstract classifications through comparison (Bryant &
Charmaz, 2010). Every piece of data is compared with existing concepts to
determine if it enhances existing categories, forms a new category, or links two
of them (Urquhart et al., 2010). By iteratively comparing incidents, codes,
categories, and a categories’ properties and dimensions, the level of abstraction
increases until the theory emerges (Birks & Mills, 2015). Since constant
comparison means simultaneously collecting and analyzing data, it violates the
positivist separation between data collection and analysis (Suddaby, 2006). “It
is the constant comparison of the different conceptual levels of data analysis
that drives theoretical sampling and the ongoing generation or collection of
5
data” (Birks & Mills, 2015, p. 94). The possibility of comparing the data of one
interview with the data of another interview, and at the same time being able to
conduct an additional interview yields a tremendous result in the development
of codes and categories for the theory.
In addition, the emergent theory is compared with the literature, and
“constantly modified until it is fit, relevant, and adaptable… until the point of
theoretical saturation” (Fukofuka, 2012, p. 53). Theoretical saturation is achieved
when “the researcher sees similar instances over and over again… [becoming]
empirically confident that a category is saturated” (Glaser & Strauss, 1967, p.
61). Theoretical saturation also signals the stopping of theoretical sampling
for a given category (Birks & Mills, 2015). Hence, data collection stops after
enough data has been collected to build a convincing theory (Morse & Field,
1995). Suddaby (2006) argues that the signals of repetition and confirmation of
conceptual categories are pragmatic and depend on both the study’s context and
the researcher’s theoretical sensitivity.
The Glaserian approach embarks on three types of comparison (Glaser &
Strauss, 1967; Holton, 2007; Evans, 2013). First, by comparing incidents with
incidents, concepts emerge. Second, from the comparison of concepts with more
incidents, categories emerge (a higher theoretical development, densification,
and saturation). Third, theoretical integration results by comparing categories
to categories. In the Glaserian approach, constant comparison relies on an
inductive-deductive mix (Evans, 2013; Glaser, 1978, 1992). While inductive
analysis refers to extrapolating patterns from across individual cases to build
conceptual categories (Bryant & Charmaz, 2010), deduction refers to a careful
“grounded deduction based on an induced category, which directs the researcher
on where to go next for data… (theoretical sampling) for comparative purposes”
(Elliott & Higgins, 2012, p. 1). Thus, the deduction serves induction (Elliott &
Higgins, 2012).
Glaser (2012) encourages researchers to be patient because constant
comparison will eventually yield fruit. According to him, “Patterns are always
there and will emerge, usually faster than expected, especially if the researcher
starts with field notes and then coding the data immediately and then uses
emergent questions from the coding to see if the codes work with relevance
and fit” (p. 4). Hence, researchers need to be “open to what is really going on”,
tolerant to ambiguity, to reduce the “‘what ought to be’ to ‘what is’” (Glaser,
2012, p. 5). According to Glaser (2012), when researchers suspend suppositions
to see what is actually there, they experience joy and energy.
6
Theoretical sampling. Finally, the fourth key characteristic of GT is

theoretical sampling, meaning that the next data source and the final sample size
are determined analytically by the theory under construction (Andrade, 2009).
Unique to GT, theoretical sampling ensures that the process of theory generation
is emergent (Birks & Mills, 2015). Glaser and Strauss (1967) defined theoretical
sampling as “the process of data collection for generating theory whereby the
analyst jointly collects, codes, and analyzes his data and decides what data to
collect next and where to find them to develop his theory as it emerges” (p. 45).
Since theoretical sampling means that the theory under construction determines
the next data to be collected, it violates the positivist notion that data is collected
by a priori hypotheses (Suddaby, 2006). In traditional sampling strategies, the
sample (what, who, where, how, when) is decided as part of the planning stage.
However, since the goal of GT is to develop theory from the data, the emerging
theory informs the researcher the what (data), who and how many (participants),
where, how, and when to collect data (Birks & Mills, 2015). Hence, theoretical
sampling is highly related to the researcher’s theoretical sensitivity.
Birks and Mills (2011) propose that in GT the process of data collection
starts with purposeful sampling, and then continues with intercalated stages of
constant comparative analysis (that generates theory) and theoretical sampling.
However, Glaser & Holton (2007) propose to simply collect any data from the
substantive area of interest (though starting with an expert can be helpful), keeping
coding ‘open’ until the core category emerges. For them, theoretical sampling
begins after the core category has been identified. Similarly, Charmaz (2006)
claims that theoretical sampling begins after the development of categories.
Procedures in GT
Following different GT schools, there are different GT canons and
procedures available (e.g., Corbin & Strauss, 1990; Urquhart, 2007). Here, after
a brief reference to the Corbin and Strauss School, we unpack the procedures of
the Glaserian School.
Corbin and Strauss (1990) offer detailed procedures that are summarized in
11 canons. These are:
1) Concurrent data collection and analysis allow directing the researcher
to the next interview or document through theoretical sampling, as well
as capturing all relevant dimensions of the topic. However, concepts
need to be repeatedly present to be retained.
2) The basic unit of analysis is the concepts, not the raw data.
7
3) “Categories must be developed and related” (Corbin & Strauss,

1990, p. 7). Groups of concepts form higher level and more abstract
categories, the cornerstones of the theory. This abstraction is achieved
by the concept’s properties, dimensions, conditions, interaction, and
consequences. In turn, categories are related to form the theory.
4) Theoretical sampling is done “in term of concepts, their properties,
dimensions, and variations” (Corbin & Strauss, 1990, p. 8), allowing
representativeness of concepts (conditions, interaction, consequences,
and variations), and consistency of indicators.
5) Constant comparison, the search for similarities and differences, guards
against bias and render greater precision, and consistency.
6) Patterns and variations must be sought.
7) The theory must have some sort of process, whether in terms of stages,
action, or flexibility.
8) Theoretical memos allow keeping track of categories, hypothesis, and
emerging questions; thus, providing a solid base for reporting.
9) Relationships between categories should be developed and confirmed.
Hypotheses should be revised during the research process, seeking to
retain or disregard them.
10) Consulting other researchers or working in teams allows testing out
concepts and relationships.
11) “Broader structural conditions must be analyzed” (Corbin & Strauss,
1990, p. 11), such as economic, cultural, political, and social contexts.
Corbin and Strauss (1990) recognize the risk of being labeled as formalistic
and sectarian, but prefer to offer the above-mentioned procedures going beyond
the original Glaser and Strauss’ (1967) canons.
On the other hand, the Glaserian school claims to remain true to the
original Glaser and Strauss (1967) canons. One of its proponents, Urquhart
(2007), offers five guidelines for GT:
1) If a research design insists on a literature review being conducted
before the research is carried out, then conduct a literature review as
orientation. Hence, the literature review should be of related (and
not substantive) areas, to prevent from forcing the data to fit existing
theories (Glaser, 2007).
2) Code directly for the theory. The coding should not describe superficial
themes, but should be theory-centered.
8
3) Use theoretical memos. Memos should be used as theoretical insights of

the relationships among variables.
4) Build the theory and compare it with other theories. The emergent
theory should be compared with existing theories to guarantee novelty.
5) Clearly label the procedures. A clear chain of procedures from data to
theory must support the outcome.
Glaser (1978; 1998) also offers a set of procedures. His chain of procedures
is formed by inputs and outputs. While the inputs are collecting, coding, and
analyzing the data, the outputs are categorizing, memoing, sorting, and writing
the theory. In the input process, the researcher is expected to collect and
simultaneously code and analyze the data. During this period, the researcher
is expected not to read any literature in the substantive area. Such an approach
helps the researcher prevent being influenced by the existing literature, which
could contaminate the data analysis.
In the output phase, the researcher develops categories by linking open codes
(see selective coding below), and writes his/her insights in memos. Theoretical
memos are the “written records of a researcher’s thinking during the process of
undertaking a grounded theory study” (Birks & Mills, 2015, p. 10). Memos are
the ideas that impact the researcher’s mind while collecting and analyzing data
that are useful for theory generation (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Since memos help
to generate codes and categories (Saldaña, 2009), they are important in data
analysis as they help shift from description to abstract conceptualization (Glaser,
1978).
Glaser (1978) recommends starting to sort the codes anywhere and sort
everything as it relates to the core category. Further, he suggests to write more
memos while sorting and include them in the sorting, as a way to emerge new
relationships between categories (theoretical codes), as well as reach density and
saturation. As for each memo, “‘where does it fit in?’ The fitting action occurs
by constantly questioning and comparing each idea to the emerging outline, as the
analyst moves back and forth between outline and ideas as he sorts” (Glaser,
1978, p. 123). The researcher sorts and sorts the memos again and again until
he or she finally discovers the core category. Glaser (1998) suggests sorting of
memos in a way to create the outline of the write-up report, dividing it into
sections, paragraphs, and even sentences.
The last step of the output phase is about writing the theory. Following
Glaser (1978, 1998), the writing starts with a first draft in which the theory is
9
explained without seeking grammatical perfection and style. Then, the literature
is explored, analyzed, categorized, and intertwined into the writing. The literature
may not be revered but it should be incorporated as more data into the analysis. It
should be used to determine the place of the emergent theory within the existing
body of knowledge. After several steps of rewriting, editing, and improving, the
final body of the grounded theory manuscript can emerge as a result.
While reading a grounded theory paper, be reminded that every element of
the GT—every category, dimension, and property—introduced must be based
on the sources of data used.
The credibility of the theory should be won by its integration, relevance

and workability, not by an illustration used as if it were proof. The
assumption of the reader, he should be advised, is that all concepts
are grounded and that this massive grounding effort could not be
shown in writing. Also, that as grounded they are not proven; they are
only suggested. The theory is an integrated set of hypotheses, not of
findings. Proofs are not the point. (Glaser, 1978, p. 134)
In the written report of a GT study, the researcher should mainly concentrate

on explaining the theory, giving limited space to illustrations. Hence, the reader
should be informed that the grounding endeavor will be briefly exemplified. In
addition, the reader should understand that “grounded” means suggestions, but
not proof (Glaser, 1978). Therefore, the goal of a GT report is not to show
how hypotheses were reached, but to modestly present the emergent theory. The
theory may be viewed as a “‘slice’ of a growing theory” (Glaser, 1978, p. 141)
from which the reader may benefit or further expand.
Lastly, a GT written report should intend to favor conceptual meaning over
illustration. For this purpose, we recommend following Glaser’s (1998) two rules
of writing a GT report. First, he recommends to “think theoretical codes, write
substantive codes” (Glaser, 1998, p. 197). Hence, theoretical codes should be
implied in the writing. Second, “try to always relate concept to concept instead
of concept to people, which lowers the conceptual level” (Glaser, 1998, p. 197).
Thus, the report should focus on concepts rather than on people.
Suitability of Grounded Theory Method

In their argument, Birks and Mills (2011) argued that GT is appropriate
when the purpose of the study is theory building—especially when there is a
10
paucity of research literature in this area (see also Glaser, 1978, 2007; Glaser
& Strauss, 1967; Suddaby, 2006). Furthermore, GT allows the researcher
to use theoretical memos to raise the level of abstraction from description to
theoretical completeness. Birk and Mills (2011) argued that GT is appropriate
when “the inherent process is embedded in the research situation that is likely
to be explicated by the grounded theory methods” (p. 16). In GT, the researcher
is expected to go beyond the description of data into the realm of theory with
explanatory power (see Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990).
Characteristics of a Theory
In GT, theories must meet the requirements of fitness, workability, relevance,
and modifiability (Glaser, 1978, 1998):
1. Fitness: the theory must emerge from the data, must be modified by the
data, and therefore must fit the data.
2. Workability: the theory “should be able to explain what happened,
predict what will happen and interpret what is happening in an area of
substantive or formal inquiry” (Glaser, 1978, p. 4).
3. Relevance: the theory should be relevant for explaining, interpreting, and
predicting reality. “It deals with the main concerns of the participants
involved. . . . [evoking] instant grab” (Glaser, 1998, p. 18).
4. Modifiability: the theory must be flexible enough to be modified as new
data demands and new light about the new theory emerges.
There are two types of theories that can result from a GT study (Corbin &
Strauss, 2015): substantive and formal theory. While substantive theories explain
particular phenomena in specific areas (Charmaz, 2006), formal theories deal
with generic issues, are more abstract, and are applicable in a much wider range
of disciplines (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Formal theories explain core categories
void of people, time, and space (Glaser, 2006). For instance, a theory that
explains how to become an accountant or a nurse is a substantive theory while a
theory that explains how to become a professional in any field is a formal theory
(Corbin & Strauss, 2015). Hence, most grounded theories are substantive. For
instance, in Biaggi’s (2014) doctoral dissertation, the GT study offered a theory
of unethical behavior derived from the perceptions of the leaders of Seventh-day
Adventist organizations (substantive area). However, the theory was compared
with literature from other substantive areas, such as business and management.
Therefore, as a result of that comparison and of the level of abstraction reached,
11
the theory moved from substantive to formal theory (in this paper Biaggi’s thesis
will be used to illustrate some concepts).
Positioning
Birks and Mills (2011) recommend GT researchers to position themselves
in terms of philosophy, knowledge of the subject matter, findings expected, and
concerns or fears (see also Brand, 2009; Crane, 1999; Suddaby, 2006). Since the
last three elements are comparably easy, we will develop only the first one; that is,
the philosophical positioning.
The researcher should compare different philosophical (or paradigm)
typologies used in the respective discipline, and choose his or her philosophical
positioning from those available. After analyzing three paradigm typologies
(Burrell & Morgan, 1979; Crotty, 1998; Guba & Lincoln, 1994), Biaggi
(2014) decided to use Crotty’s (1998) typology, because of its flexibility. Crotty
(1998) offers a table with four elements: epistemology, theoretical perspective,
methodology, and methods (see Table 1 below).
For Crotty (1998), the methods are the procedures selected to collect and
analyze data, and the methodology is “the strategy, plan of action, process or design
lying behind the choice and use of particular methods and linking the choice and
use of methods to the desired outcomes” (p. 3). For him, the theoretical perspective
is “the philosophical stance informing the methodology and thus providing a
context for the process and grounding its logic and criteria” (Crotty, 1998, p.
3). Last, epistemology is “the theory of knowledge embedded in the theoretical
perspective and thereby in the methodology” (Crotty, 1998, p. 3), the “how we
know what we know” (p. 8). From Crotty’s perspective, all these elements come
together to explain the philosophical underpinning of a GT study.
Table 1. Positioning from the Philosophical Perspective

Theoretical
Epistemology Methodology Methods
perspective
Objectivism Positivism (and post- Experimental research Sampling
Constructionism positivism) Survey research Measurement and
Subjectivism Interpretivism Ethnography scaling
(and their • Symbolic Phenomenological Questionnaire
variants) interactionism research Observation
• Phenomenology • Participant
• Hermeneutics • Non-participant
12
Theoretical
Epistemology Methodology Methods
perspective
Critical inquiry Grounded theory Interview
Feminism Heuristic inquiry Focus group
Postmodernism Action research Case study
etc. Discourse analysis Life history
Feminist standpoint Narrative
research Visual ethnographic
etc. methods
Statistical analysis
Data reduction-n
Theme identification
Comparative analysis
Cognitive mapping
Interpretative
methods
Document analysis
Content analysis
Conversation analysis
etc.
Note: From The Foundations of Social Research: Meaning and Perspective in the Research Process
(p. 5), by M. Crotty, 1998, Sidney, Australia: Allen & Unwin.
While Guba and Lincoln (1994) argue that each paradigm allows only a
reduced set of methodologies, for Crotty (1998), any paradigm (that he subdivides
into epistemologies intertwined with their corresponding theoretical perspectives)
can use any methodology and method(s). Crotty argues that in combining the
four elements, the only restrictions relate to the fact that positivism (and post-
positivism) is objectivist, phenomenology is constructionist, and postmodernism
cannot be objectivist. This idea seems to correspond with proponents of the
Glaserian school of GT, who claim that GT is merely a tool that can be used
independently of the researcher’s philosophical underpinnings (see Glaser, 2005;
Urquhart, 2013).
For example, in Biaggi’s (2014) dissertation, the philosophical positioning
was described as follows (p. 38):
From Crotty’s (1998) epistemologies, I embrace an objectivist epistemology.

I believe that “things exist as meaningful entities independently of
consciousness and experience, that they have truth and meaning residing
in them as objects (‘objective’ truth and meaning, therefore), and that
13
careful (scientific?) research can attain that objective truth and meaning”
(Crotty, 1998, pp. 5-6). God created everything that exists, knows it all,
and gives us the opportunity to know some of it (Prov 1:7; 2:6; GNT).
Hence, as a result of earnestly seeking God’s wisdom, God can help humans
understand “what is right, just, and fair” (2:9), and that knowledge
holds power to “prevent . . . [people] from doing the wrong thing” (2:12).
From Crotty’s (1998) theoretical perspectives, I uphold a post-positivist
perspective. Since we are fallible and imperfect humans, our findings must
remain as probably true, until the day when God reveals the definite truth.
As such, “assertions about reality must nonetheless be subjected as far as
possible to critical consideration in an attempt to achieve the best possible
understanding” (Brand, 2009, p. 438).
Types and Sources of Data

In GT, “all is data” (Glaser, 2007, p. 1). Thus, any information that is
useful for developing the emergent theory should be included as data. This paper
describes three sources of data commonly used in GT: interviews, literature, and
survey.
Interviews
Interviews are the principal method of data collection used in GT (Birks &
Mills, 2015). As recommended by Birks and Mills (2011), the interviews should
be flexible, varying in content and format within and between interviews. Since
“less structure is better from the perspective of following where the conversation
takes you” (Birks & Mills, 2015, p. 75), the interviews are recommended to
be unstructured. Glaser (2013) argued, “preconceived interview guides and
questionnaires block emergence with a pre-framed thought about the way it
should be” (p. 4). In addition, reflecting and taking notes help correct mistakes
in subsequent interviews (Birks & Mills, 2015).
The interviews can be synchronous, by telephone, or video conference
(Scott, 2011)., and can be one-on-one or by groups (Hernandez, 2011). Though
Glaser (1998) normally opposes the recording of interviews (for being inefficient
and preventing a focus on conceptualization), he acknowledges situations where
it can be the only way to collect data (Nilsson, 2011). We took Birks and Mills’s
(2011) advice for novice researchers and fully recorded the interviews. As it is
recommended in most qualitative research studies, audio-recording an interview
helps the researcher focus on the actual interview, knowing that a device is
14
recording. It also helps with transcription, which is done verbatim. However, the
researcher should be aware that it can be more difficult to code from transcripts
than it is from field notes; the former can bury the patterns in their detail. In
addition, the mixing of QDA (Qualitative Data Analysis) and GT methodologies
has the effect of downgrading and eroding the GT goal of conceptual theory
(Glaser & Holton, 2004).
If possible, it is important to cite authors in the field of study who call for
in-depth interviews. For instance, Biaggi’s (2014) study answered calls of some
researchers in the business ethics discipline (e.g., Badaracco & Webb, 1995;
Brand, 2009; Poole, 2009) who suggest greater attention to questions that are
answerable within a qualitative approach, taking into consideration the situated
and contextual nature of business ethics knowledge. In addition, this study
answered calls to more transactional and constructed findings, more than collecting
a “limited, truncated and artificially concise response” (Brand, 2009, p. 447).
After interviewing 30 young managers, Badaracco and Webb (1995) suggested
the use of in-depth interviews rather than questionnaires “for understanding the
role of business ethics in organizations and for making it more effective” (p. 25).
Similarly, in the subfield of corporate codes of ethics, some researchers give credit
to in-depth interviews (Bryman, 2003; Helin & Sandstrom, 2007; Kitson, 1996;
Schwartz, 2001; Snell, Chak, & Chu, 1999). Brand (2009) also highlights some
of the advantages of in-depth interviews for business ethics research: (a) allow the
researchers to raise issues that were not expected and that would not have been
included in a closed-question questionnaire, (b) enable to grasp the context of
responses, (c) permit insights into a respondent’s perceptions and analysis, (d)
offer seeing complexities and nuances, (e) allows capturing significant penumbra
of the interaction—the way a respondent reacts to a question, (f ) enable probing
misunderstandings (cultural or language), and (g) offer a broader picture of the
respondent’s understanding of a matter.
Interview questions should not be guided by the literature review, but
should intend to seek the participants’ ideas (Glaser, 1998). Thus, the use of
fairly unstructured and neutral questions is critical to ensure that data collection
is guided by the data and not by preconceived ideas (Elliott & Higgins, 2012).
Interview questions can then progressively become more theoretically focused
as categories emerge (Higgins, 2007). Thus, the inductive approach is assured
(Glaser, 1998).
15
Literature Review as Data

Since Glaser (2007) argues that “all is data” (p. 1), the literature review
is also considered data. In GT, literature is not revered, and its relevance for
the theory is treated as with any other type of data (Glaser, 1998). Theoretical
sampling and subsequent analysis guide the selection of the relevant literature to
be used as data (Birks & Mills, 2015), leading to a possible increase in its use as
the study advances (Dick, 2000).
Glaser (1998) is very strong in arguing that in GT, the literature review
in the substantive field should not be done until the new theory has emerged.
At that stage, the literature is “woven into the theory as more data for constant
comparison” (Glaser, 1998, p. 67). The existing literature is, therefore, not used
as a foundational piece as seen in most research studies. It is used to develop the
emergent theory.
Some GT experts argue that knowledge of existing literature is needed
(Suddaby, 2006 Urquhart, 2007). To prevent forcing the emerging theory to
fit existing theories, Suddaby (2006) proposes reviewing several disciplines that
reflect the topic under study, instead of focusing on a single substantive area.
On the other hand, Glaser (1998) strongly recommends not doing a
literature review in the substantive discipline until the grounded theory has
emerged for six reasons. First, existing concepts that may not be relevant to the
emergent theory may affect the researcher. Second, irrelevant problems may
derail the researcher from what is important. Third, the researcher may begin
speculating about relationships that may not fit the data, neglecting that GT
provides its own interpretations. Fourth, the experts in the field may awe the
researcher, hence diminishing his or her theory-building ability. Fifth, the
researcher may begin using existing jargon instead of using the emergent theory’s
jargon; thus jeopardizing his or her theoretical sensitivity. Last, since relevant
literature is only known after the new theory emerges, precious time may be
wasted reviewing the wrong literature.
Following the Glaserian school, we recommend that the relevant literature
is determined after the GT emerges, and be used as additional data for constant
comparison purposes, as proposed by Glaser (1978, 1998). Besides, since in a
GT, “theory is readily modifiable” (Glaser, 1998, p. 77), literature indeed helps
to develop new categories and properties. Glaser (1998) suggests that the writer
should “show yet more properties of categories, inaccuracies, supports, a broader
view, syntheses and transcendencies” (p. 207). Conducting a thorough literature
review before building the new theory from other sources of data, as is done in
other research designs, is therefore not advantageous to the GT researcher.
16
Survey
A survey can also be used for data collection, although this method may
not be too common to many qualitative researchers. For example, a researcher
that finds an emerging category in his or her study may decide to run a short
survey on that category. Surveys might also be helpful for use in theoretical
sampling. However, it may not be advised in the early stages of GT, because it
can preconceive the researcher (as explained above).
Data Analysis and Treatment

In GT, the aim of discovery and generation of “new categories and their
properties, instead of being forced to use received concepts” (Glaser, 1998, p.
133) is achieved through the method of constant comparison. “Constantly
comparing develops in the analyst a clear, focused flexibility to keep transcending
his own and other analyses until he theoretically saturates his problem” (Glaser,
1978, p. 15). This section describes coding methods, units of analysis, the core
category, and the ethical considerations relevant to a GT study.
Coding Methods
There are six different coding methods used in GT (open, initial, selective,
axial, focused, and theoretical coding). Even though different GT authorities use
these methods differently, most of them agree in using three coding phases. These
phases are described in Table 2. Although there are different methods available,
we will describe Glaser’s (1978) open, selective, and theoretical coding methods.
Table 2. Coding Phases and Coding Methods

Initial coding Intermediate coding Advanced coding
Glaser & Strauss Coding and Integrating categories Delimiting the theory
(1967) comparing and properties
incidents
Glaser (1978) Open coding Selective coding Theoretical coding
Strauss & Corbin Open coding Axial coding Selective coding

(1990, 1998)
Charmaz (2006) Initial coding Focused coding Theoretical coding
Note: From Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide (p. 116), by M. Birks & J. Mills, 2011,
London, UK: Sage.
17
Open coding is the initial data splitting into code segments (Saldaña, 2009),
with the aim of comparing incidents (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Glaser (1978)
describes it as “coding the data every way possible” (p. 56), with the objective
of not closing any possible future direction that the theory may take (Urquhart,
2013). These initial codes point to what is important, and suggest directions
for analysis (Urquhart, 2013). Most key GT proponents recommend a line-by-
line first round of coding, as a means of freeing from preconceptions (Charmaz,
2006; Glaser, 1978; Strauss, 1987). Glaser (1998) recommends asking the data
the questions, “‘What category does this incident indicate?’ or ‘What property
of what category does this incident indicate?’ and lastly ‘What is the participant’s
main concern?’ As categories get generated, the next incidents are compared to
the category which yields properties of the category” (p. 140). These questions
help the researcher to keep his or her theoretical sensitivity, to move beyond
description, and to focus on patterns that produce codes (Holton, 2007). For
example, we will show one transcript snippet and the open code assigned from
Biaggi’s (2014) study. Be aware that all transcripts are verbatim, and that syntax
or grammar mistakes were intentionally not fixed.
And it is sad. We have many cases which it is not, how to say, addressed at
all. People speak behind the hand. But some of them are still in function,
and nobody goes deep to clarify those things, because also leaders like more
the peace than to be challenged or challenge others. (FN, Vol. 4, p. 6)
This piece of data was considered a code segment, and it was initially assigned
the open code nobody is willing to speak/challenge, a code that we previously
thought to possibly help develop a category of the process of misbehavior.
Codes are called in vivo when it contains words quoted from the participants;
which help to minimize being influenced by literature, and keep the focus on
their perspectives (Elliott & Higgins, 2012). The use of in vivo codes and the
suspension of the review of literature until the theory has emerged to help keep
the view of the participants throughout data analysis (Elliott & Higgins, 2012).
Later in the analysis, when the grounded concepts begin emerging, the initial
codes are modified, refined, and verified, so that the best fitting concepts are
selected (Elliott & Higgins, 2012). In the example given above, the code was later
refined into an organizational culture/overlooked, a code that would help develop a
category of the antecedents of misbehavior, rather than the process.
The objective of selective coding is to link codes to emerging categories that
will eventually contribute to the theory (Glaser, 1978). Hence, open codes are
18
grouped into categories and subcategories, or into properties and dimensions of

categories, according to the research problem (Urquhart, 2013). Glaser (1978)
recommends staying within the boundaries of the discipline when coding not
to be led away from the research problem. For Urquhart (2013), selective coding
starts when no more new open codes are found, and themes start to emerge
which may rearrange the data in different ways, raising the analysis from a
descriptive to a more abstract form. The constant comparison of categories and
their relationships ensure that they are fit and relevant for both previous and new
data (Glaser, 1978). Continuing with the example of the previous paragraph,
the open code overlooked became one of the codes grouped under the label lack
of policy enforcement, which became one of the three properties of organizational
culture, one of the four subcategories of the category opportunity.
The objective of theoretical coding is theoretical integration; that is, “The
pulling together of the abstract theoretical scheme into a final grounded theory”
(Birks & Mills, 2015, p. 176). Thus, theoretical coding involves connecting the
different categories (Urquhart, 2013). Theoretical memos play a critical role
in this coding phase, as the researcher grasps and takes notes of links between
the codes and categories (Urquhart, 2013). Again, to ensure a GT, this process
is not linear but requires returning to previous coding stages (Birks & Mills,
2015). Though Glaser (2005b) recommends using any relevant theoretical code
from any discipline, Urquhart (2013) recommends researchers to create their
own coding families, while remaining true to the data. In addition, Charmaz
(2006) recommends that the researcher be especially aware of preconceived
theories, be objective, and reflective during theoretical coding, to refrain from
forcing categories to fit existing theories, as well as moving beyond description
into theorizing.
Relationships between categories can be found in other categories, the
literature, and coding families (Urquhart, 2013). First, a category may be actually
conceptualizing a relationship between other categories. Second, literature may
aid in providing links between categories. Urquhart (2013) offers an interesting
list of semantic relationships that may help in the linking of categories: “is a kind
of, is a part of/a place in, is a way to, is used for, is a reason for, is a stage of, is a
result/cause of, is a place for, is a characteristic of ” (p. 43). Third, Glaser’s (1978,
2005) coding families may aid in relating categories to each other (e.g.,, process,
dimension, type, strategy, frames, and causal families). During the sorting of
the theoretical memos, theoretical codes in Biaggi’s (2014) study emerged in
the form of propositions. For instance, the relationship between self-control
(the core category), and rationalizations (one of the categories of antecedents of
19
misbehavior) emerged as enables healthy (based on theoretical memo 751). Thus,

the proposition self-control enables healthy rationalizations was created. Glaser
(1978) suggests “in all 10 to 15 codes are typically enough for a monograph on a
parsimonious substantive theory. . . . Over coding is unnecessary. Too many codes
dilute the impact of core and near core ones, and add only minor variations” (p.
71). Biaggi’s (2014) GT had 11 theoretical codes and propositions.
Units of Analysis
Normally, there are three units of analysis: concepts, categories, and
propositions (see Figure 1). Concepts are the conceptual labels used in initial
open coding. Categories are the higher order and more abstract codes that similar
group concepts generated during the selective coding phase in preparation for
the emergence of the new theory. After theoretical coding, propositions describe
conceptual relationships between categories and their concepts, as well as
relationships between categories.
Figure 1. Units of analysis and coding methods.
Note. From Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide (p. 13), by M. Birks & J. Mills,
2011, London, UK: Sage.
20
Identifying the Core Category

In GT, the solution to a problem under study becomes the core category.
How the participants resolve their main concern is often the core category.
Grounded theory tries to understand the action in a substantive area from
the point of view of the actors involved. This understanding revolves around
the main concern of the participants whose behavior continually resolves their
concern. Their continual resolving is the core variable. It is the prime mover of
most of the behavior seen and talked about in a substantive area. It is what is
going on! It emerges as the overriding pattern. (Glaser, 1998, p. 115)
How do we determine which variable is the core category? Glaser (1978)
offers 11-items criteria to identify the core category. Table 3 provides a summary
of these 11 items. They are exemplified in Biaggi’s (2014) study below.
Table 3. Criteria to Discover the Core Category

Criteria Definition
1. Centrality It “is related to as many other categories and their
properties as possible and more than other candidates for
the care [sic] category . . . . It indicates that it accounts for
a large portion of the variation in a pattern of behavior”
(Glaser, 1978, p. 95).
2. Frequent reoccurrence “By its frequent reoccurrence [sic] it comes to be seen as
a stable pattern and becomes more and more related to
other variables” (Glaser, 1978, p. 95).
3. Longer saturation “It takes more time to saturate the core category than other
categories” (Glaser, 1978, p. 95).
4. Quick connections “It relates meaningfully and easily to other categories.
These connections need not be forced [sic], rather their
realization comes quick and richly” (Glaser, 1978, p. 95).
5. Grabbing implication for “A core category in a substantive study has clear and
formal theory grabbing implication for formal theory” (Glaser, 1978, p.
95).
6. Carry-through “It does not lead to dead ends in the theory nor leave
the analyst high and dry, rather it gets him through the
analyses of the processes he is working on, by its relevance
and explanatory power” (Glaser, 1978, p. 96).
7. Completely variable “Its frequent relations to other categories makes [sic] it

highly dependently variable in degree, dimension and
type. Conditions vary it easily. It is readily modifiable
though these dependent variations” (Glaser, 1978, p. 96).
21
8. Dimension of the “While accounting for variation in the problematic

problem behavior, a core category is also a dimension of the problem.
Thus, in part, it explains itself and its own variation”
(Glaser, 1978, p. 96).
9. Prevent not-fitting core Core categories “tend to prevent two other sources of
establishing a core which is not grounded, but without
grounding could easily occur: (1) sociological interest
and (2) deductive, logical elaboration. These two sources
can easily lead to core categories that do not fit the data”
(Glaser, 1978, p. 96).
10. Appears to be everywhere “The analyst begins to see the core category in all relations,
whether grounded or not, because it has so much grab and
explanatory power. This logical switch must be guarded
against, while taking it simultaneously as a positive
indicator of the core” (Glaser, 1978, p. 96).
11. Theoretical code “The core category can be any kind of theoretical code: a
process, a condition, two dimensions, a consequence and
so forth.”
(Glaser, 1978, p. 96).
Note: From Theoretical Sensitivity: Advances in the Methodology of Grounded

Theory, by B. G. Glaser, 1978, Mill Valley, CA: Sociology.
In Biaggi’s (2014) study, the category “self-control” for instance fulfilled

Glaser’s (1978) 11-items criteria for core categories seen in Table 3. First, self-
control played a central role, connecting with all other categories while accounting
for the larger portion of variation in the latent pattern of misbehavior. Second,
since self-control continuously reoccurred in the data that it became a constant
pattern that increasingly related to other categories. Third, it required a longer
time to saturate than the rest of the categories. Fourth, its relationship with other
categories emerged easily and meaningfully. Fifth, the theory of self-control
could easily be extended to become a formal theory of how individuals make
value-laden choices in general. Sixth, it helped to carry-through the research
process, because it was relevant and worked to describe what was happening in
the field. Seventh, the variability of self-control depended upon variations on
other categories. Eight, while self-control explained why misbehavior occurred, it
was also part of misbehavior. Misbehavior happens because the individual chose
to misbehave. Ninth, the emergence of self-control as core category prevented
the emergence of less-fitting core categories such as culture, or organizational
factors. Tenth, after self-control emerged as the core category, it started recurring
22
everywhere in the data analysis. Last, self-control was a theoretical code formed
by two dimensions. Therefore, self-control was the core category was considered
the core category.
CONCLUSIONS
It is our hope that this manuscript has helped make GT a little clearer for
those interested in it, especially those new to GT. Just like most innovations, the
first product may not always come with the clearest instructions. This is true also
with the Glaserian GT for many people. This manuscript is an attempt to clarify
important GT concepts for qualitative researchers to understand GT better and
thus implement it more effectively and efficiently. This manuscript is in no way
exhaustive in the discussion of GT, although we consider it a good overview.
Readers are therefore encouraged to dig deeper by reading pillars of GT depending
on the GT school they find interesting and attractive to them. We encourage
qualitative researchers to follow the guidelines of GT carefully when conducting
a GT study as it has specific traits unique to it, not found in other qualitative
research designs. Without proper reading, learning, and understanding of GT,
researchers should preferably avoid using it because such an undertaking could
lead to an unfounded GT report. Readers of this manuscript are also encouraged
to read published GT studies in reputable journals such as The Qualitative Report
and Grounded Theory Review: An International Journal.
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29
The Manifestation of Socio-Cultural

Components in the Informal Oral
Communication Practices of the Teaching
and Non-Teaching Personnel in the
Philippines: An Ethnographic Inquiry
RUBY D. TAGOCON
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6191-7424
ruby.tagocon@ustp.edu.ph
University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines - Claveria
Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines
ISMAEL N. TALILI
ismael.talili@ustp.edu.ph
University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines
Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines
ABSTRACT
Communication is immensely dynamic in the 21st century as evidenced

by the fast-changing communication mechanisms. However, global trends show
that oral communication skills are still considered among the most desired
skills that employers are seeking in the workplace. Thus, there is a need to
explore the manifestation of the socio-cultural components of the personnel,
namely: behavior, attitude, and etiquette in their oral communication practices
particularly the informal manner, as the components bear a significance when
30
they engage in such form of communication interaction. Direct observations

of thirty-eight episodes of the teaching and non-teaching interactions of the
personnel were noted followed by a Focus Group Discussion with seven selected
personnel that validated the results of the observed manifestation of their socio-
cultural components and likewise explored other underlying factors that shaped
and developed their socio-cultural components. Behavior (facial expressions) and
etiquette (voice tone) components mainly dominated in their interactions, yet
the attitude component is also significant to them. The manifestation of these
components is situational given their respective upbringing during childhood
as a major perceived aspect that established these components. A desirable
manifestation of these components is encouraged when engaging in informal
oral communication interactions so to become a competent communicator in
the workplace.
Keywords: Technology communication management, socio-cultural

components, informal oral communication, direct observations, focus group
discussion, Philippines
INTRODUCTION
Throughout the 21st century, communication has been drastically dynamic,

making human connection fast and easy in the global context through the aid of
various communication tools. Communication shapes and is shaped by a range
of contexts such as geographically co-located work as examined in the mission
of International Communication Association (ICA). The United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) recognizes the
prevalence of intercultural dialogue which has now become an inevitable reality
in today’s modern society. Furthermore, global trends show that communication
skills specifically oral communication skills are considered among the top and
most desired skills that employers are looking for in the workplace (Rittiman,
2015; Rapacon, 2015; & Jackson, 2014). Indeed, communication is highly
indispensable in any context. Global competitiveness and increased knowledge
sharing have accelerated the importance of oral communication skills where it
dominates assurance of learning standards (Jackson, 2014). As society becomes
more globally connected, the ability to communicate across cultural boundaries
has gained increasing prominence (Matthews & Thakkar, 2012). However, the
ability to communicate effectively does not come easily to many people; indeed,
it is a skill that requires practice (Agarwal & Garg, 2012).
31
Informal communication in organizations is highly important considering

its many benefits including the development of new interpersonal relationships,
awareness of others’ activities, and information exchange (Yuan, Setlock, Cosley,
& Fussell, 2013). In addition, Temby, Sandall, Cooksey, and Hickey (2016) found
that informal communication is an essential factor in facilitating inter-agency
collaboration. Informal communication in work settings is defined as voluntary
talk that does not have to solely work or task focused (Fay, 2011). Furthermore,
Zhao (2012) concluded that this type of communication provides opportunities
among employees for exchanging work-relevant information, initiating potential
collaboration, maintaining awareness of workplace context; and supports social
functions such as transmission of office culture and maintenance of common
ground and a feeling of connectedness between co-workers.
Conversely, Omilion-Hodges and Baker (2014) emphasized that employees
regularly discussing their work experiences with those outside the organization
make everyday talk within the organization shapes its identity while employing
powerful effects on external perceptions. On the contrary, Baker and Warren
(2015) found out the existence of clear demarcation of roles and responsibilities
in an organization as a nuisance to considered, constructive, and collaborative
conversations. Similarly, as pointed out by Baker (2015), others inhibit
conversations although some conversations support organization enhancement.
Nevertheless, Baker and Warren (2016) pointed out that the interactions
which enable people to work together are experienced through dialogue and
conversation, both direct and indirect and using a variety of means and formats.
Conversations – formal and informal, simple and detailed, short and long –
shape and reflect the culture or organizations and the teams and groups within
them as attested by the authors.
However, a need to conduct further research in the field of oral communication
is still called for considering the limited researches in this area (Crosling & Ward,
2002; Brink & Costigan, 2015; Rhoades, 2016; & Siriwardane & Durden, 2014).
Similarly, the International Federation of Communication Associations (IFCA)
claimed that there is a very limited exchange of communications research between
both developed and developing countries. Moreover, there is a compelling gap in
soft communication skills in the entry-level workforce as claimed by Gibson and
Sodeman (2014) and Mahasneh & Thabet (2015). Furthermore, Laurie Brenner,
a published author in Career Trend, revealed that lack of listening, questioning
and feedback are among the top communication problems in the workplace that
create misunderstandings and confusion. Thus, the aforementioned arguments
32
are clear indicators of the need to further explore the socio-cultural factors of oral
communication in the workplace.
Moreover, studies reported that cultural diversity serves as a challenge in
oral communication (Lum, Dowedoff, Bradley, Kerekes, & Valeo, 2014; Marra,
King, & Holmes, 2014; Henderson, Barker, & Mak, 2016). Several studies
have also shown the influence of diverse socio-cultural factors (e.g., language,
attitudes, norms, values, and beliefs) in communication (Uyanne & Oti, 2012;
Zamanzadeh Rassouli, Abbaszadeh, Nikanfar, Alavi-Majd, & Ghahramanian,
2014; & Gut, Wilczewski, & Gorbaniuk, 2017). The employees who compose
the organization’s workforce possess diverse socio-cultural backgrounds which
affect the way they communicate especially in informal communication that is
done casually.
Ismail, Tuspekova, and Mustaffa (2018) emphasized that investigating oral
communication in relation to one’s self and the scope that molds one’s attitude
towards a language is deemed important. Hence, given the aforementioned
premises, socio-cultural factors indeed play a crucial role in the informal oral
communication practices in the workplace setting. In the University of Science
and Technology of Southern Philippines – Claveria which is currently absorbing
the transition from being a former state college for 33 years to being a university,
the practice of informal oral communication is very evident as this form of
communication dominates in all units and offices. However, it has been observed
that the personnel both teaching and non-teaching possess varying ways in their
informal oral communication practices which at times, a shared understanding is
not met which affect the work output. Unlike the formal type of communication
which is composed of formal communication channels based on the individual’s
role in the organization (Nwogbaga, Nwankwo, & Onwa, 2015), the informal
oral communication form is being done voluntarily in the workplace like
chatting with a colleague or transacting official matters in an informal way of oral
communication. Moreover, Nwogbaga et al. (2015) emphasized that the informal
communication is not managed or planned in any organized fashion but based
on social contexts and emotional disposition. Rather, it is more relaxed, casual
and tends to be spread by word-of-mouth quickly throughout a department or
organization because it is not restricted to approvals and an established path of
distribution. Similarly, Oteyza, Balmoria, and Sabularse (2018) pointed out that
good communication climate in an organization promotes relationship building
aside from being a means of transferring ideas and information.
33
A workplace filled with diverse attitudes, behaviors, and etiquettes of the

personnel that manifest their informal oral communication interactions may not
often promote a shared understanding and may also lead to a chaotic workplace
unless the personnel is empowered to appreciate the significance of communication
competence towards good rapport with everyone in the workplace. This concept
will prove that a person’s attitude, behavior, and etiquette can still be enhanced
when knowledge and awareness on communication competence be instilled
particularly when engaging in informal oral communication interactions in the
workplace that will eventually build and sustain a good rapport as a claim in this
study.
It is on this premise that the study aims to explore the manifestation of
the socio-cultural components in the informal oral communication practices of
the personnel; manner of manifestation of the socio-cultural components in the
informal oral communication practices of the personnel; perceived factors that
shape and develop the socio-cultural components of the personnel when they
engage in informal oral communication practices...and the perceptions of the
personnel in their engagement in informal oral communication interactions.
FRAMEWORK
The study is anchored on Safina’s investigation of socio-cultural competence

and Crosling and Ward’s study on the forms of oral communication practices.
Safina (2014) investigated the stages and methods of socio-cultural
competence forming which is considered to be a complex phenomenon. This
include - Linguistic-cultural – knowledge of lexical items with the socio-cultural
semantics (e.g., greeting, forms of address, and farewell, in oral and written
speech); Sociolinguistic – knowledge of the language features of social classes,
different generations, genders, social groups; and Cultural component – knowledge
of cultural peculiarities of English-speaking countries, their habits, traditions,
standards of behavior, etiquette and the ability to understand and use them
appropriately in the communication process, while remaining a carrier of another
culture. This study focused only on the cultural component aspect particularly
on behavior and etiquette including the attitude of the personnel which will be
explored as to how these factors manifest their informal oral communication
practices.
Moreover, a study of Crosling and Ward (2002) in oral communication
examined the forms of communication practices such as making informal work-
34
related discussions, following instructions, giving feedback, and engaging in informal

social conversation. Moreover, the researcher added following up on work-related
matters as a form of communication practice. These forms of informal oral
communication practices were adopted in the study.
Hence, Safina and Crosling and Wards’ studies served as anchors that
guided in conducting the study. As such, the manifestation of socio-cultural
components on the informal oral communication practices of the personnel at
USTP-Claveria is determined. Adopting Safina’s socio-cultural components and
Crosling and Ward’s forms of communication practices could lead to an enhanced
and enriched communication in the workplace with focus on the informal oral
communication practices.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The study explored the manifestation of the socio-cultural components

in the informal oral communication practices of the personnel at University of
Science and Technology of Southern Philippines – Claveria. It sought to explore
the following: 1) manner of manifestation of the socio-cultural components
in the informal oral communication practices of the personnel specifically
when making informal work-related discussions, following instructions, giving
35
feedback, engaging in informal social conversation, and following up on work-

related matters; 2) perceived factors that shape and develop the socio-cultural
components of the personnel when they engage in informal oral communication
practices; and 3) the perceptions of the personnel in their engagement in informal
oral communication interactions.
The textual data gathered through direct observations on the manifestation
of the socio-cultural components of the personnel in the pre-determined
communication interaction episodes were used in validating further the observed
primary components that dominated in their communication interactions
through a Focus Group discussion. Moreover, the data gathered in the Focus
Group Discussion were used as bases for analysis on the manner of the informal
oral communication interactions of the personnel given their diverse behavior,
attitude, and etiquette.
METHODOLOGY
The collection of data immediately started first with thirty-eight (38) direct
observations of episodes in the informal oral communication practices of the
personnel. The researcher conducted direct observations for two months and two
weeks which started in the fourth week of October 2017 until the first week of
January 2018. The researcher utilized the non-participant observation technique.
Each observation of episode was recorded through the use of an episodic
observation log. The researcher took down notes of each of the observations
indicating the date of observation, time and duration, participants involved,
topic(s) discussed, scenario and the observations of the socio-cultural components,
namely: attitude, behavior, and etiquette of the respective personnel during
the conversation. The observation log contains reflective notes about what the
researcher has realized or learned from the communication transactions observed.
This act in qualitative research is called memoing.
After obtaining the direct observations, the researcher coded the textual
observations using the NVivo 10 software, a qualitative data analysis tool.
Through the nodes that “provide ‘ simple to work with structure’ for creating
codes and discovering themes (Zamawe, 2015; p. 3)”, the thematic analysis was
carefully accomplished. The coded observations and themes of the observed
manifestation of the socio-cultural components of the personnel in their
informal oral communication interactions were then used by the researcher in
the formulation of questions for the Focus Group Discussion.
36
Before the conduct of FGD, the researcher drafted a letter of request to

conduct the FGD to select teaching and non-teaching personnel of USTP
Claveria addressed to the University Chancellor which was acted upon by the
Officer-in-Charge. Once approved, the informed consent was then sent by the
researcher to seven selected university employees representing the teaching, and
non-teaching personnel who favorably responded to join the focus group. As soon
as the number of target participants was achieved, the FGD was set according to
the convenience of all individuals involved.
Prior to the conduct of FGD, the researcher oriented the participants first
on the ground rules during the duration of the discussion. The purpose of the
study was also discussed briefly to them including the core constructs considered
in the study. Meanwhile, the discussion was led by the researcher who acted as a
facilitator at the same time with an interview guide questions to the participants
along with an audio and video recorders that captured the whole process of the
FGD specifically the verbatim statements of the participants. The discussion took
an hour, and the documentation was transcribed for three to five days. For the
results analysis, coding and thematic analysis for qualitative data were applied
by the researcher using the NVivo 10 software.
The study explored the manifestation of the socio-cultural components in

the informal oral communication practices of the personnel at the University of
Science and Technology of Southern Philippines – Claveria. It sought to explore
the following: 1) manner of manifestation of the socio-cultural components
in the informal oral communication practices of the personnel specifically
when making informal work-related discussions, following instructions, giving
feedback, engaging in informal social conversation, and following up on work-
related matters; 2) perceived factors that shape and develop the socio-cultural
components of the personnel when they engage in informal oral communication
practices; and 3) the perceptions of the personnel in their engagement in informal
oral communication interactions.
The researcher found out that conversing with colleagues freely and sharing
their ideas on work-related matters is a common episode when the personnel are
engaged in informal work-related discussions and informal social conversations.
Yet, the conversations were not smooth sailing at times when discussing work-
related matters as observed. Moreover, the researcher also recognized a friendly
37
demeanor when the personnel are engaged in conversations that involve following
instructions, making informal work-related discussions, and giving feedback
through their facial expression, gestures, and voice tone during the interaction
as observed as well as for being comfortable with one another by the personnel
when talking. In addition, the researcher also observed that the personnel were
being relaxed in a manner most of the time when engaged in informal social
conversation and talks involving work-related matters since they can casually talk
and express themselves in these types of interactions.
The manner of responding to a given situation per experience is a factor
that matters to the personnel. They attested that attitude is the major factor that
matters most in their communication interactions. As clear in the following
perspectives from the personnel, discourses on attitude and why it matters in
informal oral communication interactions:
Attitude is the most important aspect and supposedly should also be

the factor above all that every front liner should possess. Unfortunately,
attitude causes hindrance sometimes to communicate with our co-employees
and to the students as well because we cannot read a person’s mind and for
who he or she really is (Participant 1, non-teaching personnel).
Our behavior and etiquette are products of our mindset – our

attitude. I always believe that the attitude is raw and you cannot, I mean
you can fake a times, but again and again, along the way, you will go
back because the foundation of your behavior is fake (Participant 2, non-
teaching personnel).
Even myself, I have an attitude that will really show up at times

when us girls tend to have a hormonal imbalance, and it is a big factor
because when that day comes, you cannot control it. It will really come out
no matter if you are in the workplace (Participant 3, teaching personnel).
Attitude is already innate in us (Participant 6, teaching personnel)

Communication between the boss (laughs a bit) and me because it is also
necessary that you as the subordinate will also be approached in a proper
way, thereby establishing a good working relationship (Participant 7,
non-teaching personnel).

38
Hence, the importance of a favorable attitude during interactions is

significant (D’souza, Devi, & Sheilini, 2013; Shankar, Dubey, Balasubramanium,
& Dwivedi, 2013; Savio & George, 2013). Moreover, the rawness of attitude
is drawn from the attributes of attitudes like “sincerity and sympathy” which
had the most effect in communication (Pournamdar, Shameli, & Shahrakipour,
2017).
On the other hand, the researcher found out that non-verbal cues serve
as indicators of the mood of the personnel during an interaction which relies
upon the type of interaction or topic that they engaged with. It mainly showed
when verifying work-related instructions where a confused and inquiring facial
expression emerged, during informal social conversations where a smiling and
happy facial expressions were displayed, and serious or calm facial expressions
appeared mostly when giving feedback, following up on work-related matters,
and making informal work-related discussions.
In addition, the researcher observed that the manifestation of eye contact
was not constantly displayed all the time since some personnel were also occupied
with other tasks and they are looking somewhere while thinking as they engage
in the conversation. Meanwhile, the researcher noted hand gestures when the
personnel were emphasizing a point during the conversation as support to
their statements to aid in reaching an understanding related to a topic being
discussed. It manifested in following instructions, making informal work-
related discussions, and giving feedback. The researcher also noticed a pause in
talking when the personnel engaged in informal social conversation, informal
work-related discussion, and giving feedback. The researcher also noted that
listening emerged where feedback is involved in the conversation and when the
topic interests the personnel during informal social conversations. The observed
behaviors that emerged in the episodes relied upon the kind of situation that
the personnel encounter and their respective duties in the workplace as attested
by the participants. Indeed, behavior conveys meanings and intentions that are
rationally free of deception and alteration as shown in interpersonal relationships
(Leathers & Eaves, 2015). Moreover, the manifestations of behavior in the
informal oral communication practices of the personnel affirmed that the reliance
on direct observation and careful description of behavior are the most important
characteristics of human behavior approach (Feldman, 2013).
The observed behaviors that emerged in the episodes determine the mood
of the personnel in the conversation as evidenced by the following perspectives
from the participants:
39
Mostly some of the students, their first impression immediately when

a frontline staff is not smiling is that the personnel is strict (Participant 1,
non-teaching personnel).
A teacher is often expected to be always smiling, or even when a

student says “Hi” or make greetings, a smile is expected (Participant 3,
When you are extremely pressured to accomplish and finish things,

you are being rushed to these things, and you tend to somehow be heightened
due to being pressured which will somehow change your behavior. For me
as a teacher, this is not the only thing that I am doing because I tend
to check papers whenever I have free time and I tend to prepare for my
lessons, and I need to divide my time, allocate a small amount of time for
another task. Somehow, it makes you alter your behavior, proper behavior,
and etiquette as a professional (Participant 4, teaching personnel)
Sometimes due to plenty of tasks, you get stressed which causes change
in your behavior (Participant 6, teaching personnel).
The foregoing perspectives indicate that behavior which is a nonverbal

part of communication conveys meanings and intentions that are rationally
free of deception and alteration as shown in interpersonal relationships (Leather
& Eaves, 2015). Moreover, the manifestations of behavior in the informal
oral communication practices of the personnel affirmed that the reliance on
direct observation and careful description of behavior are the most important
characteristics of human behavior approach (Feldman, 2013).
The researcher majority observed varying voice tones while talking in the
episodes of informal oral communication practices ranging from mild/soft,
moderate to loud voice tone. It mainly indicated the etiquette factor of the
personnel in their informal oral communication conversations. However, flaws
in the manifestations of proper voice tone and etiquette can happen which relied
upon the kind of situation that they encounter and other factors which can trigger
a raise in voice tone as attested by the participants. The researcher also noticed
that politeness emerged when following instructions and making informal
work-related discussions while being professional was manifested in following
40
instructions and giving feedback which holds true in the observations. Hence,
the situation itself influence the etiquette of the personnel which is culturally and
situationally variable (Snowden & Glenny, 2014). Moreover, lack of etiquette as
demonstrated by the raise in voice tone could certainly lead to a negative result as
pointed out by Beresford (2014).
However, flaws in the manifestations of proper voice tone and etiquette can
happen as evidenced by the following perspectives from the personnel:
I observe proper voice tone, but then it depends upon the approach of
the student or a client since there are clients who suddenly raise their voice
in which we misinterpret their approach. In response, you as a front liner
will get offended (Participant 1, non-teaching personnel).
Usually, we cannot avoid that there are people who are different
like just what Ma’am (participant 1) said when you just wonder why the
person suddenly raises his or her voice when in fact, you are just trying to
ask something. We have to approach in a proper way. We should always
be polite especially when asking questions so that the personnel concerned
will provide what we ask. We should choose to be proper in delivering
our statements even though there are attitude problems of other people.
My point is if someone asks a question in a proper manner, it should be
responded in a proper manner too rather than yelling immediately as a
response (Participant 3, teaching personnel).
During meetings, what I have observed was that voices are raising
and we, who heard it were like “Are they okay?”. “What happened?”
(Participant 4, teaching personnel).
Your voice tone will also rise especially during the conduct of
orientation program to the students since they cannot help to also make
their own “barrio” discussions, thereby not listening anymore to the
speaker. We cannot avoid that since it is part of our life being a front liner.
(Participant 5, teaching personnel).
When your ego is hurt, sometimes a raise in voice tone cannot be

avoided especially if the manner of approach is too much for you to handle
(Participant 7, non-teaching personnel).
41
The foregoing perspectives illustrate that situation influence the etiquette of

the personnel which is culturally and situationally variable (Snowden & Glenny,
2014). Moreover, lack of etiquette as demonstrated by the raise in voice tone
could certainly lead to a negative result as pointed out by Beresford (2014).
The manifestation of the socio-cultural components of the personnel in
their informal oral communication practices were mainly rooted from their
childhood upbringing in the family. It is the foundation of their character and
for the person that they are. The following perspectives from the personnel
participants summed up the main foundation which shaped and developed their
informal oral communication practices:
Our parents raised us in accordance with what matters most to them

– the honor/praise that they get from other people in raising us - their
children. The honor in terms of raising us their children to be good and
proper and disciplined despite hardships (Participant 1, non-teaching
personnel).
I am very less in emotions. I do not listen to my emotions because I

was brought up in a very strict kind of family, very disciplined (Participant
2, teaching personnel).
One reason why I am not hesitant or afraid to approach anybody

regardless of their respective position as long as it is done in a proper way
and regardless if the personnel has a strict attitude is because my mother
taught me to remember that if I did not do anything wrong, I should not
be afraid because I have no fault (Participant 3, teaching personnel).
Our family is the very first factor that influences our attitude as we
grow up and the very foundation of molding us as an individual which I
can attest through my parents who constantly guide me and the rest of us,
their children (Participant 6, teaching personnel).
My parents taught us their children to respect and be polite. To shape

and develop our personality particularly in the way we communicate and
interact with other people, it should start at home (Participant 7, non-
42
The foregoing perspectives indicate that an individual’s learning and values

formation along with the guidance of elders such as parents is developed from
childhood where internalization and processing of the information gained from
communication with other people happen as exemplified in Vygotsky’s socio-
cultural theory (Panhwar, Ansari, & Ansari, 2016).
On the other hand, the inner qualities of a person are also considered one of
the factors that shape and develop the informal oral communication practices of
the personnel. Considering the daily engagement of the personnel participants in
informal oral communication interactions in the workplace, a mix of experience
and observations that they had were drawn from them to which the character
has been summed up as a factor that molds their informal oral communication
interactions as evidenced in the following perspectives:
Even if a child has been taught a lot and guided in his or her
learning at home, it will still boil down to who he or she really is as a
person (Participant 3, teaching personnel).
I know my attitude. I know how I behave in this context or in this

situation but, I should develop my character based on what should be
perceived of me especially that I am a teacher (Participant 4, teaching
personnel).
A character holds true as one of the perceived factors because we all

want to show our life to others. Moreover, character is the main factor that
can be seen easily by people (Participant 6, teaching personnel).
The foregoing perspectives boils down to stressing one’s qualities and

self-awareness towards increasing the communication competence (Lim &
Park, 2014). Furthermore, shaping and developing a person’s informal oral
communication practices can also be attributed through the events or instances
encountered in one’s life. It emphasizes that one’s communication practices are
honed through negative experiences which challenges one to overcome it. It
emphasizes the importance of interactions as experienced through dialogue and
conversation (Baker & Warren, 2016). Meanwhile, education is also considered
by the personnel as an outside factor that shaped and developed an individual’s
informal oral communication practices. Being educated mainly enhances the
individual’s ability to relate with people through communication interaction
with others (McQuail & Windahl, 2015).
43
The engagement of the personnel in their informal oral communication

interactions is mainly perceived on a case-to-case basis. It boils down to the
kind of situation that they encounter. As the participants constantly engaged in
informal oral communication interactions in the workplace, they attested that
the manifestations of attitude, behavior, and etiquette are indeed present in the
informal oral communication interactions with emphasis on the behavior and
etiquette. In their sharing of thoughts and ideas, some participants respectively
attested the importance of attitude and the product of attitude which is one’s
behavior. Statements on the manifestations of these socio-cultural components
in informal oral communication interactions emerged:
As a front liner, mindset should be observed at all times. As a front

liner, you should be cool. An individual should be flexible per experience.
In the office, if I will respond to my boss in a way that she will not definitely
like, conflict between us will certainly arise often (Participant 1, non-
I’m not so really focused on the behavior. I just simply express but
not so much on observing how I use my senses. I am very less in emotions.
I always work for this reason (points to his head), reason and reason
(Participant 2, non-teaching personnel).
Usually, in a workplace, a person is expected to be aware of the three

(attitude, behavior, and etiquette) because these three factors respectively
go along with each other. Otherwise, there will be an imbalance and
people will regard you differently because there are only two descriptions-
good and bad, especially for teachers, not just in terms of how good you
are in delivering the lessons but also on how you are going to communicate
with your students. (Participant 3, teaching personnel).
For me, behavior and etiquette go together. It cannot be separated.

It depends on the situation that you are in especially when you are
pressured. I have once experienced, the ones we had Ma’am (referring to
the facilitator), with the budgetary requirements, in which I always come
by here and then I had to come back again to fix the supporting documents
that need changes. When you are extremely pressured to accomplish and
finish things, you are being rushed to these things and you tend to somehow
44
be heightened due to the pressure, it will somehow change your behavior.

Somehow, the situation itself alter the behavior and etiquette of the person
as a professional when pressured (Participant 4, teaching personnel).
It makes your voice tone rise especially with the students who are
coming to the office for their INC’s. Your voice tone will also rise especially
during the conduct of orientation program to the students since they cannot
help to also make their own “barrio” discussions, thereby not listening
anymore to the speaker (Participant 6, teaching personnel).
Sometimes, when you are approached immediately, and you are

directly given instructions like “Hey, do this,” I become frightened and
will immediately respond like “Huh?” (Participant 7, non-teaching
personnel).
Meanwhile, the participants attested that establishing a good relationship

and linkage was the main advantage when they engage in informal oral
communication interactions in the workplace. Delivery of service to clienteles
was also found to be another advantage. Nonetheless, there are a number of
downfalls somehow when engaging in informal oral communication interactions
like distancing oneself from other people, the need for personal space, becoming
disrespectful to other people, and adjustment when faced with people with
negative socio-cultural components.
CONCLUSIONS
The socio-cultural components in the study are crucial aspects of the informal
oral communication practices of the personnel. Behavior and etiquette as the
dominant elements that were observed and manifested in all of the informal oral
communication practices of the personnel affirmed the fact that one’s conduct
and decorum are easily recognized in oral communication interactions. The
attitude element implied that one’s behavior and etiquette are the manifestations
resulting from one’s attitude or mindset when engaging in any informal oral
communication interactions. On the other hand, the perceived engagement of
the personnel in their informal oral communication interactions is situational as
it greatly relies upon the scenario that they encounter. In other words, a favorable
manifestation of the three components may not be constantly demonstrated
45
when engaging in informal oral communication interactions given that nobody

is perfect. However, the study wanted to impart that being a part of an academic
institution workforce, one should observe a desirable behavior, attitude, and
etiquette when engaging in informal oral communication interactions in the
workplace as the workforce creates an image for the university in one way or
another. Setbacks may happen at times in the communication process but the
manifestation of the socio-cultural components in it can be positively enhanced
by being a competent communicator.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Policies such as workplace communication protocols with an emphasis in

informal oral communication indicating courtesy, tact, and respect to everybody
in the workplace and activities such as seminar-workshops or trainings relative to
communication competence and personality enhancement should be crafted and
implemented through the Human Resource Management Unit of the university.
The foregoing recommendations are believed to enhance and enrich the informal
oral communication practices of the personnel in the workplace especially that
the USTP system is applying for international standards evaluation particularly
the International Organization Standard (ISO) for its quality of service and
clientele satisfaction.
On the other hand, the teaching and non-teaching personnel should also be
guided to be aware of the manifestations of their attitude, behavior, and etiquette
in their informal oral communication practices to maintain a good relationship
with their colleagues and promote a shared understanding in the workplace.
For the students, they should observe good practices in their informal oral
communication and be aware on the manifestations of their attitude, behavior,
and etiquette when talking especially when transacting to the different offices in
the university. By doing so, it will give them an edge when they become employed.
Lastly, further research and exploration should be done on the manifestations of
the socio-cultural components in the informal oral communication practices of
the personnel using bigger samples and wider contexts and the results of the
study may be used as a reference for future studies in exploring further the
manifestations of the socio-cultural components in communication practices
considering different venues and environments.
46
LITERATURE CITED
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Beliefs, Health-Seeking Practices,

and Effects of Childlessness:
The Experiences of Married Women
LUZVIMINDA P. RELON
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1334-4227
College of Teacher Education
University of Northern Philippines
Vigan City, Ilocos Sur
ABSTRACT
In a society which recognizes the significance of children, giving birth to a

child completes womanhood and the family. Thus, being a mother is synonymous
with being a woman. The failure, then to become a mother, constitutes not fully
achieving the status of a woman. Relatively, the desire for motherhood is inevitable
and almost universal. This qualitative study analyzed the beliefs, and experiences
of married women focused on their childlessness, health-seeking practices, and
effects. Data were gathered through in-depth interview. Results showed that
childlessness typified an unanticipated condition among the childless women.
Regardless of the current age, age at marriage, marital duration, educational
attainment and income, the respondents disclosed that childlessness is a condition
which can be treated, provided the woman is still young. Childless women with
higher income would likely seek medical help. Length of marriage disclosed to
have affected the childless women’s recognition of their incapability to sire. Open
communication coupled with trust, love, and understanding between couples
53
would keep the marriage intact. Findings revealed that their self-esteem, marital
relationship, relationship with relatives and friends were affected by the absence
of children. Almost all of the respondents expressed that the communities they
are into neither, in any way, bothered with their condition nor rejected them due
to their childlessness.
Keywords — Social Science, childlessness, qualitative research design,

Philippines
INTRODUCTION
In a study conducted by the World Health Organization, Programme of

Maternal and Child Health and Family Planning Unit (1991), it estimated that
globally there are about 60 to 80 million couples with unwanted infertility.
Boivin, Bunting, Collins, and Nygren (2007) affirmed in his study that
approximately 70-80 million couples worldwide are currently infertile, thus,
estimated that tens of millions of couples are primary sterile or childless. For
most people, having children is immensely vital; not being able to have children
is a primary life problem. Globally, between 8 to 12 % of couples experience
some form of infertility during their reproductive lives. It is important to note
that the incident levels in some of the African countries are even higher to the
level of 20 to 30 %. The underlying causes and contributing factors of infertility
vary from one state to another and even from one locality to another. To the
main part (55 % and above), infertility is the consequence of sexually transmitted
diseases or complications suffered during postpartum or post-abortion period
(particularly illegal induced abortion), all of this infertility to a great extent is
preventable. Jejeebhoy (1998) mentioned that about 5 % of couples’ infertility
rate is attributed to anatomical, genetic, or immunological factors among others.
Moreover, Livingston and Cohn (2010) disclosed that the prevalence of
childlessness varies by race and ethnicity as well. Hispanic women are far less
likely to remain childless throughout their childbearing years than non-Hispanic
whites or blacks. Just 10% of Hispanic women ages 40 to 44 now report of
having no biological children. At the other end of the spectrum, fully 17% of
white women in this age range account the same. Some 15% of black women
are childless, as are 13% of Asian women. In Indonesia, an analysis of the East
Javanese data shows that childlessness is a composite category. Demographic
childlessness occurs where a combination of proximate determinants (nuptiality,
54
mortality, primary and pathological sterility) leads to no childbearing and child

survival. De facto childlessness arises where there is a lack of support from any
children. Actual childlessness aggregates demographic and de facto childlessness,
net of adoption or remarriage where these provide alternative access to children.
(Butterfill & Kreager, 2005).
Although the proportion of women who remained childless was higher ear-
ly in the 20th century, estimated levels of childlessness at the start of the 21st cen-
tury is a social issue for at least two reasons. First, the inability to sire a child con-
tributes to fertility decline, with ramifications for the future size and age structure
of the population (Australian Social Trends, 2002). Second, the increasing level
of childlessness mean that in the future there will be older people with no chil-
dren. The family members, in particular, the children, contribute to the support
and well-being of older people. For some, the cost of raising children, regarding
both time and money, is a barrier, while for others, health concerns such as fear
of passing on a genetic defect to a child are contributing factors.
Infertility, as far as gender is concerned, appears to affect more men than
among women. Moreover, from 10,000 infertile couples, the rate was 33%
among male partners and 25% among female partners (WHO, 1991). While this
is the figure, women worldwide appear to be a countless burden of reproductive
setbacks of all kinds, regarding blame for the reproductive failing, personal grief
and frustration, social stigma and ostracism, and in some cases, life-threatening
iatrogenic interventions. The acceptance of the society differs though. According
to a study conducted by Huijts, Kraaykamp, and Subramanian (2013), the
disadvantage in psychological well-being of childless people is smaller in countries
with tolerant norms towards childlessness and high levels of social contacts. The
results suggest that the extent to which childlessness is associated with lower
psychological well-being appears to be dependent on the societal context.
Moreover, there are studies which affirmed that childless women had
affected their social life. Wirtberg, Möller, Hogström, Tronstad, and Lalos (2007)
disclosed that childlessness had had a strong impact on all the women’s lives and
was for all a major life theme. The effects were experienced both on a personal
level and on interpersonal and social levels. Half of the women were separated,
and in all but one, sexual life was affected in negative and long-lasting ways.
The effects of childlessness were especially increased at the time the study was
conducted, as the women’s peer group was entering the ‘grandparent phase’.
Many coped with their childlessness by caring for others, such as the children of
friends or relatives, elderly parents or animals.
55
Among developing countries, childlessness is still a common dilemma

among couples. Findings of the study of Ibisomi and Mudege, (2014) show
that not having children, whether voluntarily or not, contributes to a kind
of invisibility and poverty in Nigeria. Regardless of the reason, voluntary
childlessness evoked strong negative feelings. The study also shows the broad
definition given to voluntary childlessness in Nigeria as including individuals
that are childless because they chose to stay with an infertile partner and also
those who could not have biological children and chose not to adopt. Likewise,
in a study in Northern Ghana on Childlessness, couples without children are
denied membership in the ancestral world thereby losing the opportunity to live
again (Tabong & Adongo, 2013).
All the studies on childlessness presented were conducted in other countries.
Jimenez and Serrano (1998) disclosed that in the Philippines, limited funds
allocated discouraged the conduct of research related to infertility. Hence, this
study on childlessness hopes to provide a more comprehensive understanding
on the beliefs, treatment practices, and psychosocial consequences effects of
childlessness.
Thus, the data obtained in this study can be utilized as inputs in the
discussion, advocacy, and other related activities and improving current programs
or initiatives related to childlessness. The results of the study may also help in
raising consciousness about the plight of women in facing their dilemmas.
Hence, these may eventually lead to better understanding them especially in a
pronatalist country like the Philippines.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Figure 1. The Research Paradigm
56
This study analyzed the views and experiences about the beliefs on the
causes, health-seeking practices and the psychosocial effects of childlessness
among selected childless married women.

METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This study explored the views and experiences of the childless couples
on the beliefs of causes, health-seeking practices, and psychosocial effects of
childlessness. It was exploratory due to the limited studies conducted. Qualitative
and quantitative methods were employed in the study. An in-depth interview
was conducted among the fifteen childless women. There was a limited number
of childless women in the locality being studied who qualified the criteria set.
Consequently, these married women were purposively chosen based on the set
of criteria established by the researcher. The criteria are: 1) should belong to the
reproductive ages from 20 to 49 years old; 2) have been childless for five years and
above; 3) have openly expressed the desire of wanting to conceive and produce
children; and 4) have never been separated from her spouse.
Data Gathering Instrument

An interview guide was utilized in this study. Open-ended questions were
used to allow probing to gather significant information that was important in
the analysis of data. The instrument was pre-tested with two childless couples.
Likewise, the instrument was translated to Iloco with the help of some people
who are knowledgeable on the language.
The research instrument was divided into four categories, namely, the
profile of the respondent, causes of childlessness, health-seeking practices, and
psychosocial effects of childlessness.
Data Gathering Procedures

The first step done by the researcher was to search for potential respondents.
The researcher experienced difficulty in looking for childless women who were
willing to answer the questions. Some childless women who met the criteria
refused to be interviewed for personal or psychological reasons. As a result,
only 15 childless women participated in the study. Some respondents allowed
57
the researcher to record the interviews. Informed consent was also secured.
The respondents were assured of their anonymity and confidentiality of their
responses.
The answers of the respondents on the open-ended questions were
transcribed, categorized and content-analyzed. This enabled the researcher to
improve and probe deeper the areas that were not given considerable focused in
the interviews. Likewise, content analysis was done to cull out the similarities
and differences of the respondents’ views and experiences regarding the causes,
health-seeking practices and psychosocial effects. The findings of this study
could not be generalized to all childless women. These would only apply to the
respondents being studied.

Sociodemographic Characteristics of the Respondents

More than half of the childless women (10 out 15) married at their 20s,
three in their 30s. Only one associated her late marriage with her childlessness.
More than half, too, of the respondents have been living together for only less
than ten years (8 out of 15), two have been married now for 11 years, one for 12
years, two for 17 years and one for 18 years. One woman had been living with her
husband for 26 years now. All childless women underwent schooling. Majority of
the childless women (9 out of 15) are college degree holder, four are high school
while the other two are elementary graduates. Eleven out 15 women are gainfully
employed, either as teachers, vendors/store owners or employees in the private or
public sector. Four of them are plain housewives.
Majority of the respondents (14 out of 15) are Roman Catholics. One is
a Born Again Christian. The income of the respondents ranged from P1000 to
P20, 500. The estimation of the average monthly income included the income
of the husbands based from the personal account of the women. Regardless of
the category, more than half (8 out of 15) were earning below P5,000 (20 USD)
or exactly P5,000 (100 USD) each month, majority (13 out of 15) married at
the peak of their reproductive period and all of them have high expectations of
conceiving after a month or longer of unprotected sexual intercourse. In the
case of those who married in their 30s, two associated their childlessness with
old age. Hence, it was difficult for them and their husbands to produce a child.
An important consideration is that, husbands of these childless women have a
problem on low sperm count.
58
Based on the findings of the study, regardless of age, marital duration,

educational attainment, and occupation, religion as well as income, childlessness
is regarded as a problem of the couples, particularly, the women being studied.
Causes of Childlessness. The respondents narrated their experiences on

the causes of their childlessness. Their answers were categorized into biomedical
and sociocultural causes. More than half (11 out of 15) attributed childlessness
to prolapsed uterus. Other frequently cited reasons were irregular menstruation,
low sperm count, hereditary factors retroverted uterus and absence of a soft bone
in-between the ribs of either wife or husband. One woman shared her story:
“Maybe one of the reasons why a woman could not get pregnant easily is
due to irregular menstruation. Just like me for example, I only menstruate
four or five times a year. Because of this, there is a difficulty in identifying
the fertile period of a woman, which some say that conception would easily
take place during these periods. Aside from this, when we went to the hilot
she said that I don’t have the soft bone just between my ribs. Also when she
did the same thing to my husband, she found out that he has it but a very
small one. According to her, we might have difficulty producing a baby
because of this.”
This result affirms the study of Jejeebhoy (1998) on infertility that only
in about 5 % of couples stated that the causes of infertility are attributed to
anatomical, genetic, endocrinological or immunological factors among others.
Other causes of their childlessness included habitual drinking of husband,
blood incompatibilities of couples, mumps, exposure of underwear at night
and electric shock and excessive weight. According to the gainfully employed
individuals, they associate childlessness to the psychological effect of their work
(3 out of 15), especially stress and problems. One related:
“Oftentimes when we arrive at home, I am so stressed out resulting in a loss

of sexual urge or loss of concentration in our sexual intercourse.”
The interplay of hot and cold element within the body was also mentioned
by a childless woman. Thus, the presence of such would somehow affect the
fertility of a woman. However, despite seeking this provider’s help and undergone
such treatment she firmly believed that the interplay of hot and cold element in
59
the body was not the reason of their childlessness. The childless woman recalled:
“There was a time when I went to a hilot who was known in the community
because of her capability to help childless women bear their own child. I
was massaged by her and was treated 7 to 9 days successively. She told me
that my body was full of cold element. When she massaged me, I felt that
hot element came out from my head and cold in my feet. However, I still
firmly believed with the doctor. The reason of childlessness is not me but
my husband due to his operation on appendicitis and his diabetic, which
we found out just recently.”
Most of the reported own causes of childlessness were attributed to the

wives. One of the most frequent answers was prolapsed uterus (7 out of 15), three
attributed it to irregular menstruation and two on the inverted uterus.
Two childless women mentioned profuse bleeding during their monthly
period. However, the other one still considered the cause unexplainable because
the doctor assured her of her normal condition to produce a child. For those who
attributed childlessness to their husbands, the causes were low sperm count, and
lack or no sperm cell is released during intercourse.
Another childless woman openly expressed her belief that her husband was
the main cause of their childlessness. His job as an electrician could have affected
his capability to produce a child especially he was electrocuted before. Other
causes mentioned were overweight, appendectomy, diabetes and hereditary
factors. Same findings were revealed by the study of Yebei (2000) about what
causes of infertility. On the case of heredity, according to them, the inability
of couples to sire rooted from their ancestors, as to why they could not bear
a child, it is unexplainable. Likewise, low sperm count was perceived by the
childless women as a cause of their incapability to sire. Psychological factors
include blockages of the fallopian tubes and an acidic uterine environment while
Psychopathological causes factors include psychoses, alcoholism, drug abuse,
cigarette smoking and psychic stress.
Health-seeking Practices
The respondents indicated they had consulted their concerns to the health
provider. More than half of them (8 out of 15) sought the help of a hilot and a
doctor simultaneously.
They mentioned that they went to hilot to find out if their uterus is low
or in the proper position. One mentioned that she, together with her husband,
60
is apprehensive of consulting a doctor. This would result only in blaming each

other. Others who consulted a quack doctor were given root extract to drink and
went to sacred places and prayed to the “Miraculous Lady of Manaoag” to plea
to sire.
For those who visited medical doctors, five consulted once while the other
five did it regularly on a monthly basis. One expressly mentioned that in spite of
financial constraints, due to high costs of medicines and limited income, she was
motivated to undergo such medication due to the willingness of her husband to
undergo the same treatment. However, when their condition did not improve,
they stopped the consultation and medication. They opted for relying on faith
and destiny.
It can be noted that the respondents disclosed that nothing happened
after consultations with the hilot, medical doctor, quack doctor or faith healer.
The other four childless women affirmed that they experienced regulated
menstruation, positioned uterus, relief from menstrual cramps, and discovered
who is infertile. Majority (12 out of 15) also remarked that they never underwent
any counseling formally or informally.
Experienced Psychosocial Effects of Childlessness. Some of the

respondents admitted that they were being questioned for their incapability to
bear a child. One even lamented that what society wants is for women to bear
children, which further aggravated her thought of being a childless one. One
childless woman, who was still in the first five years of her marriage shared her
experience every time people noticed and commented on her being childless.
This affirms the findings of the study of Ibisomi and Mudege, (2014) that not
having children, whether voluntarily or not, contributes to a kind of invisibility
and poverty. Regardless of the reason, voluntary childlessness evoked strong
negative feelings.
Another childless woman shared how her being childless affected her sense
of worth as a woman. She added that her work was even affected and which
results to the feeling of loss interest in work. However, everything had changed
when she and her husband agreed to adopt a child.
On the other hand, other childless women viewed differently on their being
childless. According to them, their womanhood was never and should not be
questioned because of the presence of many women who also have similar faith
as theirs and further added that their acceptance of their fate, together with their
husbands, has helped them a lot. One of these childless women, who has accepted
her fate due to her menstrual problem, boldly expressed the following:
61
“Why should women put themselves down? For me, it’s not most especially
I am not the only one who has this problem and maybe it’s my fate. One
thing more, those who don’t have any menstrual problem are not being
questioned, how much more to me. For me, I have a valid reason why I
couldn’t bear a child.”
Six childless women, the same person who that their mentioned womanhood
has not been questioned by people, those who stated that childlessness has affected
their self-image/ self- esteem most especially those who have expressed that
they, together with their husbands, have already accepted the situation. Besides,
their being childless has never become a source of their misunderstanding. The
respondent women after knowing that their husbands were the cause of their
difficulty in bearing a child, regained their morale as a woman.
Five admitted that they were envious of women especially of their friends
who have their own children. Other effects given by the respondents were: two,
indicated depression, two, have lost their sense of drive in working while the
other two regarded themselves as incomplete and admitted that at times they lost
their self- confidence. One considered herself as worthless while the other was
desperate already to have a child.
One gainfully employed respondent openly admitted that her womanhood
was being challenged and felt guilty, most especially when her husband was so
desperate and unhappy due to the absence of a child in their family.
Table 2. Effects on Self-Esteem

Effects on Self-Esteem Frequency
Feeling of worthlessness 1
Depressed 2
Desperate 1
Normal 6
Envious of other women 5
Absence of drive in working 2
Feeling of incompleteness 2
Lacks self- esteem 1
Lacks self- confidence 1
Guilty 1
*22
The interview disclosed the effects of sterility to their marital relationship.

Majority of them (12 out of 15), young and old alike, revealed that their
relationship was normal just like any couple who has a child. It can be noted
62
that the younger category, where bearing a child is still very high, appeared to
have some problems. The older women expressed that acceptance of their fate or
leaving everything to God kept their relationship run smoothly. Talking about the
problem with the husband made the acceptance easier and their marriage became
stronger, and others mentioned that the presence of hope helped to normalize
everything. Besides, childlessness according to them, did not become a source
of conflict. Only in every few instances had childlessness became a problem to
the respondents. One of the childless women openly discussed that there was a
time that she discovered that her husband is seeing another woman. However,
she did not admit that the womanizing of her husband was due to the absence of
a child in the family. She further added when she came to know everything and
peacefully confronted her husband, that if only the other woman did not abort
the baby, she would be very willing to adopt and accept the child as her own.
How she came to know and accepted all these things, she told this story:
“There was a time it’s already 4 years ago when I learned that he was
courting one of our neighbors. But I came to know about it when the
woman became pregnant and the baby was aborted. I learned all about
these things through a mailed letter that was sent to me through the post
office. The sender’s name was not written, it was anonymous; I talked with
my husband upon reading it, but he didn’t admit the affair. I asked him
calmly why he did not tell the woman to continue her pregnancy so that
after delivering, we would get and adopt the baby. But it was gone already.
I was happy when I learned it, I did not feel angry because at least I would
have a baby that I could consider as my own even though it came from the
other woman, at least the father is my husband. I didn’t get angry with
my husband since I have already accepted the fact that I could not bear a
child of our own.”
On the other hand, two childless women accepted irritability to their

husband and blamed them at the same time, which resulted in cold treatment
for each other. One of them decided to adopt a child which changed everything.
The baby brought happiness to their family. When one of these childless women,
who eventually adopted a child from their relative was asked why she said that
her husband treated her coldly or vice versa, she honestly admitted:
“When the baby was not yet with us, I felt we were not sweet to one
another. He treated me coldly, and so did I, but I just ignored it especially
63
to avoid conflict. It started when we consulted a doctor, he even blamed me

but I just answered him. What can I do? Maybe it’s my fate. Sometimes I
got easily irritated before, but my husband just tried to understand me to
avoid conflict.”
This study also found out that the 14 childless women remarked that their
friends, relatives, and neighbors were always teasing them due to their childlessness.
However, all of them added that it was done in a jokingly manner, and it did
not become a reason on their part to stop befriending them, although at times
they were also slighted. They just kept the feeling to themselves. Anyway, they
were being treated well by these people despite their being childless. Oftentimes
they advised or suggested them to consult or seek the help of a Traditional Birth
Attendant (TBA) or a doctor.
They considered their relationship normal, similar to those who have
children. Most of them mentioned that they were able to maintain good and
harmonious relationship. Only one respondent mentioned that that she was
being jeered and ridiculed. This prompted her to become aloof with them and
preferred to stay at home.
CONCLUSIONS
Childless women with higher income would likely seek medical help
continuously than the women with low income. Length of marriage would
tend to affect the childless women’s recognition of their infertility. The childless
women tend to attribute their childlessness both on sociocultural and medical
causes. The childless women tend to seek the help of both medical and traditional
practitioners. Self-esteem, marital relationship, and dealings with relatives,
friends and neighbors tend to affect the childless women. Childlessness is socially
accepted.
The findings of the study may be best translated to different media of

communication for information dissemination and further awareness campaign
that will eventually lead to the strengthening of the existing programs of the local
government units along the protection and promotion of women’s reproductive,
emotional, and mental health. The local television channel and radio stations
64
situated within the locality shall be utilized for the information dissemination.
Relative to this, an infomercial may be designed using the Iloco language. This
may focus on the biomedical/gynecological causes of childlessness and the
existing services offered by the different Rural Health Units (RHUs).
LITERATURE CITED
Australian Social Trends (2002). Canberra Time. Family Formation: Trends in

childlessness. Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/
bb8db737e2af84b8ca2571780015701e/1e8c8e4887c33955ca2570ec000a
9fe5!OpenDocument.
Boivin, J., Bunting, L., Collins, J. A., & Nygren, K. G. (2007). International
estimates of infertility prevalence and treatment-seeking: potential need
and demand for infertility medical care. Human reproduction, 22(6), 1506-
1512. https://goo.gl/NZgRMt.
Butterfill-Schroeder, E. and Kreager, P. (2005) Actual and de facto Childlessness

in Old Age: Evidence and Implications from East Java, Indonesia.
Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2005.00051.x.
Huijts, T., Kraaykamp, G., & Subramanian, S. V. (2013). Childlessness and

psychological well-being in context: A multilevel study on 24 European
Countries. European Sociological Review, 29(1), 32–47. https://doi.
org/10.1093/esr/jcr037.
Ibisomi, L., & Mudege, N. N. (2014). Childlessness in Nigeria: perceptions and

acceptability. Culture, Health and Sexuality, 16(1), 61–75. https://doi.org/1
0.1080/13691058.2013.839828.
Jejeebhoy, S. J. (1998). Infertility in India--levels patterns and consequences:

priorities for social science research. Journal of family welfare, 44(2), 15-24.
https://goo.gl/8NGUXF.
Jimenez, P. & Serrano, J. A. (2001) The Client-Centered Approach to Family

Planning Intervention in Davao Del Norte, Philippines: A Qualitative
assessment. A Paper Submitted to the Rockefeller Foundation and the
Population Council. https://goo.gl/Mjzyry.
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Livingston, G., & Cohn, D. (2010). Childlessness up among all women; down
among women with advanced degrees. Retirieved from https://goo.gl/
YR1No8.
Tabong, P. T. N., & Adongo, P. B. (2013). Infertility and childlessness: a qualitative

study of the experiences of infertile couples in Northern Ghana. BMC
pregnancy and childbirth, 13(1), 72. https://goo.gl/MbyTjU.
Wirtberg, I., Möller, A., Hogström, L., Tronstad, S. E., & Lalos, A. (2007).
Life 20 years after unsuccessful infertility treatment. Human Reproduction,
22(2), 598–604. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/del401.
World Health Organization. Programme of Maternal and Child Health and

Family Planning Unit. (‎1991)‎. Infertility: a tabulation of available data
on prevalence of primary and secondary infertility. Geneva: World Health
Organization. http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/59769.
Yebei, V. N. (2000). Unmet needs, beliefs and treatment-seeking for infertility

among migrant Ghanaian women in the Netherlands. Reproductive Health
Matters, 8(16), 134-141. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0968-8080(00)90195-
2.
66
Production and Quality Evaluation

of Probiotic Malunggay
(Moringa oleifera Lam.) Ice Cream
JESSA B. GISULGA
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4495-5549
jessagisulga@gmail.com
Mindoro State College of Agriculture and Technology – Main Campus
Victoria, Oriental Mindoro
ABSTRACT
The study aimed to produce probiotic malunggay ice cream. It further aimed
to determine and assess the effects of the probiotic malunggay on the sensory
quality of the product, its physico-chemical properties, stability, consumer
reaction and the cost of production. The research study used a 3 x 3 factorial
experimental type of research in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD)
with two (2) replicates and with three (3) levels of malunggay, namely, 0%, 15%,
and 30% (w/v) and three (3) levels of probiotic cultures 0%, 20%, and 40%
(w/v). The findings of the study revealed that sensory evaluation showed that only
malunggay was significantly affected by the acceptability of the aforementioned
sensory evaluation. When Malunggay was subjected to sensory evaluation, High
levels of malunggay elicit low acceptability on its color, taste, flavor, and texture.
In terms of pH, and TA of the probiotic malunggay, when it was made into ice
cream, such was affected by the levels of the probiotic culture, increased levels
of probiotic culture correspond to a higher pH and TA values thus, increased
levels of probiotic culture could further increase the initial microbial count of
the probiotics in the product. Further studies may be conducted to confirm the
67
storage stability of the probiotic microorganisms over an extended period of

frozen storage.
Keywords — Malunggay, Probiotic, Ice Cream, Production, Philippines
INTRODUCTION
Production of dairy products should be carefully handled that its good

bacteria will be the main source of bodily health of both men and women and thus,
food production particularly the probiotics malunggay required precautionary
measures to ensure safe and germ-free food process. Dairy products use milk that
includes whole fluid milk, flavored milk, butter, cheese, evaporated and with
special mentioned in terms of the most popular from among the group of UP
students.
The ice cream manufacturing industry was one of the largest in the realm of
dairy processing (Kon & Henry, 1949). Ice cream alone comes in many different
flavors. Although ice cream has already been widely available, it is not regularly
consumed. Barriers from regular consumption include limited health benefits
and disadvantageous consumer perceptions. As pointed out by Lauzon, Zhao,
and Lacasse (2006), ice cream had nutritional significance yet not considered to
have a therapeutic effect. Even though enrichment and fortification in whole milk
products with vitamins and minerals have been flourishing, it was not common
among in frozen dairy products. Utilization and incorporation of healthful
ingredients like malunggay and probiotics could enhance the nutritional benefits
of ice cream.
Malunggay was used in addressing malnutrition in developing areas of the
world. It has been used successfully to combat nutrient deficiency among infants
and women of childbearing age. Scientific research has proven that malunggay
leaves were a powerhouse of nutritional value. The high concentrations of iron,
protein, copper, beta-carotene, Vitamin C, calcium, potassium and essential
amino acids present in malunggay leaves make them effectively ideal as a
nutritional supplement (Fahey, 2005).
On the other hand, probiotics are “live microorganisms which when
administered in adequate amount confer a health benefit on the host” (FAO,
2001). They contribute to the health of people by improving their intestinal
microbial balance (Fuller, 1989). Incorporation of probiotic microorganisms into
the ice cream formulation improves the nutritional quality as well as provides a
therapeutic value of the product as pointed out by Sarkar (1999).
68
Buffalo milk which was used to produce the ice cream was a healthy
food which provides more nutrients compared to other milk. Buffalo milk is
processed into a product of high value. One advantage of buffalo milk is its
processing quality. The high contents of fats, proteins, and total solids give it a
rich flavor and added value. It has a higher resistance to oxidation which is ideal
for preparing traditional sweets (Philippine Carabao Center, 2009). Time after
time, participants in tasting trials pick out consumer preferred buffalo milk than
cows, goats and artificially manufactured milk (The India Dairy, 2001).
Malunggay contains a generous supply of vitamins and mineral while
probiotic microorganisms offer beneficial effects to human health. Adding
malunggay and probiotics gives an excellent nutritional value to the product and
more health benefits to consumers. Hence this study is conducted.
The study aimed to improve the nutritional benefits of ice cream and
produce probiotic malunggay ice cream using different levels of malunggay and
probiotic culture. Specifically, it sought to; 1) Evaluate the sensory properties of
the probiotic malunggay ice cream as affected by the concentration of malunggay
and probiotic culture ; and determine the optimum regions; 2) Determine the
effects of the level of malunggay and probiotic culture on the physico-chemical
properties of the probiotic malunggay ice cream; 3) Determine the stability
and development of Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) under freezing conditions in
the probiotic malunggay ice cream; 4) Assess consumers’ reactions toward the
optimum product; and, 5) Determine the cost of production of the optimum
level of probiotic malunggay ice cream.

Procurement of Raw Materials

The fresh water buffalo’s milk used was provided by the Philippine Carabao
Center (PCC) at VSU, Visca, Baybay, Leyte. The ingredients for ice cream
production except malunggay were bought from Baybay Public Market. The
malunggay leaves were obtained from Pangasugan, Baybay, Leyte.
Ice Cream Formulation

The method used for the production of probiotic ice cream was patterned
from the process of Sarkar (1999) as modified by Lauzon, Zhao, and Lacasse
69
(2006). The amount of ingredients needed was calculated accurately, and the
ingredients were mixed carefully to give its proper composition. There were three
levels of malunggay and probiotic medium used, which were 0%, 10%, and 20%
and 0%, 20%, and 40% (w/v), respectively.
Malunggay Paste Preparation

The malunggay leaves were first separated from the stalks. The leaves were
then blanched into hot water and removed immediately after it was thoroughly
soaked. The blanched water was added at 1: 1 malunggay and water ratio to
facilitate homogenizing on the electric blender. The process for preparing
malunggay paste is shown in Figure 1 below.
Figure 1. Showing the Schematic diagram of malunggay paste preparation
Ice Cream Preparation

Milk was pasteurized at 72°C (161.6 °F) for 15 seconds. Homogenized
malunggay leaves were added according to the calculated milk-malunggay ratio.
The rest of the ingredients were then added to the malunggay-milk mixture. The
mixture was then heated for ten minutes at 80-85°C (176-185°F) with constant
stirring. The probiotic culture was added after the mixture has cooled down to
approximately 30°C (86°F).
The ice cream mixture was subjected to low temperature at about 0 to
-4°C (32-24.5°F) with constant beating to incorporate more air. It was then
70
alternately beaten and aged for about 10 minutes. The partially frozen ice cream
was transferred in the freezer for complete final freezing. The complete process is
shown in Figure 2 next page.
Figure 2. The process flow for processing probiotic malunggay ice cream.
71
Treatments and Experimental Design

A 3 x 3 factorial experimental design in Randomized Complete Block
Design (RCBD) in 2 blocks or replicates with three levels of malunggay, namely,
0%, 15%, and 30% (w/v) and three levels of probiotic cultures namely 0%, 20%,
and 40% (w/v) was used in the study. Table 1 shows the different treatments that
were used in the study.
Table 1. Experimental treatments

TREATMENT MALUNGGAY (%) PROBIOTIC CULTURE (%)
1 0 0
2 10 0
3 20 0
4 0 20
5 10 20
6 20 20
7 0 40
8 10 40
9 20 40
Sensory Evaluation
Sensory evaluation of the different treatments was carried out using a
laboratory test panel composed of 48 fourth-year and third-year BSFT students
of VSU. Samples were coded with the three-digit number and presented to the
panelists. Panelists were asked to evaluate the product according to their color,
taste, flavor, and texture using the quality scoring and the 9-point Hedonic scale
for the acceptability evaluation.
Incomplete Block Design (IBD) as laid out by Cochran and Cox (1957)
was used during the sensory evaluation using a score sheet. It was carried out in
four runs with a total of 48 panelists wherein each treatment was evaluated by
32 individuals. The set plan of t = 9, k = 6, r = 8, b = 12, E = 0.94 type II was
followed where t refers to the number of treatments; k, the number of samples
presented to the panelists; r, the number of replications; b, the number of blocks
and; E, the efficiency factor.
Stability of Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB)

The stability of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) at freezing condition was
determined by culturing the frozen probiotic malunggay ice cream using the
72
MRS (de Mann, Rogosa, and Sharpe) agar. Sampling was done for 6 days with 2
days interval for the optimum formulation.
Statistical Analysis
Results of the sensory evaluation were subjected to analysis using the
Response Surface Regression (RSREG) using the Statistical System (SAS, 1985)
program package in determining the effects of the independent variables on the
sensory qualities of the product and the optimum processing conditions for
each independent variable for the response studied. Effects of the independent
variables were clarified by contour plots produced by the analysis. Optimum
conditions were defined for processing the product using the highest possible
product acceptability common to all sensory qualities evaluated.
Physico-Chemical Quality Evaluation
Total Soluble Solids

The total soluble solid was measured using the calibrated handheld
refractometer (ATAGO ATCIE Model) A drop of sample was placed on the
refractometer for TSS reading in °Brix.
pH
The pH was measured using the digital pH meter using the Model pH 600
available at the National Abaca Research Center (NARC) VSU, Baybay, Leyte.
Titrable Acidity
TA was calculated as % lactic acid using the formula below.
Microbial Evaluation
The microbial evaluation was carried out to determine whether the initial
microorganisms inoculated were the same microorganisms found in the final
product. Cultures from the commercial yogurt and from the final product were
examined by gram staining and visual microscopic examination. The figures of
the isolated lactic acid bacteria were compared in terms of morphology and gram
reaction.
73
Consumer Acceptability Test

The optimum formulation and the treatment with the highest level
of malunggay and probiotic culture were subjected to consumer evaluation
employing 100 consumers composed of 25 elementary students, 25 high school
students, 25 college students and 25 adults.
Cost Analysis
Corresponding production cost was determined for the optimum
formulation of probiotic malunggay ice cream considering the prevailing market
prices of ingredients, labor, and other processing costs.
Sensory Evaluation
Sensory evaluation was carried out to nine different treatments utilizing
different levels of malunggay and probiotic culture. The treatments were in
Figure 3 as presented below.
Figure 3. The different probiotic malunggay ice cream affected

by the levels of malunggay and probiotic culture.
74
Color
The color description of probiotic malunggay ice cream ranged from “light
green” to “green” as described by 60.07% of the panelists (Table 2). The color
acceptability had an overall response mean of 6.85 which corresponds to “like
slightly” to “like moderately” in the 9-point Hedonic Scale.
Table 2. Frequency count of the descriptive scores on the color of probiotic

malunggay ice cream
DESCRIPTIVE SCORE COUNT PERCENTAGE
1 white 51 8.85
2 milky white 88 15.28
3 light green 197 34.20
4 green 149 25.87
5 dark green 91 15.80
Color description of the different treatments was in Table 3. Treatments 1,

4, and 7, with 0% malunggay got a color description ranging from “white” to
“milky white.” Treatments with malunggay, 2, 3, 6, 8 and 9 exhibited a shade of
green, whose intensity corresponds to the levels of malunggay added. However,
the addition of probiotic culture repressed the green color contributed by the
malunggay. Treatments 5, 6, 7 and 8 which had probiotic culture had a receding
intensity of the green color. Color acceptability is higher in treatments 1, 4, and
7 (without malunggay) whose color description ranged from “white” to “milky
white.” The high acceptability rating of the ice cream without malunggay is
attributed to the fact that the sensory panelists are not used to green-colored ice
cream.
Table 3. Color description and mean1 acceptability rating2 of probiotic malunggay

ice cream as influenced by the levels of malunggay and probiotic culture
% Probiotic
Treatment % Malunggay Description Acceptability3
Culture
white-milky
1 0 0 7.47b
white
2 10 0 light green 6.72cd
green-dark
3 20 0 6.16e
green
4 0 20 milky white 7.72ab
75
5 10 20 light green 6.84c

green-dark
6 20 20 5.69f
green
7 0 40 milky white 7.89a
8 10 40 light green 6.70cd
light green-
9 20 40 6.44de
green
1
N = 48
2
Acceptability Score:
9 – like extremely 6 – like slightly 3 – dislike moderately
8 – like very much 5 – neither like nor dislike 2 – dislike very much
7 – like moderately 4 – dislike slightly 1 – dislike extremely
3
Means with the same letters do not significantly differ from each other at 0.05 level of
significance.
Response Surface Regression Analysis revealed a highly significant linear

effect on malunggay levels. This linear effect indicates that malunggay alone
has contributed to the significant change in color acceptability on the probiotic
malunggay ice cream. The green color of malunggay was brought about by the
pigment chlorophyll found in the leaves of green plants.
Taste
The taste of probiotic malunggay ice cream was described to be “sweet” to
“well-blended sweet and sour” by 75.17% of the panelists (Table 4). The taste
acceptability rating of the product had an overall response mean of 7.04 which
corresponds to “like moderately” category in the 9-point Hedonic scale.
Table 4. Frequency count of the descriptive scores of taste attribute of probiotic

malunggay ice cream
Descriptive Score Count Percentage
1 others 7 1.21
2 sweet 205 35.59
3 well blended
228 39.58
sweet and sour
4 sour 79 13.72
5 bittersweet 57 9.90
76
Taste description of the different treatments is in Table 5. Treatments with

malunggay exhibited a slightly bitter taste, but it was no longer perceptible
in treatments with both the probiotic culture and the malunggay except in
treatment 6 wherein the level of malunggay is still perceptible which means that
the probiotic culture added is not enough to mask the bitter taste of malunggay.
The sour taste of the product can be due to the lactic acid produced by the
probiotic culture which is naturally sour. Although treatments with malunggay
have lower mean taste acceptability rating. However, their mean acceptability
scores still fall on the acceptable level of the 9-point Hedonic scale.
Response Surface Regression analysis revealed a significant linear effect of
malunggay on the taste acceptability of probiotic malunggay ice cream. The taste
contributed by malunggay significantly affected the taste acceptability of the
product. Higher levels of malunggay result in lower mean taste acceptability of
the probiotic malunggay ice cream.
Table 5. Taste description and mean1 acceptability rating2 of probiotic malunggay

% Malung- % Probiotic
Treatment Description Acceptability3
gay Culture
1 0 0 sweet 7.39b
2 10 0 sweet-bittersweet 6.91c
3 20 0 sweet-bittersweet 6.22d
4 0 20 sweet-well blended sweet sour 7.86a
5 10 20 sweet-well blended sweet sour 7.33b
6 20 20 well blended sweet sour- 6.22d
bittersweet
7 0 40 well blended sweet sour-sour 7.78a
8 10 40 well blended sweet sour-sour 6.92bc
9 20 40 well blended sweet sour-sour 6.72cd
1
N = 48
2
3
significance.
77
Flavor
The flavor of probiotic malunggay ice cream was described to have
“imperceptible malunggay flavor” to “well-blended malunggay milk flavor”
by 56.25% of the panelists (Table 6). The flavor acceptability had an overall
response mean of 6.95 which corresponds to “like moderately” category of the
9-point Hedonic scale.
Table 6. Frequency count of the descriptive scores of color attribute of probiotic

malunggay ice cream
1 others 12 2.09
2 imperceptible
176 30.56
malunggay flavor
3 well blended malunggay milk
148 25.69
flavor
4 Slightly perceptible
117 20.31
malunggay flavor
5 moderately perceptible
123 21.35
malunggay milk flavor
Flavor description for the different treatment is in Table 7. Increased level of

malunggay resulted in a higher intensity of the malunggay flavor. Treatments 1, 4
and 7 have no perceptible malunggay flavor and have higher flavor acceptability
compared to the other treatments evaluated which have a distinct malunggay
flavor.
Response Surface Regression Analysis revealed a highly significant quadratic
effect of malunggay levels on flavor acceptability. This quadratic effect indicates
that malunggay has contributed to the significant change in flavor acceptability
of the probiotic malunggay ice cream. Higher levels of malunggay result in lower
flavor acceptability.
78
Table 7. Flavor description and mean1 acceptability rating2 of probiotic malunggay

% % Probiotic
Malunggay Culture
1 0 0 Imperceptible malunggay flavor 7.16bc
Slightly perceptible malunggay
2 10 0 flavor – well blended malunggay 7.09ac
milk flavor
well blended malunggay milk
3 20 0 flavor - Moderately perceptible 6.17e
malunggay flavor
4 0 20 Imperceptible malunggay flavor 7.53a
Slightly – moderately perceptible
5 10 20 7.52ab
malunggay flavor
Well blended malunggay milk
6 20 20 flavor – moderately perceptible 6.11e
malunggay flavor
7 0 40 Imperceptible malunggay flavor 7.56a
Slightly perceptible malunggay
8 10 40 flavor – well blended malunggay 6.94cd
milk flavor
Slightly – moderately perceptible
9 20 40 6.45de
malunggay milk flavor
N = 48
2
3
significance.
Means with the same letters do not significantly differ from each other at
3
0.05 level of significance.
Texture
The texture of probiotic malunggay ice cream was described to be “firm” to
“soft but firm” by 70.48% of the panelists (Table 8). The texture acceptability had
an overall response mean of 7.23 which corresponds to “like moderately” to “like
very much” category in the 9-point Hedonic scale.
79
Table 8. Frequency count of the descriptive scores of texture attribute of probiotic

malunggay ice cream
1 very firm 48 8.33
2 firm 134 23.26
3 soft but firm 272 47.22
4 soft 85 14.76
5 very soft 37 6.42
Texture description of the different treatments of probiotic malunggay ice

cream is in Table 9. Treatments 1, 4 and 7, without malunggay, were described to
be soft while treatments with malunggay exhibited a firm texture. These findings
can be due to the tiny fibrous particles of malunggay which reduces the stability
of the mixture, therefore, limiting the formation of air cells. Acceptability means
are found to be higher in treatments with a soft texture.
Response Surface Regression analysis revealed a linearly significant
malunggay level. This linear effect indicates that the presence of malunggay has
affected the texture quality and acceptability of the product.
Table 9. Texture description and mean1 acceptability rating2 of probiotic

malunggay ice cream as affected by the levels of malunggay and probiotic culture
% % Probiotic
Malunggay Culture
1 0 0 Soft 7.36bc
2 10 0 Soft and firm – firm 7.09cd
3 20 0 Firm – very firm 6.95cd
4 0 20 Soft 7.64ab
5 10 20 Soft and firm – firm 7.25bcd
6 20 20 Firm – very firm 6.95cd
7 0 40 Soft 7.80a
8 10 40 Soft and firm – firm 7.16cd
9 20 40 Soft – soft and firm 6.89d
1
N = 48
2
80
3
significance.
General Acceptability
The general acceptability had an overall response mean of 7.07, which
corresponds to “like moderately.” Response Surface Regression analysis a significant
linear effect of malunggay levels. This effect implies that the malunggay levels
have significantly affected the general acceptability of the probiotic malunggay
ice cream.
Table 10 shows the corresponding mean general acceptability rating of each
treatment. Treatment means ranged from 6.17 to 7.92, which fall between “like
slightly” to “like very much” category of the 9-point Hedonic scale.
Table 10. Mean1 general acceptability ratings2 of probiotic malunggay ice cream
as influenced by the levels of malunggay and probiotic culture
Treatment % Malunggay % Probiotic Culture Acceptability3
1 0 0 7.20bc
2 10 0 7.02cd
3 20 0 6.17e
4 0 20 7.92a
5 10 20 7.33b
6 20 20 6.28e
7 0 40 7.81a
8 10 40 7.12bc
9 20 40 6.61de
1
N = 48
2
3
significance.
Summary of Critical Values of Predictor Variables and Predicted Optimum

Sensory Attribute Acceptability of Probiotic Malunggay Ice Cream
Table 11 shows the summary of the critical values of malunggay and probiotic
culture level for the predicted acceptability scores of the sensory attributes of
81
probiotic malunggay ice cream at stationary point. The acceptability rating of

the sensory attributes revealed a minimum response for color acceptability while
a maximum response for taste, flavor and general acceptability at the stationary
point. Texture acceptability is a saddle at stationary point.
Table 11. Critical and predicted response values at the stationary point of sensory
qualities of probiotic malunggay ice cream
Critical Values Predicted Values At
Response
Malunggay (%) Probiotic (%) Stationary Point
Color Acceptability 37.614039 18.772724 5.54min
Taste Acceptability -213.753142 -1.831234 14.33max
Flavor Acceptability 1.646431 27.723086 7.55max
Texture Acceptability 22.455906 7.543503 6.98s
General Acceptability -11.064142 35.440115 8.03max
Results showed that the predicted optimum value ranged from 0 to 37.61%
malunggay and 0 to 35.44% probiotic culture.
Physico-Chemical Evaluation
pH
The overall response mean for pH is 5.92. This mean is relatively lower
than the standard pH of fresh milk which is ranged from 6.5 to 6.7. This can be
attributed to the production of lactic acid by the probiotic culture thus lowering
the pH of the product.
Figure 4. Contour plot for the pH of probiotic malunggay ice cream
82
Response Surface Regression analysis shows that probiotic culture has a

significant linear and quadratic effect on the pH of the probiotic malunggay ice
cream. This effect indicates that the varying levels of probiotic culture are the
determinant of the product’s acidity. Figure 4 shows that increasing amount of
probiotic culture corresponds to a lower pH.
Titratable Acidity
The overall response mean for titrable acidity is 0.23. Response Surface
Regression analysis showed that probiotic culture has a highly significant linear
and quadratic effect on the TA of probiotic malunggay ice cream. Interaction
of the formulation variables shows a significant effect on the TA of the product.
Figure 11 shows that an increased amount of probiotic culture and a slight
increase in malunggay result in the rise of the titrable acidity of the product.
Figure 5. Contour plot for TA of probiotic malunggay ice cream
TSS
Response mean for total soluble solids is 29.08. Response Surface Regression
analysis showed that malunggay has a significant quadratic effect on the TSS of
the product. However, this effect is not defined on the contour plot (Figure 6).
83
Figure 6. Contour plot for the TSS of probiotic malunggay ice cream
Stability of Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB)

Microscopic examination was done to determine the morphological
characteristics and the gram reaction of the bacteria isolated from the probiotic
culture and the probiotic malunggay ice cream. Results showed that the bacteria
found in the product are same bacteria used as a starter culture (Figure 7) next
page.
Figure 7. Microscopic examination and gram reaction of Lactic Acid Bacteria

on the probiotic culture and probiotic malunggay ice cream
84
Results in microbial evaluation revealed that the microbial growth during

the frozen storage of probiotic malunggay ice cream was declining. The growth
of lactic acid bacteria has gradually reduced after six days of storage (Figure 8).
The decrease in the microbial count is imminent since lactic acid bacteria
are thermophiles, their optimum survival temperature is from 41-48°C. It is
possible that during freezing, some bacterial cells were killed in the freezing
process, if not become dormant. When taken in, the organisms were brought
back to warm temperatures within the body, thus become active, grow, multiply
and impart the same health benefits as a regular probiotic product (Davidson,
Duncan, Hackney, Eigel, & Boling, 2000).
Figure 8. Lactic acid growth in probiotic malunggay ice cream
Consumer Acceptability and Preference Test

Consumer acceptability evaluation employing 100 respondents divided
into four categories, elementary, high school, college, and adults. The samples
subjected to consumer evaluation were the optimum formulation with 2%
malunggay and 38% probiotic culture and T9 with 20% malunggay and 40%
probiotic culture. Treatment 9 which has high malunggay content and, therefore,
has high nutrient value. The probiotic culture level of both samples was almost
the same.
Figure 9 next page shows the graphical presentation of consumer’s
acceptability towards the optimum formulation. Almost all of the respondents
from each category expressed a positive response toward the product.
85
Figure 9. Graphical interpretation of consumer preference

towards the optimum formulation
Figure 10 shows consumer response towards T9. 16% of respondents from

each category of consumers disliked the product although most of them liked it.
The frequent reason mentioned for disliking is the distinct malunggay flavor in
the product.
Figure 10. Graphical presentation of consumer

preference on Treatment 9
Figure 11 shows the consumer preference towards the products. Consumers

who preferred T9 over the optimum formulation reasoned that it has higher
nutritive value, assessed from the darker green color of the product. Reasons
86
for not choosing T9 is due to its distinct malunggay flavor. Of the 43% who
preferred T9, 17 of them are adults while of the 57% who favored the optimum
formulation only 8 are adults. More adults preferred Treatment 9 despite the
distinctive malunggay flavor. Preference is because adults are more conscious of
the nutrient value of the product despite its flavor. Most of the respondents who
preferred the optimum formulation belong to the younger category.
Figure 11. Consumer preference on the optimum formulation

and on Treatment 9
Production Cost
Table 12 shows the cost of producing 1.5-liter probiotic malunggay ice
cream. The total production cost is Php 151.75. This price is found to be lower
than that of the existing market price of commercial ice cream which costs about
Php 225.00 per 1.5-L. The addition of the probiotic culture has contributed to
the increase in production cost of the probiotic malunggay ice cream. Considering
the health benefits people can get from the probiotic malunggay ice cream, it is
not difficult to promote the product since consumers nowadays are already health
conscious.
87
Table 12. Production cost for probiotic malunggay ice cream

Amount
Ingredients Quantity Price/ Unit Cost
Php
Fresh Milk 1L 60.00 Php/1 L 60.00
Malunggay 20 g 10.00 Php/100 g 2.00
Probiotic Culture 380 g 80.00 Php/1000 g 30.50
Other Ingredients - 20.00 Php 20.00
Electricity 0.5 Kwh 8.50 Php/Kwh 4.25
Labor 1 hr 200 Php/8hr 25.00
LPG - 800 Php/tank 10.00
Total 151.75
Around 57% of the 100 consumers chose the optimum probiotic malunggay
ice cream, while 43% preferred T9 which has 20% malunggay and 40% probiotic
culture. The optimum product’s processing cost was Php 151.75.
The study was limited only on the production and quality evaluation of
probiotic malunggay ice cream as affected by the levels of malunggay at 0%,
10%, 20% w/v and probiotic culture at 0%, 20%, 40% w/v.
CONCLUSION
Sensory results revealed that high levels of malunggay have a significant

effect on the acceptability as well as the description of the sensory attributes
evaluated of the probiotic malunggay ice cream. The levels of probiotic culture
and the interaction of both formulation variables do not have any significant
effect on the sensory attributes of the ice cream.
An increase in the levels of probiotic culture corresponds to the increase in
pH and TA of the ice cream, while an increase in the levels of malunggay lowers
the TSS of the probiotic malunggay ice cream.
Based on microscopic examination, the morphology and the gram reaction
of the bacteria used as starter culture were the same as that found in the product.
The stability and development of Lactic Acid Bacteria gradually decline during
the frozen storage of the probiotic malunggay ice cream.

88
LITERATURE CITED
Cochran, W. G. and G.M. COX, 1957. Experimental Design. 2nd edition . John
Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, p. 476. https://goo.gl/MNw318
Davidson, R. H., Duncan, S. E., Hackney, C. R., Eigel, W. N., & Boling, J.
W. (2000). Probiotic culture survival and implications in fermented frozen
yogurt characteristics. Journal of dairy science, 83(4), 666-673. https://goo.
gl/yKvZBV
Fahey, J.W. 2005. Moringa oliefera: A Review of the Medical Evidence for it’s
Nutritional, Therapeutic, and Prophylactic Properties. Part 1. http://www.
tfljournal.org/article.php/20051201124931586
FAO. 2001. Food and Nutrition Paper. Probiotics in Foods on Health and
Nutritional Properties and Guidelines for Evaluation. https://goo.gl/PbJC5X
Fuller, R. 1989. Probiotics in Man and Animals: A Review. Journal for Applied
Bacteriology. pp. 365-378. https://goo.gl/XwgSzo
Kon, S. K., and K. M. Henry. 1949. Nutritive Value of Milk and Milk Products,
J. Dairy Res., 16: 68 https://goo.gl/MV9w7w
Lauzon, K., Zhao, X., & Lacasse, P. (2006). Deferoxamine Reduces Tissue
Damage During Endotoxin-Induced Mastitis in Dairy Cows1. Journal
of dairy science, 89(10), 3846-3857. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-
0302(06)72427-4
Philippine Carabao Center. 2009. (Sarabia et al. Eds) Dairy Buffalo Production
Handbook. Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija: Philippine Carabao
Center. 31- 38 pp. Retrieved from http://www.pcc.gov.ph/publication/
dairy-buffalo-production-handbook/
Sarkar, S. 1999. Probiotic Ice Cream: A New Concept for Indian ice cream
Industry. Indian Food Industry. Vol. 18 (06) pp. 358-363. https://goo.gl/
DnoGMM
89
Jigsaw Technique in Learning Physics

and Problem-solving Dimensions
of Senior High School Students
GIOVANNI PELOBILLO
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8725-258X
giovanni_pelobillo@umindanao.edu.ph
University of Mindanao
Davao City, Philippines
ABSTRACT
Physics was perceived as a difficult subject with in dire need for cooperative
learning and problem-solving skills rubric modified from Jennifer Docktor,
namely, useful description, physics approach, the specific application of physics,
mathematical procedures, and logical progression. This study aimed to determine
and describe the effectiveness of jigsaw technique in physics learning and
problem-solving skills which employed pretest-posttest and quasi-experimental
research design with a 95% confidence level. There were two groups included in
the study as control and the experimental group which received jigsaw technique
and traditional teaching respectively as treatment. Independent samples t-test
results showed the use of jigsaw technique as cooperative learning has a statistical
difference on the post-test and post-rubric scores against the control group with
the large effect size in which the students showed a proficient performance in
learning physics and problem-solving skills with the common use of useful
description and physics approach. There is no significant difference on the pre-
90
test and pre-rubric scores between the control and experimental group with the
p-value of 0.772 and 0.019. Moreover, this study revealed that the experimental
group struggled with mathematical procedures and logical progression posting
low percentage gain. Overall this study concludes that students’ exposure to
jigsaw technique improved physics learning.
Keywords — Physics Education, Problem-solving Skills, Jigsaw Technique,

Quasi-experimental, Davao City, Philippines
INTRODUCTION
One of the problems encountered by science educators whether in college

or high school is the student’s negative impact on physics, which is perhaps the
most fundamentally important, as well as the most feared and accepted as the
most difficult. It is noted that physics is abstract as it involves mathematics to
qualify statements. As stated by Mekonnen (2014), the performance of Nigerian
students’ Ordinary Level Physics was generally and consistently poor over the
years. Physics educators in the University of Mindanao raise the problem that
physics is difficult because of its academic demands to learning which strains
and slows technological breakthrough. This means a course perceived difficulty
can overshadow its importance in the practical world. There is an urgent need to
improve teaching physics and classroom environment because Heitzmann (2008)
emphasized that classroom climate influences motivation and the role of students
in the learning process. Undoubtedly, the most popular teaching strategy used in
physics courses is lecturing though it has the advantage to relay a large amount of
information, but it may not effectively be used when students engage in groups
in active learning. This is supported by the statement of Capanis and Garwin
(as cited by Amadalo & Musasia, 2016) that lecture method provides limited or
no success in understanding, to say, physics as science should provide dynamic
work groups for active learning. Physics provides students’ engagement in
solving problems furthermore, according to Hsu (as cited by Docktor, 2009), the
primary goal of physics weather in college or high school are learning its concepts,
principles, and problem-solving skills. In the study of Ho and Boo (2007) on the
effectiveness of cooperative learning in physics classroom, it pointed out students
demonstrated facets of understanding as seen in journal entries on how the learn
cooperatively in electricity concepts.
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The study by Guido (2013) showed that students with a negative attitude
towards physics were less motivated for class engagement. About Guido’s study,
it is believed that based on the experience of teachers, they can conduct effective
classroom activities to enable female students’ classroom participation. Problem-
solving is a fundamental part of physics learning, but many teachers find out
students solve problems, not in their level of proficiency. Cooperative learning is
more than having students work in groups: it is a fundamental shift from teacher
as an information provider and sole source of truth, to a teacher as facilitator.
Cooperative groups differ in relative emphasis on group vs. individual reward
structures and in their reliance on different kinds of interdependence to produce
cooperation (e.g., a) Student Team Learning approach developed by Slavin in
1989; b) The Circles of Learning method developed by Johnson and Johnson
in 1975; c) the Jigsaw method of Aronson and Patnoe in 1997 and; d) Groups
Investigation technique of Sharan and Sharan in 1976). At present this study
focuses on the assessment of Jigsaw technique, in physics learning and problem-
solving skills. Aronson and Patnoe (as cited by Azmin, 2015) explained that jigsaw
technique is a highly structured cooperative learning method as the content of
the lesson is subdivided into different parts and then given to groups who would
explain to each other their results as a whole, after grouping the students into a
specific topic. Several groups of researchers have examined the effects of Jigsaw
technique. The jigsaw technique is more useful for teaching than lectures; the
superiority of this technique lies in its enhancement of the learning experience
and the provocation of the students’ interest in physics (Jafariyan, Matlabi,
Esmaeili, & Kianmehr, 2017) which is recommended as cooperative learning
in teaching physics. By research conducted in Davao City, the jigsaw approach
as a cooperative learning strategy is an effective tool in improving the problem-
solving skills in physics of a college student (Limjuco, & Gravino, 2012). The
learner in the expert group in jigsaw develops personal attributes that lead to
higher order thinking skills with positive attitude and motivation, especially in
problem solving. Also, the students who have positive attitudes towards physics
have motivation for class engagement (Guido et al., 2013).
In related the study, Ramani (2012) cited that, shared activities with
peers provide children with opportunities to learn, practice, and develop their
communicative, interactive, and social skills. Also, when students involved in
cooperative learning, it leads to the development of higher level thinking skills,
positive attitudes toward learning and greater motivation. However, there has
been a scarcity of research on how jigsaw technique affects the students’ five
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dimensions of problem-solving skills. In the effort of finding answers to this

study, it aims to determine the effect of jigsaw technique on problem-solving
skills and test scores in physics. Also, this study aids in understanding the factors
affecting problem-solving skills. Thus it is to interpret, analyze and explain
problem-solving skills and test scores between two groups with its purpose to
help teachers, students, parents, school administrators and researchers thereby,
to serve as a basis for educational and curriculum revisit and reformulation in
realizing the importance of physics teaching and learning
FRAMEWORK
Problem-solving is important in learning physics. Hence, many teaching

methods can be utilized for problem solving. According to Gök and Sýlay (2010),
cooperative group problem-solving was performed because it is effective in
teaching the complex skill and it is also practical as it makes the complex problem
to be solved easier with a chance to share problem-solving strategies within groups.
To this, several theories have been proposed by researchers to explain cooperative
learning. Johnson, (2003) explained the social interdependence theory as a way
of structuring goals which determines how individuals interact that turn into
the groups’ outcomes. Social interdependence theory has essential elements:
positive interdependence, individual accountability, and personal responsibility
for promoting interaction, appropriate use of social skills, group processing
and conditions for competition and individualistic efforts. Furthermore, social
interdependence theory tends to promote greater efforts to achieve, more
positive relationships, and greater psychological health than do competitive or
individualistic efforts. Furthermore, the power of cooperation has been shown
to depend on the presence of clear, positive interdependence (which includes
individual accountability) that result in promotive interaction (which includes
appropriate use of social skills and group processing). These results provide
strong confirmation of social interdependence theory, as the validating research
encompasses considerable diversity and generalizability (Johnson, 2003)
Cooperative learning is also based on the Cognitive theory as a process
of thinking and learning which glorified studies of Piaget (1965) and Vygotsky
(1978). In the social development perspective, Slavin and Johnson (as cited by
Tran, 2013) social interaction needs to be encouraged in the process of learning
because if the social interaction or group interaction does not exist, students
may not reach any shared goals or achievement. Learners construct knowledge
93
socially, based on their current or past knowledge, through social interaction

rather than by observing it objectively (Vygotsky, 1978). Piaget, (1965) explained
that teachers need to assess learners’ current level of cognitive strengths and
weaknesses to apply appropriate teaching approaches and the teaching strategy
also needs to be personalized to help students gain opportunities to interact with
others on learning tasks. Also, Slavin and others (1996) believed that students
could not learn much from others if there is no social interaction in learning.
Furthermore, there can be no cognitive conflicts, related arguments, balancing
situations or high-quality learning without social interaction thus highlighting
the social learning theory by Albert Bandura in 1971 that correlates behavioral
theories and how it affects their retention, attention, production, and motivation.
Schunk (as cited by Tran, 2013) noted that The major premise of social learning
theory is that learners can improve their knowledge and retention by observing
and modeling the desired behaviors, attitudes and reactions of others, and that
human thought processes are central to understanding personality. Bandura
(1977) added that the major premise of social learning theory is that learners can
improve their knowledge and retention by observing and modeling the desired
behaviors, attitudes and reactions of others and that human thought processes
are central to understanding personality. Thus, utilizing this framework based on
cooperative learning theory and the diagram shown in Figure 1 will examine how
it affects their physics problem-solving skills, and test scores.
Figure 1. Framework Diagram
94
This study aimed to determine the effect of jigsaw technique on problem-

solving skills and test scores in physics. Specifically, it sought to describe and
infer (1) the normalized percentage gain of mean test scores of the control and
experimental groups (2) the normalized percentage gain of mean rubric scores of
the control and experimental groups; and (3) the difference and effect size in the
post-test scores and post-rubric scores between control and experimental groups
with a 95% confidence level.
METHODOLOGY
This section presents methods to be used in gathering the data among the
respondents. It includes research design, research subjects, research instruments,
data gathering procedures and statistical treatment.
Research Design
This study employed Quasi-experimental design utilizing descriptive and
inferential technique to generate verbal descriptions of the means of rubric
and test scores as emphasized by Creswell (2012), and to give decision of
the significant difference as noted by Adeyemi (2009), thus to compare the
performance of two groups in problem-solving skills, and test scores. The
researchers gathered the results taken from the instruments of the control and
experimental groups to address the research questions. Control group is assumed
as lecture method. Thus, it does not receive the treatment, and the researcher
has to take existing groups rather than drawing random samples that emphasize
accurate (quantitative) measure of the outcomes (Gray, 2009). Hence, the
experimental group received the treatment as jigsaw technique in cooperative
learning that is assumed to determine its effect on problem-solving skills and test
scores in a 2-week duration of the study.
Research Participants
Based on the annual enrollment, STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering,
and Mathematics) strand come with 16 sections. 100 students were included
and divided into two as control and experimental group, posting 13.33% of the
entire population. They were purposively selected based on the physics teacher’s
feedback on their performances and academic scores, and this was supported
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and validated based on the pre-test, and pre-rubric scores between two groups
in which they do not vary. To say, not statistically significant with the p value of
0.772 and 0.019 respectively, which is more than α=0.05.
Research Instruments
The researcher used ten analytical multiple choice questions and one
problem question on Electric Fields and Forces (see Appendix 1). The data on
test scores and problem-solving dimension rubric (see Appendix 2) which was
modified from Docktor (2009) with five dimensions were gathered from multiple
choice questions and one problem question respectively. The five dimensions
were: Useful description or the process of organizing information visually,
symbolically or in writing, Physics approach or the process of selecting physics
concepts in solving problems, Specific application of physics or the process of
applying physics concepts to specific problems, Mathematical procedures or
the process of problem-solving mathematically to obtain target quantities, and
logical progression or the process of communicating, and evaluating the solution
for consistency. Hence, it aided in the effective analysis between control and
experimental groups.
Further, the ten items multiple choice, one problem question and
modified physics problem-solving rubric based on the K12 curriculum were
validated by the research experts and advisers. This guaranteed that the multiple
choice questions and problem-solving rubric are appropriate and correct. The
instruments underwent reliability test which gathered 20 grade 12 STEM
students at the University of Mindanao to test and retest the instruments. The
Cronbach alpha was used to infer reliability results furthermore Saunders and
others (2008) emphasized that the reliability of valid instruments ensures a
strong and consistent finding under different conditions. The 10 multiple choice
questions and, problem-solving rubric have the Cronbach coefficient of 0.77
(high), and 0.980 (very high) respectively which was interpreted based on the
following: 1.0 (perfect); 0.81-0.99 (Very High); 0.61-0.80 (High); 0.41-0.60
(Moderate); 0.21-0.40 (Low); and 0.01-0.20 (Negligible correlation). Thus the
instruments were reliable because the threshold of the Cronbach’s alpha is 0.7
and above according to Taber (2017). Farrell & Heller (n.d.) emphasized that an
instrument was developed in the form of a rubric for assessing written solutions
to physics problems along five aspects. To say, it calls for a need to assess student’s
problem-solving skills through the use of the rubric to quantify specific behavior
to convey meaningful scoring.
96
Data Gathering Procedures

The original title of this study was checked, revised and rechecked by the
research panelists to maintain conformity on the subject of research. After the
approval to the conducted research was given, a letter to the office of the Basic
Education school principal was sent to allow the researcher to conduct the study
to the identified sections of Grade 12 Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM) Strand. The researcher, after had been permitted by the
school principal, conducted the study at the University of Mindanao, Davao
City. The validated multiple choices and the problem question made by the
researcher were distributed to the identified respondents to be compiled. The
multiple choice and problem question were retrieved by the researcher. After the
collection of the data, the results were gathered and subjected to the following
statistical analysis.
Ethical Considerations
The participants agreed for voluntary representation of the study with
confidentiality of the identity and the classroom they belong. The questionnaire
did not include gathering the personal details such as the names and section they
belong. Names of the participants and respective groups may only be revealed
when asked by the research panelists and examiners, and with the assurance,
it will not be exposed to anyone in public. All the participants were provided
with the copy of the results of their signed informed request and consent to
conduct the study which was conducted before the researcher obtained an Ethics
Clearance from the Ethics Review Committee.
Statistical Analysis
The researchers mainly used inferential and descriptive statistics to analyze
the data. Mean percentage gain scores by Hake (1999) were used to determining
the assessment of the respondents regarding their test and rubric scores by the
following interpretation: 0-30% (Low Gain), 31%-70% (Medium Gain) and
71%-100% (High Gain). Independent Samples T-test was used in comparing
two sample means from different population regarding the same variables
namely: post-test scores and post-rubric scores. Hence, to determine its effect
size by Cohen (1988) which is based on the following interpretation for Cohen’s
d: 0.2 (Small effect size), 0.5 (Medium effect size) and 0.8 (Large effect size).
97
Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores
Table 1. Normalized Percentage Gain of Mean Test Scores

Mean
Groups % Gain
Pre-Test Post-Test
Control 2.8 4.14 18.61
Experimental 2.88 7.3 62.08
It can be seen that students displayed a need for improvement in the pre-test
scores of the control and experimental groups are 2.80 and 2.88 respectively. This
shows that the students did not demonstrate a clear and thorough understanding
of the topic to say, the students have little or no prior knowledge. This result
shows a relation the study of Yimmer and Ellerton (2006 in Ali Abdullah, &
Saim, n.d.), which stated: without metacognitive monitoring, students are less
likely to take one of the many paths available to them and are almost certainly
less likely to arrive at an elegant mathematical solution. Kruger and Dunning (as
cited by Bogdanović et al. 2015) claim that students with good metacognition
demonstrate good academic performance compared to students with poor
metacognition. The finding shows a need for metacognitive knowledge as it is
useful to answer questions.
The table shows that the means of post-test scores of the control and
experimental groups are far from each other posting 4.14 and 7.3 respectively.
Furthermore, the experimental group gained 6.21 points (62.08%) after the
treatment on the average than the control group with an increase of 1.86 points
(18.61%). This indicates that students scored with proficiency because of jigsaw
technique as cooperative learning. In the related study of Koc and others (2010),
it revealed jigsaw cooperative learning is more powerful in students’ achievement
than individual learning. The result in the post-test scores is supported by
the research of Khan (2016), that the 9th-grade students gained an increase
in academic performance which found the jigsaw cooperative learning to be
effective. However, Bassem and Hadi (2014) argued that learning mathematics
and physics requires reading textbooks to gain conceptual knowledge, solving
problems using reasoning and applying formula besides planning and carrying
out laboratory experiment. Thus the control group still learns through lecture
method.
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Pre-Rubric and Post-Rubric Scores
Table 2. Normalized Percentage Gain of Mean Rubric Scores

Control Experimental
Problem-solving
Dimensions Pre- Post- Percentage Percentage
Pre-Scores Post-Scores
Scores Scores Gain Gain
Useful Description 1.48 2.86 39.20 1.49 4.08 73.79
Physics Approach 2.32 2.42 3.73 2.58 4.36 73.55

Specific Application of
0.74 0.6 -3.29 1 2.76 44.00
Physics
Mathematical Procedures 0.62 1.12 11.42 0.9 2.13 30.00
Logical Progression 0.5 0.96 10.22 1.02 2.1 27.14
OVERALL 1.13 1.59 11.89 1.39 3.1 47.37
The control group with 0.59 points (11.89%) as the gain score seemed to be
lower than the experimental group (2.37 points) with 47.37% gain based on the
overall. It is apparent from the result that students lack mathematical skill needed
in solving problems in physics with index agreement of 45.8% (139 students) as
shown in the research of Reddy and Panacharoensawad (2017). This explains that
teachers as a part of the institution should provide methods to engage learners
with opportunities for collaboration and communication between themselves
for meaningful learning. Moreover, cooperative learning has gained praises from
teachers as a learning method in education.
It appears that students have low scores in mathematical procedures as
shown in the percentage gain of the control and experimental groups posting
11.42% and 30% respectively, to say, the students are less likely to communicate
the correct answer based on the logical progression which showed low percentage
gain. Thus, the scores indicate that mathematical procedures and logical
progression seem to have little improvement after the treatment. Group work
can sometimes yield to the unsuccessful operation or unproductive responses
due to many aspects. For instance, Kurr and Brunn (as cited by Sofroniou &
Poutos, 2016) emphasized that less capable members could sometimes leave the
task to others to accomplish, making the capable members put less effort in doing
all work. However, working in groups can increase the positive attitudes and
performance of students in learning physics as this is supported to the study of
Gambari and Yusuf (2014) that students established a better performance taught
in cooperative learning than the traditional method of teaching.
99
Useful description and physics approach was greatly influenced as the students
were engaged in cooperative learning with its percentage gain of 73.79% (high
gain) and 73.55% (high gain) respectively. This applies to the study of Snetinova
& Koupilova (2012) of the student’s difficulties in solving physics problems; they
used one rating scale question about the strategies of the students when solving
physics problems. It showed that one of the most mentioned strategies was the
Rolodex equation matching in which the student selects an equation based on
the list of known and unknowns which links the useful description. Based on
the result in the experimental group, the physics approach gained high which
implied that students become aware of what equations to use and how the object
was described to process the problem statement. Further, it implies the judgment
of selecting physics concepts in solving problems. It supported the research
of Gaigher, Rogan, and Braun (2006) that a broad conceptual understanding
develops as a network of links between concrete situations (physical objects and
events) and physics principles, at the same time, problem-solving skill develops
as the ability to link a particular concrete situation with appropriate physics
principles. Thus, it resonates with physics learning through problem solving.
Difference and Effect Size in Post-Test and Post-Rubric Scores
Table 3. Independent Samples T-test and Effect Size on Post-Test and Rubric
Scores Between Groups
Sig. Mean Std. Error Effect size
t df
(2-tailed) Difference Difference (Cohen’s d)
Post Test -6.393 82.289 9.25E-09 3.16000 0.49426 1.409
Post
-11.793 77.399 5.81E-19 1.51600 0.12856 2.681
Rubric
Consequently, the means of pre-test and rubric scores have closer values
with each other. Furthermore, the problem-solving skills of the students are
almost the same.
Independent samples t-test showed that there is an extremely significant
difference on the post-test and post-rubric scores between control and experimental
groups posting the p value of 0.000 and 0.000 respectively because it is less than
the alpha level of 0.05. Further, students under treatment gained 3.16 points
on the post-test (d=1.409) and 1.516 points on post-rubric (d=2.681) scores on
average because the effect size is large. This means that the students performed
100
with proficiency in learning physics and problem-solving skills. The result of this
investigation implied that jigsaw technique as collaborative learning improved
the performance of students.
Undoubtedly, Kibirige & Lehong (2016) emphasized that learners are
treated differently in cooperative teaching when compared to the traditional
chalk-and-talk classrooms: learners are encouraged to take responsibility for
their learning which occurs through experiences. The findings underscored the
usefulness of collaboration between learners and facilitators as they communicate
that put emphasis on critical reflection and processing information of the
problem statement.
CONCLUSION
The grade 12 (STEM) Senior High School Students of the University

of Mindanao showed a proficient performance as they learn physics through
problem-solving in jigsaw technique. Further, students received a constructive
analysis from their groupmates as a way of understanding the problem statement
and verifying the physics concepts applied when finding equations to say, useful
description, and physics approach were commonly used. Hence, it agreed to
the theories of cooperative learning set by Bandura (1977), Johnson (2003)
and Piaget (1965). As shown and indicated on the findings, the study suggests
the need to use different cooperative learning strategies aside from jigsaw
technique for achieving meaningful problem-solving skills in physics because
students whether in control and experimental group had little improvement in
mathematical procedures. This is supported by the statement of Redish and Kuo
(2015) that math in science is different because physics represents meanings about
the physical systems rather than expressing abstract relationships. Hence, with
distinct semiotics-the way meaning is translated into symbols. It is significant
for teachers to educate students on the difference of the use of “math in math”
and “math in physics.” Thus, it calls for curriculum developers in reformulating
this statement into learning competencies on the difference between math and
physics.
The findings of this study could be translated into paper presentations,

newsletters, radio, research conference, and other forms of media for information
dissemination. Through this study, science and/or engineering teachers could
101
improve physics problem-solving assessment and teaching practices in the

classroom and intervention and enhancement program under STEM to increase
interest in taking physics related courses in college. Further, it could be translated
as a basis for constructing better problem sets for meaningful assessment. By
the collaboration STEM education experts, and professionals in culture-focus
or any other discipline, it might be translated into further studies to gain useful
knowledge for teachers about how students solve problems in specific community,
gender, etc.
Appendix 1: Multiple Choice Questions and Problem Question
1. A conductor is distinguished from an insulator with the same number of atoms

by the number of:
a. nearly free atoms
b. electrons
c. nearly free electrons
d. protons
e. molecules
2. A small object has charge Q. Charge q is removed from it and placed on a

second small object. The two objects are placed 1 m apart. For the force that each
object exerts on the other to be a maximum, q should be:
a. 2Q
b. Q
c. Q/2
d. Q/4
e. 0
3. Two identical conducting spheres A and B carry an equal charge. They are
separated by a distance much larger than their diameters. A third identical
conducting sphere C is uncharged. Sphere C is first touched to A, then to B, and
finally removed. As a result, the electrostatic force between A and B, which was
originally F , becomes:
a. F/2
b. F/4
c. 3F/8
d. F/16
e. 0
102
4. An electric field is most directly related to:

a. the momentum of a test charge
b. the kinetic energy of a test charge
c. the potential energy of a test charge
d. the force acting on a test charge
e. the charge carried by a test charge
5. Experimenter A uses a test charge q0 and experimenter B uses a test charge 2q0
to measure an electric field produced by stationary charges. A finds a field that is:
a. the same in both magnitude and direction as the field found by B
b. greater in magnitude than the field found by B
c. less in magnitude than the field found by B
d. opposite in direction to the field found by B
6. A charged point particle is placed at the center of a spherical Gaussian surface.

The electric flux is changed if:
a. the sphere is replaced by a cube of the same volume
b. the sphere is replaced by a cube of one-tenth the volume
c. the point charge is moved off center (but still inside the original sphere)
d. the point charge is moved to just outside the sphere
7. Which drawing correctly shows where the charges reside when they are in
equilibrium?
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. D
8. The outer surface of the cardboard center of a paper towel roll:

a. is a possible Gaussian surface
b. cannot be a Gaussian surface because it encloses no charge
c. cannot be a Gaussian surface since it is an insulator
d. cannot be a Gaussian surface because it is not a closed surface
9. A point particle with charge q is placed inside the cube but not at its center.
The electric flux through any one side of the cube:
a. Is zero
b. Is q/ϵ
103
c. Is q/4ϵ
d. Cannot be computed using Gauss’ Law
10. The figure below shows the electric field lines in a region of space containing
two small charged spheres (Y and Z). Then:
a. Y is negative and Z is positive
b. the magnitude of the electric field is the same everywhere
c. the electric field is the strongest midway between Y and Z
d. the electric field is not zero anywhere (except infinitely far from the
spheres)
PROBLEM QUESTION:
Charge q1 = 7.00 µC is at the origin, and charge q2 = –5.00 µC is on the
x-axis, 0.300 m from the origin. (a) Find the magnitude and direction of the
electric field at point P, which has coordinates (0, 0.400) m. (b) Find the force
on a charge of 2.00x1028 C placed at P
104
Appendix 2: Problem-solving Rubric
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109
Development and Evaluation of Nipa

(Nypa Fruticans) Vinegar Powder
MARIO A. DE CASTRO JR.

http://orcid.org 0000-0002-7412-5725
mariodecastro787@gmail.com
MIMAROPA Food Innovation Center
Mindoro State College of Agriculture and Technology, Calapan City Campus
Masipit, Calapan City, Oriental Mindoro, Philippines
ABSTRACT
Due to emerging technologies, the improvization of products is a new

trend. Spray drying is a new technology that transforms a product in liquid
phase into a dry particulate powder. This study investigated the possibility of
developing powder out of nipa vinegar with ideal physicochemical properties
and high recovery percentage. A single process schedule design was applied in the
nipa vinegar during spray drying. Three formulations of the added carrier were
applied (F1- 50%, F2- 25% and F3-12.50%). The sensory characteristics of the
spray-dried nipa vinegar in three formulations were analyzed and compared using
organoleptic evaluation score card utilized by food experts. The pH level, total
soluble solids (TSS) and solubility test of the three samples were also measured.
Results showed that nipa vinegar with 12.50% of the added carrier is the preferred
sample by the respondents and has the fastest solubility rate. However, it has the
lowest recovery percentage. On the other hand, the nipa vinegar with 50% added
carrier has the highest recovery percentage. The three samples have consistent pH
110
value and changes were only observed in Nipa Vinegar with 50% added carrier.
Further studies should be conducted to optimize the production quality of spray-
dried nipa vinegar.
Keywords — Food processing, nipa vinegar, pH level, quality attributes,

recovery percentage, total soluble solids (TSS), spray drying, MIMAROPA
Food Innovation Center, Philippines
INTRODUCTION
Commonly, vinegar is processed through alcoholic and subsequent acetic

fermentation of several sugary and starchy materials such as fruits, malt, and sugar
cane juice. Vinegar has been used for antiseptic purposes and acts as medicine
for aches and gastric problems. Traditionally, it also acts as a preservative or
condiment for food that provides a good market for it. Domestic utilization is
limited, but it is used in large quantities in restaurants, clubs, and canteens, and
by the caterers (Mokhtar, Zakaria, Soon, Ariff, Latiff, & Campus, 2016).
Nipa (Nypa fruticans Wurmb) is a high sugar-yielding palm that can be
found along coastal areas, river estuaries and mangrove forests with brackish
water environments. By removing the infructescence of this plant, it is possible
to collect a sugar-rich sap from its stalk on a daily basis for a minimum of 60
days in the Philippines and up to 340 days in Malaysia. Moreover, nipa sap
production ranges from 0.5 to 2.5 L/palm/day with an average sugar content of
16.4 w/v%. Traditionally, production of nipa sap vinegar involves fermentation
of alcohol using yeast and consequently transforming it to acetic acid by the
presence of aerobic bacteria (Nguyen, Sethapokin, Rabemanolontsoa, Minami,
Kawamoto, & Saka, 2016).
Nipa (Nypa fruticans) is a monoecious palm with special characteristics.
Contrast to usual palms like coconut (Cocos nucifera) and oil palm (Elaeis
guineensis), it thrives in river estuaries and brackish water environment in which
salt and fresh water mingle. Nipa lacks an upright stem, trunks and becomes fully
developed at the height of about 1m. Nipa palms abundantly grow in Southeast
Asia, northward to the Philippines, Ryukyu Islands and southward to north
Queensland. The largest natural nipa stands are found in Indonesia (700 000
ha), Papua New Guinea (500 000 ha) and Philippines (8 000 ha) (Tamunaidu,
Matsui, Okimori, & Saka, 2013).
111
Nipa Palm Vinegar (NPV) is produced by the fermentation of “nira,”

a nipa palm alcoholic beverage. It is commonly consumed throughout East
Asia and usually taken before meals and at bedtime by adding to drinking
water (Yusoff, et al., 2015). Chemical components of nipa sap include sucrose,
glucose, fructose, and minor amounts of organic and inorganic compounds.
These constituents were used for various purposes but the juice is collected
limitedly by local communities for their traditional use without many industrial
applications. The underutilized nipa sap could, thus, be a good raw material for
acetic acid production (Nguyen et al., 2016).
Spray drying is the process of transformation of a product in liquid phase
into a dry particulate powder. The liquid is atomized into droplets, subjected to
a high temperature and dried through contact with air. During this process, the
solvent is evaporated, and droplets are reduced. Ensuring the shelf-life of the
product, reducing biological degradation, easy handling and low transportation
costs, are the advantages of spray-drying. Obtaining a product with appropriate
properties in terms of pH, water activity, solubility, moisture content, nutritional
composition, hygroscopicity, glass transition temperature, color and fluidity
and others, etc. is the principle of spray drying technology (Patel, Chen, Lin, &
Adhikari, 2009).
The development of new products undergoes a series of procedures. Sensory
aims to characterize and measure sensory attributes and differences among the
products. It may be defined as the examination of the organoleptic characteristics
of a product by the sense organs and, hence, its importance in the evaluation of
the final product (Guiné, Almeida, Correia, & Gonçalves, 2015).
The study aimed to produce and evaluate spray-dried nipa vinegar in three
formulations in terms of the physicochemical properties and quality attributes
prior to the set process schedule. Specifically, it aimed to evaluate the pH level,
solubility test and total soluble solids (TSS) of the three formulations of spray-
dried nipa vinegar before and after spray drying; To describe and compare the
quality attributes in terms of taste and aroma of the three formulations; To
determine and compare the recovery percentage of the three formulations using
a single process schedule design.
112
I. Product Preparation - Initial checking of pH and TSS of Nipa vinegar:

a. Raw materials: Nipa Vinegar
b. Tools and equipment: casserole, mixing bowl and weighing scale, pH
meter, and refractometer
c. Procedure
1. Transfer the nipa vinegar in a clean container and filtered using a
fine
mesh sifter to eliminate other unwanted residue or material
2. With the use of a pH meter check the acidity level of the pure nipa
vinegar.
3. Using a refractometer check the TSS value of the pure nipa vinegar.
4. Record all the gathered data in the production report form.
II. Product Formulation and Spray drying
a. Raw materials: Pure Nipa Vinegar and maltodextrin
b. Equipment: Spray Dryer
Ten Liters of pure nipa vinegar were added with certain percentage of
maltodextrin. Three formulations were made in each sample before subjected to
spray drying using a single process schedule design.
Table 1. Three formulations of Nipa vinegar and maltodextrin using as single

process schedule design
Formulation 1 Formulation 2 Formulation 3
Added carrier 50% 25% 12.50%
Inlet Temperature 200 C 200 C 200 C
Outlet Temperature 150 C 150 C 150 C
Pressure setting 500 psi 500 psi 500 psi
III. Product assessment

• Research Design
A. Production Analysis and physicochemical analyses
Spray-dried nipa vinegar in three formulations were made to assess the
production performance in terms of percentage of recovery and solubility test.
Basic physicochemical analyses were conducted to test the pH level and TSS
value of the three formulations.
113
B. Sensorial Analysis
Sensory evaluation is the process of using our senses (taste, smell, touch,
sight) and applying them to determine the acceptability of foods. The three
formulations of spray-dried nipa vinegar (F1, F2, F3) was subjected to sensory
evaluation. In this study, purposive sampling technique was adopted to choose
the panelists. Thirty (30) evaluators who are food experts were chosen to evaluate
the products. Each evaluator was subjected to allergy test and their consent was
assured before the conduct of the product evaluation in accordance to the ethical
procedures being observed by the center.
Figure. 1 Obtained Nipa Vinegar powder in three formulations, F1- 50%

added carrier, F2- 25% of the added carrier and F3- 12.50% of added carrier
Figure. 2 Utilization of the three formulations of Nipa Vinegar

powder for sensory evaluation
114
Table 2. Organoleptic Score Card for the characteristics of spray-dried Nipa

Vinegar
Description
Rating
Aroma Taste
5 Nipa vinegar Like Nipa vinegar Like
4 Slightly Nipa vinegar Like Slightly Nipa vinegar Like
3 Average Nipa vinegar like Average Nipa vinegar like
2 Slightly not Nipa vinegar Like Slightly not Nipa vinegar Like
1 Not Nipa vinegar Like Not Nipa vinegar Like
Figure. 3 Spray-dried Nipa Vinegar Development

and Evaluation Framework
Figure 3 shows the development and evaluation framework of spray-dried

nipa vinegar in three formulations.
A. Production Analysis
Table 3. Recovery percentage of Spray-dried Nipa Vinegar in Three

Formulations using a single process schedule design
Formula Inlet Outlet Pressure Recovery percentage
F1 200 C 150C 500 psi 43.20%
F2 200 C 150C 500 psi 25%
F3 200 C 150C 500 psi 10%
Table 3 shows the recovery percentage of the three formulations of spray-

dried nipa vinegar in a single process schedule design.
It can be noted in table 3 that there are differences in the percentage of
recovery in each formulation. Formulation 1 with 50% of the added carrier had
115
the highest recovery percentage of 43.20%, followed by formulation 2 with 25%

of added maltodextrin got 25% of recovery. On the other hand, formulation 3
with 12.50% carrier got the lowest percentage of recovery with 10% value.
This implies that the amount of added maltodextrin and inlet temperature
setting in each sample affects the yield quality of the final product. These findings
support the study of Koç and Kaymak-Ertekin (2014) which reveals that atomizing
airflow and inlet air temperature had more effect than feed temperature and feed
flow rate on the physical properties of spray-dried maltodextrin. It also conforms
to the findings of Jittanit, Niti-att and Techanuntachaikul (2010) reveals that the
drying air temperature and MD (maltodextrin) content had significant influence
on the product quality in terms of recovery.
Table 4. Solubility test of spray-dried nipa vinegar in three formulations

F1 F2 F3
Temperatures Time Remarks Time Remarks Time Remarks
suspended suspended suspended
90 C 58 sec. slowest 53 sec average 49 sec. fastest
28 C 1 min. and average 1 min. and slowest 59 sec fastest

3 sec. 5 sec.
10 C 2 min. and average 2 min and slowest 2 min and 20 fastest
32 sec. 49 sec sec
The solubility rates of each sample were determined by measuring the time
of suspension of a 10-gram spray-dried sample of ( F1, F2, and F3) in a 125 ml
of water with three different temperatures (warm, cold and hot).
The data in table 4, reveals that F3 sample has the fastest solubility rate in
three temperatures of water under constant stirring as evidenced by its recorded
time of suspension with 49 seconds at 90˚ C, 59 seconds at 28 C and 2 minutes
and 20 seconds at 10 C.
Average suspension rate was recorded for F1 sample in both colder and
warmer temperatures with 1 minute and 3 seconds at 28 C and 2 minutes and
32 seconds of time suspension for 10 C. On the other hand F2 is at its average
suspension rate at 90 C with 53 seconds of time dissolution.
However, the slowest suspension rate was observed in F2 and F3 samples.
For the warmer temperature, F2 was recorded at 1 minute and 5 seconds while in
the colder temperature it was recorded at 2 minutes and 49 seconds of suspension
rate. On the other hand, F1 was determined slowest suspension with the recorded
time of 58 seconds at the water temperature of 90˚ C.
116
This implies that the hotter the water temperature, the faster the suspension
rate of spray-dried products. It was also found out that F3 sample having 12.50%
of the added carrier has the fastest dissolution performance in three different
temperatures as compared to F2 with 25% and F1 with 50% of added carrier.
The findings conform to the citation of Phisut (2012) that an increased
maltodextrin concentration did not cause a reduction in powder solubility. This
variation may be attributed to the fact that maltodextrin has a superior water
solubility. Similar to the study of Chuaychan and Benjakul in 2016 reveals that
with the increasing maltodextrin proportions, the resulting powders showed an
increase in yields.
According to Cano-Chauca, Stringheta, Ramos, and Cal-Vidal (2005), high
solubility in water is one of the good physical properties of maltodextrin which
makes it a good carrier for spray drying. Grabowski, Truong, and Daubert (2006)
also reported that as the amount of maltodextrin increases the water solubility
index of sweet potato powder also increases.
B. Physicochemical Analysis
Figure. 4 pH level of Nipa Vinegar in pure extract

and with added carrier
Differences in terms of the pH level of the three samples were determined

by measuring the initial temperatures of pure nipa vinegar. Two trials of pH
measurement were conducted in each sample to get the average pH levels using
Milwaukee pH 600.
It can be gleaned in Figure 3 that, changes in the pH level of formulations 2
and 3 in both pure extracts and with added carrier was not observed. As evidenced
by its same pH value of 3.1 respectively both described as strongly acidic. On
117
the other hand changes in the acidity level was observed in formulation 1 as
evidenced by its pH value of 3.1 in the pure extract, while 3.2 pH was obtained
after the addition of carrier.
This implies that the pure extracts of the three samples had a consistent pH
value before it was added with maltodextrin. A change in the level of acidity was
only observed in formulation 1 with 50% added carrier. Formula 2 with 25%
and Formula 3 with 12.50% of the added carrier does not affect the pH level as
compared to its value in its pure extract form.
This finding can be explained by the study of Kothakota, Kumar, Kumar,
Juvvi, Rao, and Kautkar (2014) entitled, “Characteristics of spray-dried dahi
powder with maltodextrin as an adjunct.” The study reveals that the moisture
content, acidity, and hygroscopicity decreases with increasing maltodextrin
(MD) aid in spray-dried dahi powder but the values of pH and acidity remain
constant during spray drying process by increasing maltodextrin (MD) aid.
Similarly, in the study of Ekpong, Phomkong, and Onsaard (2016) stated
that increasing the maltodextrin content resulted in a lighter color, with a decrease
in redness and yellowness. Likewise, the total acidity decreased with increasing
maltodextrin.
Table 5. Total Soluble Solids (TSS) value of Nipa Vinegar

Formulations Nipa Vinegar Pure extract Nipa vinegar with added carrier
F1 4.53 ºBx 37.6 ºBx

F2 4.40 ºBx 24 ºBx
F3 4.48 ºBx 16 ºBx
It can be noted in Table 5 that changes in the total soluble solids was observed
after each addition of maltodextrin. Formulation 1 has the highest TSS value of
37.6 ºBx after the addition of 50% of carrier. Followed by Formulation 2 with
25% added carrier with its TSS value of 24 ºBx on the other hand Formulation
3 had the weakest changes after adding 12.50% of maltodextrin with its TSS
value of 16 ºBx. It implies that the amount of the added carrier affects the natural
TSS value of the nipa vinegar.
C. Sensorial Evaluation
Fig. 5 presents the sensorial profiles of the three formulations of the product
tested: F1 –Nipa vinegar with 50% carrier, F2 nipa vinegar with 25% carrier and
F3 Nipa vinegar with 12.50% of added carrier.
118
Figure 5. Sensorial profiles of the evaluated spray-dried nipa

vinegar in three formulations
119
The results in Figure 5 confirm that formulation 3 (nipa vinegar with

12.50% of added carrier) is the preferred sample by the respondents. F3 got
the highest mean scores of 4.31 and 4.45 respectively both described as slightly
nipa vinegar like in terms of its aroma and taste. However, F2 (nipa vinegar
with 25% added carrier) got the higher scores in terms of its aroma and taste
as evidenced by its mean scores of 3.03 and 3.09 respectively, both described
as average nipa vinegar. On the other hand, F1 (nipa vinegar with 50% added
carrier) was confirmed as less valued with the lowest scores in all the attributes
evaluated as evidenced by its mean scores of 2.25 and 2.31, respectively both
described as slightly not vinegar like.
Comparing the three formulations in regards to the overall assessment of
the developed product, F3 sample (nipa vinegar with12.50% added carrier) is
the most acceptable among the three formulations with the mean score of 4.38
respectively described as slightly nipa vinegar like. It was followed by F2 (nipa
vinegar with 25% maltodextrin) with a score of 3.06 described as average nipa
vinegar like.
This implies that the lower the amount of the added carrier in the nipa
vinegar retains much of the quality attributes such as taste and aroma. This
conforms to the findings of that MD (maltodextrin) also facilitates retention of
some food properties such as nutrients, color, anthocyanin, and flavor during
drying and storage process.
The findings of this study could be translated into a food processing

utility model that can be adopted by the MSMES (Micro, Small, and Medium
Enterprises) in the food processing sector specifically to those who are engaged
in nipa vinegar production in the MIMAROPA region and other parts of the
Philippines.
CONCLUSION
With the utilization of the three formulations and the application of the
established single process schedule design, the production and evaluation of
spray-dried nipa vinegar has become possible in this investigation. The developed
nipa vinegar powder using formulation 3 is of good aroma and taste and acidity
level that is comparable to the pure nipa vinegar in liquid form, the dissolution
120
performance was also excellent for hot, warm and cold temperature. However,
the percentage of recovery is at its minimum level among the three formulations.
It is believed that this study will be able to contribute to the innovative
utilization of our locally produced nipa vinegar for product development and
agri-product promotion through value adding. The study could help the local
nipa farmers and nipa vinegar producers in the different parts of the Philippines
specifically in the MIMAROPA Region to increase their profit out of innovative
nipa vinegar production, likewise the micro, small and medium enterprises
or small food processors may engage themselves in value adding product by
utilizing indigenous material in the region with the use of the DOST High
Impact Technology Solutions – Food Processing Equipment namely: spray
dryer, vacuum fryer, water retort and freeze dryer through MIMAROPA Food
Innovation Center.
It is recommended that further study should be conducted to optimize
the production quality of spray-dried nipa vinegar. Nutrients analysis and other
laboratory tests should be taken into consideration in the optimization process to
develop marketable quality of spray-dried products. Consumer acceptability test
in a wide range of dishes is also encouraged to create a quality market opportunity
for the product.
LITERATURE CITED
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DOI:10.7719/jpair.v32i1.579 by AJA Registrars, Inc.
Profile and Level of Competence

of Information and Communications
Technology (ICT) Coordinators
among Secondary Schools in the Division
of Davao del Sur
JULCON AVANCEÑA ARAIZ
http://orcid.org 0000-0001-7403-5298
1julcon@gmail.com
Mariano Peralta National High School
Malita, Davao Occidental
ABSTRACT
ICT Coordinators play a significant role in the effective delivery of

education in every school. There have been many studies carried out in relation
to ICT, but less has been done dealing specifically with ICT Coordinators. The
study aimed to find out the Level of Competence of ICT Coordinators in the 57
Secondary Schools in the Division of Davao del Sur, Philippines. A descriptive-
correlational method was used in the study. The research instrument patterned
to the NICS developed by the CICT (2006) was used in the data-gathering
procedure. Data were analyzed using mean, chi-square, pearson r correlation
coefficient and t- test. Results showed that ICT coordinators were proficient
in Technology Operations and Concepts, Social and Ethical, and Pedagogical
Domains, but basic in the Professional domain. Likewise, significant relationships
were not established with regard to their gender, age, educational attainment,
length of service and position. The findings suggest that ICT Coordinators need
to upgrade their level of competence in the Professional Domain to become more
124
proficient and capable in performing their duties and responsibilities through

seminar-workshops related to professional growth and development, research,
innovation, and collaboration. To maintain their high level of competence, a
continuing high-quality training program should be provided in the entire
Secondary Schools in the Division of Davao del Sur.
Keywords — Information and Communication Technology, ICT

Coordinators, descriptive-correlational method, Davao del Sur, Philippines
INTRODUCTION
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) had been established

in the literature as an effective tool to facilitate students’ learning, improve
teaching, and enhance institutional administration (Kazu & Yavulzalp, 2008;
Kirschner & Woperies, 2003). However, the researcher learned that the training
of ICT Coordinators is inadequate and needs improvement. Reasonably, it
varies from person to person, and from situation to situation as Cleere (2002)
claimed that competency level of the school ICT coordinator varies far and wide
between different schools in different towns, or cities, or indeed countries. In
such a growth area as technology, the competency of ICT Coordinator is of key
importance to the proper integration of ICT in the school.
While there have been many studies carried out in relation to ICT in schools,
fewer studies have been done dealing specifically with ICT Coordinators. This
research examined the level of competence of ICT Coordinators in carrying out
their day-to-day duties, their suitability for the position and their general opinion
of their level of competency.
The position of ICT Coordinator in the world of advanced technology re-
cently is quite relevant with regards to his role. The Department of Education
and Science (DES) in Ireland conducted a survey in 2008 in relation to the
integration of ICT in primary and secondary schools. The survey was not based
on the level of competence. However, it examined the integration of ICT into
teaching which the researcher calls the level of expertise in this vast area.
More recent studies (British Educational Communications and Technology
Agency, 2002) reveal that in the current practice, the most predominant roles
assumed by the ICT coordinator include technical support and supporting
children during the learning process. In this context, the tasks carried out by
the ICT coordinator include teaching ICT skills, coordinating the development
of an ICT curriculum, managing hardware, and technical support, and giving
125
training. Further, British Educational Communications and Technology Agency

(2002) emphasizes the ICT leadership role to facilitate proper use of ICT.
Major ICT competencies required by teachers were highlighted by Kirschner
and Woperies (2003) to include competency in making personal use of ICT;
mastery of a range of educational paradigms that make use of ICT; competency in
making use of ICT as mindtools; competency in using ICT as tool for teaching,
competency in mastering a range of assessment paradigms which involves use of
ICT; and competency in understanding the policy dimensions of the use of ICT
for teaching and learning.
Successful integration of ICT in the school system depends largely on the
competence of teachers towards the role of modern technologies in teaching and
learning. Thus, experienced teachers and newly qualified need to be competent
in using ICT effectively in their teaching (Kyriakidou, Chrisostomou, & Bank,
2000).
In a worldwide study conducted between 2016 and 2017 by the
International Communications Union (ITU) based in Geneva, Switzerland
on ICT Development Index (IDI) among the ASEAN countries, Singapore
ranked number 18 followed by Brunei (53rd), Malaysia (63rd), Thailand (78th),
Philippines (101st), Vietnam (108th), Indonesia (111th), Cambodia (128th),
Myanmar (135th) and Laos (139th) (Measuring Information Society Report
Volume 1, 2017 pp. 31).
ASEAN (2011) as cited by Pinprayong (2016) revealed that ASEAN
countries planned to develop their ICT infrastructure and ICT manpower for
economic transformation, innovation, people empowerment and engagement,
human capital development, infrastructure development, and bridging the digital
divide to deliver 4 key outcomes: 1) ICT as an engine of growth for ASEAN
countries, 2) recognition for ASEAN as a global ICT hub, 3) enhanced quality
of life for peoples of ASEAN, and 4) contribution towards ASEAN integration.
In the Philippines, a recent study reveals that most teachers have basic
knowledge on ICT and needs improvement (Las Johansen et al., 2017). According
to Buabeng-Andoh (2012), the key factor of teacher’s successful integration of
ICT in the classroom teaching is professional development. The importance of
ICT competence has been presented in the study to determine Thailand’s ICT
readiness for the ASEAN economic community. With competency in ICT and
skills to support the growth of the ICT sector, human capital will be established.
Thus, it will turn to support the progress of the other segments of the economy.
ICT knowledge and skills are needed to help in promoting the country’s
126
competitiveness (Wongwuttiwat, 2016). One study conducted by UNESCO

about teacher ICT Education and training reveals that most ASEAN respondent
countries were not systematic (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2014). There
is a great need to consider ICT Competency for teachers as the figures below
suggests.
Figure 1. The proportion of combined primary- and

secondary-level teachers teaching basic computer skills and subjects using
ICT versus proportions trained
ICT coordinators accomplish different roles, that is, complex and

demanding, yet, only a few roles will be fulfilled in practice (Kennewell, &
Selwood, 1997). To achieve the educational innovation required through ICT
(Watson, 2001), and to assess whether ICT coordinators realize their roles as
agents of change, it is essential to have more than a theoretical overview of the
possible roles ICT coordinators can fulfill. Thus, the study aimed to identify the
level of competence of ICT coordinators of secondary schools in the Division of
Davao del Sur.
FRAMEWORK
Information and Communications Technology (ICT) have emerged as one

of the central building blocks of the society (Suliman, Raman, & Hamid, 2007).
Countries are now crafting ICT Competency Standards to successfully harness
human resources and enjoy the benefits of productivity gains, job creation,
and economic growth. ICT competency standards is a very effective tool to
127
facilitate a country’s integration into the regional and international markets

(Hwa, 2016). The two international standards authority among the developers
of standards for pedagogical ICT competency of teachers in all countries of the
world “ICT Competency Framework for Teachers” (ICT-CFT) developed under
the guidance of UNESCO and “Standards of ICT Competency for Teachers”
developed by International Society for Technology in Education ISTE-NETS
(Avdeeva, Zaichkina, Nikulicheva, and Khapaeva, 2016) is the basis for crafting
the National ICT Competency Standards (NICS) by the Commission on
Information and Communications Technology or CICT in the Philippines. This
study adopted its theoretical underpinning to the National ICT Competency
Standards (NICS) Framework for Teachers. NICS for Teachers is designed to
define the competency outcomes, and the fundamental knowledge and skills
required to employ in the performance of duty related to teaching in Philippine
settings. It comprises performance indicators to evaluate the level of knowledge
and competence of Teachers in ICT. This is very significant considering that ICT
Coordinators are regarded as a change agent in today‘s teaching and learning
process.
Figure 2. NICS Competency Framework
Source: ICT Competency Standards, ICTD Case Study 4 2016. United Nations Asian and
Pacific Training Centre for Information and Communication Technology for Development
(UN APTCICTD)
128
The NICS for Teachers is a well-structured framework consist of four major

domains:

Technology Operations and Concepts

Social and Ethical

Pedagogical and

Professional
Each domain is presented in a very compact form covering the following

elements that serve as determinants on the level of competence of the Teacher:

Skill Set: this is the key area of competency.

Sub-Area: this is a more specific area of competency within the skill set.

Competency Descriptor: is a brief description of the competencies
covered by the Sub Area.

Competency Level: this defines the level of proficiency a person must
demonstrate to fulfill a specific job role.

Performance Indicators: these identify the actions an individual would
normally take to perform the area of competence detailed in the relevant
statement. These are specific evidence of the achievement of a defined
skill or knowledge level or the competent completion of a task.

Underpinning Knowledge: these are the essential areas of learning and
understanding that underpin the area of competence described in the
standard. They also indicate broad areas of learning and development
that an individual might consider to strengthen the specific area of
competence.
To determine the level of competence of the ICT Coordinators of the

Secondary Schools in the Division of Davao del Sur, the four competency
domains (Dependent Variables) consisting different indicators of the NICS for
Teachers will be tested against the demographic profile (Independent Variables)
of the ICT Coordinators.
129
Figure. 3. Schematic diagram showing the independent

and dependent variables of the study
The study aimed to: 1) Determine the socio-demographic profile of ICT

Coordinators; 2) Determine the level of competence of ICT Coordinators on
the four competency domains; 3) Identify the significant relationship between
the socio-demographic profile and their competency level; 4) Evaluate the
significant difference on the Level of Competence of ICT Coordinators against
the assessment by their School Administrators.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The researcher used the descriptive-correlational method of investigation
which involved a questionnaire to assess the Level of Competency of ICT
Coordinators in the secondary school of the Division of Davao del Sur.
Research Site
This study was conducted in Davao Del Sur, Region XI, Philippines.
Davao del Sur is a first class province in Davao Region. It has 14 municipalities
and one chartered city. The province is subdivided into two divisions, to wit:
Digos City division and Davao del Sur division. The 14 municipalities are under
the Davao del Sur division which has 57 public secondary schools and fifty-seven
ICT Coordinators. Fifty (50) of these schools were included in this study. The
130
schools are located in the following municipalities; (1) Sta. Cruz, (2) Matanao,
(3) Bansalan, (4) Magsaysay, (5) Hagonoy, (6) Padada, (7) Kiblawan, (8) Sulop,
(9) Malalag, (10) Sta. Maria, (11) Malita, (12) Don Marcelino, (13) Jose Abad
Santos, and (14) Saranggani.
Fig. 2. Map of Davao del Sur indicating the different municipalities where public
secondary schools are located
Participants
The subjects of this study were the ICT Coordinators and School
Administrators of the 50 public secondary schools in the division of Davao del
Sur. There was a total sample of 100 respondents (50 School Administrator, 50
ICT Coordinators).
131
Instrumentation
The researcher used the descriptive-survey questionnaire as a main data
gathering tool for the study. The instrument consists of two parts; the first part
is compost of the demographic profile of the ICT Coordinators and the second
part focused on the ICT Competency assessment. The National Information and
Communications Technology (ICT) Standards (NICS) for Teachers developed
by the Commission on Information and Communications Technology (CICT)
in the Philippines was used.
The researcher sought permission from the Schools Division Superintendent.
Upon approval, the researcher went to the identified schools and presented the
approved letter to the school principals. Scheduled appointments were arranged
for the actual survey and retrieval to give enough time for the respondent to reflect
and to ensure a more accurate and quality information. This was done for the
determination of respondents and for the distribution of the survey questionnaires.
The descriptive design used to identify the profile of ICT Coordinators among
the public secondary schools in Davao del Sur. The correlation method was used
to determine the interrelationships between and among the profiles considered
and level of competence of the ICT Coordinators. The comparison between the
ICT coordinator and administrator’s ratings along the variables considered was
also included in the investigation. Furthermore, the study used frequency count,
percentage, rank order, mean, Chi-square test, Pearson (r) correlation coefficient,
and t-test. To determine the sample size and ease of instrument distribution the
researcher used Slovin’s Formula and purposive sampling techniques.
As revealed in the study, most of the ICT Coordinators were male with a
frequency of 30 or 60 percent while 20 or 40 percent were females. This finding
means that females tend to be less interested in computers than males and use
them less often in their spare time (Schaumburg, 2001). In addition, the three
computer-related occupations (computer scientists, computer engineers and
system analysts, and computer science and engineering) are the top career choices
for males (Derbyshire, 2003). Bebetsos and Antoniou’s (2008) and Kadel’s (2005)
studies also found that females have negative attitudes towards computers; as a
result, they are often less computer literate than males. Sefyrin (2005) asserted
that competence in ICT could be seen as a question of interest in ICT, where
males are more interested in ICT than females.
132
Figure 3. Graphical presentation of ICT coordinators by gender
Age
Most of the respondents were on the bracket 26 -30 years old as evidenced
by the frequency of 16 or 32 percent followed by 31 – 35 years old with twelve
(12) or 23 percent. These findings reveal that some of the ICT coordinators are
still young in the profession. Thus, this may imply that they have all the power
and strength to face the many challenges in the job.
Figure 4. Graphical presentation of ICT coordinators by age
Length of Service
Majority of the respondents were still new in the service ranging from 0 – 5
years in the service with 25 or 50 percent. Nine (9) or 18 percent were in the
service for 6 – 10 years, eight (8) or 16 percent were in the service for 11 – 15,
five (5) or 10 percent for 16 – 20, and three (3) or 6 percent for 21 – 25 years.
The findings imply that a greater number of ICT coordinators are still a neophyte
in the position, but all are able and ready to face the challenges in the profession.
133
Cajindos’ (2009) finding revealed that half of the teacher-respondents in Divine

World College of Vigan were in the service for 5 – 10 years.
Figure 5. Graphical presentation of ICT coordinators

by the length of service
Educational Attainment
As reflected in Figure 6, out of 50 ICT coordinators in the Division of
Davao del Sur, 44% or 22 of the respondents were bachelor’s degree holder,
32 percent or 16 respondents were master’s undergraduate and 24 percent or
12 of them were master’s degree holder. This means that majority of the ICT
coordinators were non – master’s degree holders. Besides, passing the Licensure
Examination for teachers is one of the main requirements to be employed as a
regular teacher. However, there is a need to grow professionally, and one of these
is by enrolling or finishing a higher degree in education.
Figure 6. Graphical presentation of educational

background of ICT coordinators
134
Plantilla Position
As regards the position of the respondents, 32 or 64 percent of the ICT
coordinators were Teacher I, nine (9) or 18 percent were Teacher II, five (5) or 10
percent were Teacher III, one (1) or 2 percent is a Master Teacher I, and three (3)
or 6 percent were LSB (Local School Board) paid Teacher. This implies that there
is a need for ICT coordinators to grow while in service to get a higher position
or rank. However, one factor for promotion is the length of service coupled with
high performance at work. Villanueva (2009) found that most of the public high
school teachers in the City Division of Candon were Teacher I.
Figure 7. Graphical presentation of the Plantilla position

of ICT coordinators
Level of Competence of Information and Communication Technology

Coordinators in the four Competency Domains
To investigate the level of competence of ICT coordinators in the four
competency domains descriptive statistics (mean score) were used.
As shown in Figure 8, the average mean of ICT coordinators in technology
operations concepts showed to be intermediate with a mean score of 2.281, 2.022,
and 1.754 for social and ethical, and pedagogical domains respectively. This
means that the level of competence of ICT coordinator in terms of technology
operations and concepts, social and ethical and pedagogical domain is satisfactory
or at high levels. Personal attributes on the indicator are satisfactorily manifested.
However, the main score for professional domain is 1.502 with a descriptive
level “Basic”. This signifies that the level of competence of ICT Coordinators in
terms of professional domain is low. Personal attributes for the indicators are less
manifested.
135
Technology operations and concepts domain include competencies related

to technical operations and concept, and productivity of various ICT tools like
computers and communication devices as well as the applications available
online or offline. ICT coordinators in this domain satisfactorily demonstrate
knowledge and skills in basic computer operation and other information devices
including basic troubleshooting and maintenance. They are also intermediate in
using appropriate office and teaching productivity tools. They clearly understand
and effectively use the internet and network applications and resources and
satisfactorily demonstrated knowledge and skills in information and data
management.
Social and ethical domains include competencies related to social,
ethical, legal, and human issues and community linkage. ICT coordinators
intermediately understood and observed legal practices in the use of technology.
They also recognized and practiced ethical use of technology in both personal
and professional levels, appropriately planned, modeled and promoted safe and
sound technology-supported learning environment and facilitated equitable
access to technology that addresses learning, social and cultural diversity.
Figure 8. Graphical presentation of the level of competence of ICT

coordinators in the four competency domains
136
Pedagogical domain includes competencies related to the use of technology

in the following components of an instruction process: 1) planning and designing
effective learning environments and experiences supported by technology; 2)
implementing, facilitating, monitoring teaching and learning strategies that
integrate a range of information and communication technologies to promote
and enhance student learning; and 3) assessing and evaluating student learning
and performances. ICT coordinators skillfully applied technology to develop
students’ higher-order thinking skills and creativity. They adequately provide
performance tasks that require students to locate and analyze information and to
use a variety of media to communicate results. They also competently conduct
open and flexible learning environments where technology is used to support a
variety of interactions among students, cooperative learning, and peer instruction.
They amply evaluate usage of ICT integration in the teaching-learning process
and the use results to refine and design to learning activities. They use computers
and other technologies to collect and communicate information from students,
colleagues, parents, and others. Lastly, they sufficiently apply technology to
facilitate a variety of appropriate assessment and evaluation strategies recognizing
the diversity of learner.
Professional domains include competencies related to professional growth
and development, research, innovation, and collaboration. ICT coordinators
in this domain basically engage in exploring and learning new and emerging
technologies. They partially evaluate and reflect on the use of technology in the
profession for development and innovation and partly share experiences and
expertise, and halfway collaborate with peers and stakeholders in advancing the
use of technology in education and beyond.
The Relationship between the Socio-Demographic Profile of Information and

Communications Technology Coordinators and Their Level of Competence
As can be gleaned in Table 3, the mean score for male ICT coordinators
on technology operations and concept is 2.38, 2.18 for social and ethical, 1.71
for pedagogical and 1.64 for professional. On the other hand, female ICT
coordinators have a mean score of 2.14, 1.99, 1.62 and 1.33 respectively. There
is a slight numerical difference on the mean score on how the male and female
coordinators perceived their level of competence but when a chi-square test was
performed to examine whether there is a relationship between the gender of ICT
coordinators and their level of competence in the four competency domains the
result revealed and failed to indicate a significant relationship between gender
137
and technology operations and concepts (Chi-square value = 1.181, p = 0.554),

social and ethical (Chi-square value = 3.707, p = 0.157), pedagogical (Chi-square
value = 3.081, p = -0.214) and professional (Chi-square value = 2.619, p = 0.270)
respectively.
This is an implication that both male and female ICT coordinators had
the same level of competence and gender is not an indicator of one’s capability
especially in the field of Information and Communications Technology.
This finding corroborates with what Danner (2013) had reported that there
is no significant effect of gender on perceived ICT competencies scores. He added
that the perceived ICT competencies mean of the males (M= 12.830) is higher
than that of the females (M= 12.083); however, this difference is not significant
enough to conclude that males perceive themselves to be more competent ICT
users than the females.
Table 3. The relationship between gender and competence level of ICT

coordinators
Chi-
COMPETENCY Male Female
square p
DOMAIN Mean Des. Mean Des.
Value
Technology
Operations and 2.38 Intermediate 2.14 Intermediate 1.181 0.554
Concepts
Social and Ethical 2.18 Intermediate 1.99 Intermediate 3.707 0.157
Pedagogical 1.72 Intermediate 1.62 Basic 3.081 0.214
Professional 1.64 Basic 1.33 Basic 2.619 0.270
Age and Its Relationship with Competence Level of ICT Coordinators

As shown in Table 4, the correlation for technology operations and concepts,
social and ethical, pedagogical had no or negligible relationship with a coefficient
of -0.043, 0.054, 0.021 respectively and a weak negative relationship was found
for professional domains with a coefficient of -0.235. Further, results showed
that age and competence level of ICT coordinators has no significant relationship
with a p value of 0.820 for technology operations and concepts, 0.779 for social
and ethical, 0.913 for pedagogical and 0.212 for professional domain. These
findings suggest that ICT coordinators’ age has no or negligible relationship with
their level of competence in the four competency domains. This implies that
regardless of age, ICT coordinators have the same or similar level of competence.
138
The finding relates to the study of Lam (2000) who found out that in
determining whether there is a significant relationship between age and ICT
competence, no significant relationship was found with (F (8,458) =.846, p=.563).
In the same vein, the study supported the hypothesis indicating no significant
relationship between age and the level of competence of ICT coordinators.
Table 4. The relationship between age and competence level of ICT coordinators
COMPETENCY DOMAIN Pearson r Description P Value
 Technology Operations and -0.043 No relationship 0.820
Concepts
 Social and Ethical 0.054 No relationship 0.779
 Pedagogical 0.021 No relationship 0.913
 Professional -0.235 Weak negative 0.212
Educational Attainment and Its Relationship with Competence Level of ICT

Coordinators
It was found that educational attainment and technology operations
concepts had a strong positive relationship with a coefficient of 0.402*, no or
negligible relationship on social and ethical with a coefficient of 0.155, moderate
positive relationship on pedagogical with a coefficient of 0.310 and weak positive
relationship on professional domain with a coefficient of 0.262. This denotes a
small relationship between the ICT coordinators’ educational attainment and
their competence level in the four competency domains.
In addition, results also showed that ICT coordinators’ level of competence
in terms of educational attainment has no significant relationship in the four
competency domains with a p value of 0.028, 0.412, 0.095 and 0.161 respectively.
This points out that educational attainment is negligibly related to their level
of competence in the four competency domains. This suggests that educational
attainment is not a sufficient factor in determining the level of competence of an
individual in any field of concentration.
The result contradicts with Moffatt (1961) who pointed out that education
is charged with the responsibility of helping to build competence for individuals
who take their place in the society. Moreover, this fact relates to what Borghans,
Green, and Mayhew, (2001) ascribed on competence as worker’s level of formal
education and that is most often used as a proxy for his/her level of professional
competence because education is one of the mechanisms that promotes and
develops workers’ professional competence.
139
Table 5. Relationship between educational attainment and competence level of

ICT coordinators
 Technology Operations 0.402*
Strong positive
0.028
and Concepts relationship
 Social and Ethical 0.155

No relationship
0.412
Moderate positive
 Pedagogical 0.310
relationship
0.095
 Professional 0.262 Weak positive relationship 0.161
Length of Service and Its Relationship with Competence Level of ICT

Coordinators
Table 6 shows the test of relationship between the length of service and
the level of competence of ICT coordinators in the four competency domains.
It was revealed that length of service and ICT coordinators’ competence level in
the four competency domains had no correlation on the technology operations
and concepts domain, social and ethical, pedagogical and professional domain
with a coefficient of -0.191, 0.129, 0.128 and 0.115 respectively. This tended
to mean that Length of Service had “no or negligible” relationship to their level
of competence in the four competency domains. Moreover, results project that
length of service and level of competence of ICT coordinators had no significant
relationship with a p value of 0.311, 0.496, 0.499 and 0.554 respectively. This is
a clear manifestation that length of service is not a basis for assessing competence
in any career or role. It may insinuate that ICT coordinators both new and old
in the position can carry out the same task and obligation with the same level of
competence.
The result is similar to what Wang (2006) find out that no significant
relationships were derived to show academic orientation, professional
development, and length of service in teaching Mathematics as predictors of
teaching competence. Contradict to the findings of Teacher ICT Skills (Western
Australia Dept. of Education and Training, 2006) that as teaching experience
increases the average ICT competence index score decreases, from a score of 59
for teachers with less than 1-year teaching experience to 49 for teachers with
20 plus years’ experience. The newer and younger teachers are bringing ICT
skills and knowledge to the profession, whereas the more experienced, and older,
teachers are less likely to have ICT skills.
140
Table 6. The relationship between length of service and competence level of ICT
coordinators
 Technology Operations and Concepts -0.191 No relationship 0.311
 Professional 0.115 No relationship 0.554
Plantilla Position and Its Relationship with Competence Level of ICT

Coordinators
As can be gleaned in Table 7, plantilla position and ICT coordinators’ level
of competence were correlated to determine the relationship. It was revealed that
weak positive relationship was inferred on the technology operations and concepts
with a coefficient of 0.247, no or negligible relationship on social and ethical
domain with only 0.009 coefficient, no or negligible relationship on pedagogical
domain with a coefficient of only 0.140 and 0.217 coefficient for professional
domain which denotes a weak positive relationship. Correspondingly, results also
revealed that the level of competence of ICT coordinators in terms of Plantilla
position had no significant relationship with a significance value of 0.188,
0.962, 0.462 and 0.250 respectively. As indicated in the study ICT coordinators
regardless of position perform the same in school as ICT coordinator with
fundamentally or absolutely the same level of competence.
The finding is similar to what Contessa (2012) emphasized that Rank
position was weakly correlated with individual competencies and aggregated
scores for all competencies as measured by faculty evaluations. Different from the
result of the Teacher ICT Skills Journal (Western Australia Dept. of Education
and Training, 2006) that full-time teachers are significantly more competent in
ICT integration within learning than part-time / job share teachers (39% vs.
33%).
Table 7. The relationship between Plantilla position and competence level of ICT
coordinators
 Technology Operations and Concepts 0.247 Weak positive 0.188
 Professional 0.217 Weak positive 0.250
141
Test of Difference on Competence Level of ICT Coordinators Against

the Four Competency Domains as Rated by ICT Coordinators and their
Administrators
The descriptive analysis showing the mean score of the level of competence
of ICT coordinator as perceived by their school administrator and the ICT
coordinators was presented in Table 8 and Figure 9.
ICT coordinators had a high level of competence as perceived by the ICT
coordinators themselves and by their administrators in technology operations
and concepts, social and ethical and pedagogical with a mean scores of 2.28 and
2.44, 2.02 and 2.15, and 1.75 and 1.85 respectively and had a low competence
level in professional domain with a mean scores of 1.50 and 1.64.
Numerically, administrators had higher ratings than the ICT coordinators.
However, the result yields a clear manifestation that generally ICT coordinators
performed satisfactorily in their jobs. Their level of competence is at the
“intermediate level” as revealed when rated by themselves and by their
administrators in the four competency domains.
In the same table, it reveals that there is a significant difference between
the ICT coordinators’ competency level as rated by school administrator with
regards to their perceptions on the level of competence of ICT coordinators in
terms of technology operations and concepts. On the contrary, social and ethical,
pedagogical and professional domain have no significant difference.
Possessing such competence, ICT coordinators are capable of imparting
their knowledge and skills in the four competency domains not only to the
students but also to their colleagues and to the school where they were stationed.
It justifies what Tearle (2003) highlighted that ICT coordinators with strong
technological and pedagogical proficiency would be the ideal and effective
strategy in filling the role in staff development with reference to the staged
approach. Furthermore, Wong (2008) had also stated that with highly proficient
ICT coordinators, peer teachers could benefit from working under their direction
and learning from their expertise both pedagogical and technological to bridge
the needs of education and technology.
142
Table 8. Test of difference between the competence level of ICT coordinator as

perceived by the ICT Coordinators themselves and as perceived by their school
administrators
Competency Ict Coor- Administrator T Sig 5%
dinator
 Technology Operations Concepts 2.28 2.44 -2.016* 0.048
 Social and Ethical 2.02 2.15 -1.239ns 0.220
 Pedagogical 1.75 1.85 -.9310ns 0.356
 Professional 1.50 1.64 -1.103ns 0.275
Legend: 1.0 – 1.6 (Basic),

1.7 – 2.3 (Intermediate)
2.4 – 3.0 (Advanced)
* – significant
ns – not significant
Figure 9. Graphical presentation of the level of competence of ICT

coordinators as rated by ICT coordinators and administrator
CONCLUSION
ICT coordinators were intermediate on technology operations and

concepts, social and ethical, and pedagogical domains, but less competent in
143
professional domain as the result suggests. Their demographic profiles are not
a reliable basis for assessing their level of competence except for educational
attainment which shows a very significant impact. Comparative results on the
level of competence of ICT Coordinators against the assessment of their school
administrators revealed that the ICT Coordinators in the Division of Davao del
Sur possesses a high level of competence in Technology Operations and concepts.
No similar studies have been conducted in the Philippines in relation to ICT
Coordinator. ICT Coordinator in the Philippines is only a designation and not a
position included in the Personal Services Itemization and Plantilla of Personnel,
which only means, there is no fixed job description for the said position. To
effectively assess the level of competence of ICT coordinators, their roles, duties,
and functions must be properly defined based on their job description in the
Position Description Form that every permanent government official obtained
upon appointment for a permanent position. Therefore, the position ICT
Coordinator should not remain as designation, but, should be included in the
Plantilla of Personnel as a new regular item position.
The findings of this study may be best translated through the conduct of
trainings and seminars to update the ICT Coordinators with new trends and
techniques in teaching. Likewise, the Department of Education may craft a
policy to clearly define the roles and functions of ICT Coordinators in schools.
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148
Influence of Language Learning

Strategies to the English Proficiency Test
Performance of College Students
HARIETH C. CAWAGDAN – CUARTO
http://orcid.org 0000-0001-8040-4918
hariethcawagdancuarto@gmail.com
Mindoro State College of Agriculture and Technology, Philippines
EMELINDA E. RIVERA
http://orcid.org 0000-0001-7325-6144
Mindoro State College of Agriculture and Technology, Philippines
Masipit, Calapan City, Oriental Mindoro, Philippines 5200
ABSTRACT
Learning of English as second and even foreign language has been stressed
out in all levels of education. Thus, teachers and researchers have been focusing
on describing externally observable behaviors of language learners, followed
by attempts to label categorized strategic behaviors and link them to language
proficiency. This descriptive correlational study aimed to describe the extent
of learners’ use of the language learning strategies (LLS) and determine its
relationship with the English proficiency test performance of college students
(N=82). The Oxford’s Strategy Inventory Language Learning (SILL) and a
standardized College English Proficiency Test were the main instruments of the
study. Results showed that memory, metacognitive, cognitive, compensation,
organizing and evaluation and affective learning strategies do not significantly
149
affect students’ English proficiency test performance; whereas social learning

strategies is a strong predictor of students’ English proficiency test performance.
This research provides a basis for utilizing social learning strategies as an
intervention for improving students’ English proficiency.
Keywords — English as a Second and Foreign Language, Language

Learning Strategies, English proficiency, Oxford’s Strategy Inventory Language
Learning (SILL), descriptive correlation, Philippines
INTRODUCTION
The English language has been requisite to global competitiveness. For

decades now, it is a necessity for people to speak English if they are to enter a
global workforce. Thus, learning of English as second and even foreign language
has been stressed out in all levels of education. The fact that English is used as
an alternative form of communication for countries where English is not the
national language cannot be denied. In fact, some major examples include
the member nations of ASEAN countries (Toomnan, 2015). The universities
around the world highlight the strengthening of the teaching-learning process
of the language. Hence, teachers and researchers, since the 1970s have been
focusing on describing externally observable behaviors of language learners,
followed by attempts to label strategic behaviors and ultimately categorize those
strategic behaviors and link them to language proficiency (Zare, 2012). Language
proficiency is one of the traits of a good language learner, which will enable the
English language learners (ELLs) to communicate well with diverse populations
around the world. The study conducted by Rao (2012) shows that English
proficiency has a significantly positive effect on Chinese students’ strategy use.
Language learning strategies (LLS) refer to the actions learners employ to
improve the development of their language learning skills. It has been taken by
many practitioners and scholars as an effective and workable component of the
language learning process (Fewell, 2010). This has been illustrated as “special
thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn,
or retain new information”. Moreover, LLS is also taken as processes which
are consciously selected by learners that may result to activities that enhance
students’ learning of a foreign language (Zare, 2012). Several past research works
have investigated the influence of language learning strategies on the English
proficiency of language learners (Kamalizad, & Jalilzadeh, 2011; Han, 2015). The
150
study conducted by Syaifulloh (2017) reveals that LLS used by the Indonesian
EFL College students such as memory, compensation, affective and social
strategies have a weak correlation with their English proficiency. On the other
hand, English proficiency is highly correlated with cognitive and metacognitive
strategies.
Learning strategies are identified and categorized by educators and researchers
according to how the learners employ them in the process of language learning.
However, many categorizations indicate relatively significant similarities which
may be attributed to similar observations and findings but different methods
of data gathering (Chamot, 2004; Griffiths, 2004; Zare, 2012). Thus, different
taxonomies of LLS are formulated. Some of the widely known and accepted
taxonomies are the memory strategies, metacognitive and cognitive strategies,
compensation strategies, organizing and evaluating strategies, affective strategies,
and social strategies.
Memory strategies are sometimes called mnemonics which are used by
learners to make mental connections that will allow new information, most often
vocabulary, to enter and remain in long-term memory. Metacognitive strategies
reflect those expressions of an executive function, strategies. These involve
planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place,
observing one’s production or comprehension, correcting your own mistakes,
and evaluating learning after an activity is completed. Furthermore, cognitive
strategies are focusing mainly on repetition, resourcing, translation, grouping,
note taking, deduction, recombination, imagery, auditory representation,
keyword, contextualization, elaboration, transfer, and inferencing. Compensation
strategies are used to achieve his intended meaning on becoming aware of the
problems arising during the planning phase of an utterance due to the user’s
linguistic shortcomings (Ljungberg, 2011). On the other hand, socio-affective
strategies include cooperation and question for clarification (Chamot, 2004;
Fewell, 2010; Ljungberg, 2011; Zare, 2012; Zewdie, 2015).
Since researchers have formulated various LLS, an inventory of strategies
has been formulated. The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)
has been widely used in eliciting the language learning used. It is a structured
questionnaire, aiming to assess how often learners employ specific language
learning strategies. Also, SILL equips teachers with the strategy profile of their
students and uncovers to learners the kinds of strategies they resort to when
learning English as a second or foreign language (Kazamia, 2010).
151
Furthermore, the use of LLSs is found out to be meaningfully related to

language proficiency. Many researchers have already found out a significant
relationship with the learners’ use of LLS with better performance in second
language learning. The correlation they found cannot be neglected as it provides
valuable information for teachers to design appropriate teaching methods to
students with different language proficiencies (Shek & Cheung, 2013). Hence,
the knowledge of LLS for students learning English as a second language, such
as the setting in the Philippines, can provide appropriate training which may
improve their proficiency.
FRAMEWORK
This study is anchored on the theory developed by Wenden and Rubin

(1987) that second (L2) and foreign language (FL) learning strategies are
operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to reach his learning goal.
This was supported by Griffiths (2004) that language learning strategies as
a language teaching and learning tool are highly effective in carrying out overall
language learning. In the same view, Liang (2009) that the proper use of learning
strategies leads to the overall improvement of overall L2 or FL proficiency as well
as specific language skills. Learners must be aware of the different classification of
LLS that they may employ that is by their age, gender, and current communication
skill.
The purpose of this study is to describe the extent of learners’ use of the
LLS and the English proficiency of college students. It also tried to determine the
relationship between the use of the given LSS and the students’ performance in
College English Proficiency Test.
METHODOLOGY
This study used the descriptive-correlational method of research. A total

of 82 college students were chosen as the respondents of the study using the
stratified random sampling technique. A standardized questionnaire which is
the Strategy Inventory Language Learning (SILL) (Oxford, 1989) was used to
describe the extent of use of use of language learning strategies. The College
152
Proficiency Test was used as the research instrument for measuring the students’
English proficiency. This was content validated by English language experts and
has undergone reliability test. It has a reliability coefficient of Cronbach alpha
of 0.92, described as highly reliable. Frequency count, mean and Pearson’s r of
variance were used as statistical tools for analyzing and interpreting the data
gathered in this study.
The study was limited to the use of language learning strategies defined
in SILL by Oxford (1989). Other learning strategies for learning English as a
foreign language or as a second language were not included in the study.
Use of Language Learning Strategies

Regarding the use of memory strategies, results showed that respondents
use it moderately in language learning as indicated by the overall mean of 3.24.
Data further revealed that item number three (rank 1) which states that I connect
the sound of a new SL word and an image or picture of the word to help me
remember the word, obtained the highest mean score of 3.57, described as high.
On the other hand, item number 6 (rank 9), which states I use flashcards to
remember new SL words, gained the lowest mean score of 2.51, described as
moderate.
Based on the finding, it can be inferred that students remember SL words
they encountered when there are actual preset pictures of the words, and not
merely when they are the ones to create a picture or mental image of an SL
word heard or read. This may be a result of frequent use of PowerPoint (PPT)
presentations in English subjects. In turn, the students ask for the softcopy of
the PPT which they print out or open in their electronic gadgets for review
and reference. Thus, lessening their opportunities for writing notes based on
their memory. This result is consistent with those found by Griffiths (2004) who
found out that pictures and other visual materials are efficient aids in language
learning. This also conforms to the studies of Chen (2015), Chiu (2014) and
Yang (2007) which showed that the learners utilized memory strategies more
frequently. Moreover, according to Lee and Heinz (2016), memory strategies
can help students remember language elements, but they need to be tied with
the meaning, otherwise it may lead to the unsuccessful acquisition of new words.
153
Table 1.1. Mean Perception on the Level of the Use of Memory Strategies
Items Mean Rank Description
I think of relationships between what I already know and
3.46 3 Moderate
new things I learn in the SL.
I use new SL words in a sentence, so I can remember them. 3.45 4 Moderate
I connect the sound of a new SL word and an image or
3.57 1 High
picture of the word to help me remember the word.
I remember a new SL word by making a mental picture of a
3.55 2 High
situation in which the word might be used.
I use rhymes to remember new SL words. 3.16 6.5 Moderate
I use flashcards to remember new SL words. 2.51 9 Moderate
I physically act out new SL words. 2.99 8 Moderate
I review SL lessons often. 3.16 6.5 Moderate
I remember new SL words or phrases by remembering their
3.34 5 Moderate
location on the page, on the board, or on a street sign.
Overall Mean: 3.24

Description: Moderate
Results, tend to show that item number 6 (rank 1) which states, I watch
SL language TV shows spoken in SL or go to movies spoken in SL, got the
highest mean score of 3.65, described as high. Likewise, item number 13 which
states, I try not to translate word for word gained the lowest mean score of 3.27,
described as moderate.
Respondents use moderate level of cognitive and metacognitive strategies
in language learning as indicated by the overall mean of 3.40. Based on this
finding, it implies that respondents enjoy English movies. However, it seems
that they do not rely much on the complete dialogue for getting the translation
of the conversations in the movie, rather, they find a familiar SL word and relate
the actions with it to generalize what is happening in each scene. The findings
conform to Liang’s (2009) that adults learn grammar better than children and
tend to apply it in more sophisticated situations. Moreover, it also conforms
Chen’s (2015) findings that metacognitive strategies were less frequently used
by the learners which indicate that they lack English learning motivation. On
the other hand, it contradicts the study conducted by Lee and Heinz (2016)
which showed that the metacognitive strategies are frequently used as effective
strategies. These strategies help the learners in planning, directing and organizing
for their language learning.
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Table 1.2. Mean Perception on the Level of Use of Cognitive and Metacognitive
Strategies
I say or write new SL words several times. 3.30 12.5 Moderate
I try to talk like native SL speakers. 3.32 10 Moderate
I practice the sounds of SL. 3.46 4 Moderate
I use the SL words I know in different ways. 3.45 5 Moderate
I start conversations in the SL. 3.30 12.5 Moderate
I watch SL language TV shows spoken in SL or go
3.65 1 High
to movies spoken in SL.
I read for pleasure in the SL. 3.37 8 Moderate
I write notes, messages, letters, or reports in the SL. 3.54 2 High
I first skim an SL passage (read the passage
3.41 6 Moderate
quickly) then go back and read carefully.
I look for words in my language that are similar to
3.39 7 Moderate
new words in the SL.
I try to find patterns in the SL. 3.38 8 Moderate
I find the meaning of an SL word by dividing it
3.34 9 Moderate
into parts that I understand.
I try not to translate word for word. 3.27 14 Moderate
I make summaries of information that I hear or
3.52 3 High
read in the SL.

Overall mean: 3.40
Among the indicators, item number 6 (rank 1) which states, If I can’t think
of an SL word, I use a word or phrase that means the same thing, obtained the
highest mean score of 3.63, described as high. Similarly, item number 4 which
states, I read SL without looking up every new word, got the lowest mean score
of 2.99, described as moderate.
Respondents employ moderate level of compensation strategies as indicated
by the overall mean score of 3.67. The finding implies that the students do not
see a need for using reference materials to find the meaning of the new words they
encounter. This may also imply that the interest of the respondents in developing
their vocabulary is low. This can be attributed to the study of Song and Cheng
(2009) which showed that compensation strategies were the most frequently used
by the learners.
155
Table 1.3. Mean Perception on the Level of Use of Compensation Strategies

Moderate
To understand unfamiliar SL words, I make guesses. 3.45 3
When I can’t think of a word during a conversation

3.59 2 High
in the SL, I use gestures.
I make up new words if I do not know the right
3.24 5 Moderate
ones in the SL.
I read SL without looking up every new word. 2.99 6 Moderate
I try to guess what the other person will say next
3.34 4 Moderate
in the SL.
If I can’t think of an SL word, I use a word or
3.63 1 High
phrase that means the same thing.
Overall Mean: 3.37

The results showed that item number 4 (rank 1) which states, I try to find
out how to be a better learner of SL, gained the highest mean score of 3.93,
described as high. On the other hand, item number 5 (rank 9) which states, I
plan my schedule, so I will have enough time to study SL, got the lowest mean
score of 3.05, described as moderate.
The respondents use a high level of organization and evaluation strategies
to learn the language as indicated by the overall mean of 3.54. The finding
implies that respondents are aware that they can become a better user of SL
through on their own. However, the interest in making the enhancement and
corrective measures on their learning is gleaned to do not equal their awareness
of methods they know. This finding agrees with Rao’s (2012) which posited that
these learning strategies are the foundation for self-monitoring and self-direction
of the learners.
Table 1.4. Mean Perception on the Level of Use of Organizing and Evaluation
Strategies
I try to find as many ways as I can to use my SL. 3.55 6 High
I notice my SL mistakes and use that information to help
3.80 2 High
me do better.
I pay attention when someone is speaking SL. 3.79 3 High
156
I try to find out how to be a better learner of SL. 3.93 1 High

I plan my schedule so I will have enough time to study SL. 3.05 9 Moderate
I look for people I can talk to in SL. 3.17 8 Moderate
I look for opportunities to read as much as possible in SL. 3.39 7 Moderate
I have clear goals for improving my SL skills. 3.59 4.5 High
I think about my progress in learning SL. 3.59 4.5 High
Overall Mean: 3.54

Description: High
From the findings, item number 2 (rank 1) which states, I encourage myself
to speak English even when I am afraid of making a mistake, obtained the highest
mean score of 3.84, described as high. However, item number 5 which states, I
write down my feelings in a language learning diary, got the lowest mean score of
2.76, described as moderate.
Respondents use moderate level of affective strategy to learn language as
indicated by the overall mean of 3.34. This is maybe because there is the existence
of high tolerance of communication mistakes given to them by instructors. The
finding moreover implies that the respondents got a high level of confidence in
speaking SL that they do not see a need for additional outlet for their feelings
and emotion regarding the development in the use of language. In the study
conducted by Chu (2012), results showed that the second most frequently used
strategy is the Affective Strategy. Moreover, this contradicts the result of the study
conducted by Chen (2015) which reveals that the least strategy used by students
was affective strategy because many students are worried that people may correct
the mistakes they made in learning English.
Table 1.5. Mean Perception on the Level of Use of Affective Strategies

I try to relax whenever I feel afraid of using SL. 3.40 3 Moderate
I encourage myself to speak English even when I am afraid of making
3.84 1 High
a mistake.
I reward myself or treat when I do well in English. 3.33 4 Moderate
I notice if I am tense or nervous when I am studying or using English. 3.56 2 High
I write down my feelings in a language learning diary. 2.76 6 Moderate
I talk to someone else about how I feel when I am learning English. 3.13 5 Moderate
Overall Mean: 3.34
157
Results showed that item number 1 (rank 1) which states, If I do not

understand something in English, I ask the other person to slow down or say it
again, obtained the highest mean score of 3.73, described as high. Likewise, item
number 4 which states, I practice English with other students, got the lowest
mean score of 3.41, described as moderate.
Data revealed that respondents employ a high level of social learning
strategy in language learning as indicated by the overall mean of 3.57. Based on
this finding, it can be inferred that students are comfortable with the only people
requiring them to use SL in communicating, who are their instructors. Active
participation in classrooms enable the students to learn through interaction
with others. This finding coincides to the study of Rao (2012) which states that
the students can learn directly from each other during negotiation. This also
conforms to the studies conducted by Green and Oxford (1995), Politzer and
McGroarty (1985), Rao (2002) and Wharton (2000).
Table 1.6. Mean Perception on the Level of Use of Social Learning Strategies
If I do not understand something in English, I ask the other
3.73 1 High
person to slow down or say it again.
I ask English speakers to correct me when I talk. 3.46 5 Moderate
I practice English with other students. 3.41 6 Moderate
I ask for help from English speakers. 3.55 4 High
I ask questions in English. 3.57 3 High
I try to learn about the culture of English speakers. 3.67 2 High
Overall Mean: 3.57

Description: High
Level of English Proficiency

As reflected from the results, there were 39 (47.6%) who obtained grades
of 74 and below. Thirty-one (37.8%) of the students got grades of 75 – 79 while
ten (12.2%) obtained 80 – 84, and two (2.4%) got 85 – 89 marks. None of the
students got a grade of 90 and above.
Students achieved low performance in English as borne out of the mean
grade of 75.00. Moreover, results showed that the students need remediation
in the use of appropriate verb tenses and subject and verb agreement. Thus,
this means that the respondents are not proficient in English. This conforms to
the study of Nayan and Jusoff (2009) which showed that some of the students
158
still possess problems in the usage of subject-verb agreement. With this, it is

recommended that remedial actions should be taken to help them to function
well in English.
Table 2. Respondents’ Level of Proficiency in English

Performance Frequency Percentage
90 and above 0 0.0
85 - 89 2 2.4
80 - 84 10 12.2
75 - 79 31 37.8
74 and below 39 47.6
Mean: 75.00
Description: Low
Relationship between Language Learning Strategies and English Proficiency

Among the language learning strategies, only social learning strategy
(p-value=0.024) has a significant relationship with the students’ proficiency test.
This means that communicating with peers and classmates help the students
considerably in becoming proficient in English. Moreover, the coefficient of
determination (r2) indicates that 69.39% of the variance in the students’ English
proficiency test performance is attributed to the extent of use of social learning
strategy of the students.
On the other hand, memory, cognitive and metacognitive, compensation,
organizing and evaluation, and affective strategies were deemed to be not significant
in the students’ English proficiency test performance. This contradicts the study
conducted by Chu (2012) which showed that there was a high correlation between
the five learning strategies (Memory, Compensation, Cognitive, Metacognitive
and Social) and student’s English Academic achievement. Affective strategies
showed moderate correlation but it was the second most frequently used strategy
by the learners. Moreover, in the study of Song and Cheng (2009), memory and
retrieval strategies showed a significant effect on language test performance which
also conforms to the study of Purpura’s (1999).
159
Table 3. Correlational Analysis of Language Learning Strategies and Students’

English Proficiency Test Performance
DV: English Proficiency Test Performance
IV: Language Learning Strategies
r - value r2 P-value Result
Memory Strategy 0.127 0.0161 0.257 Not Significant

Cognitive and Metacognitive Strategy 0.175 0.0306 0.115 Not Significant
Compensation Strategy -0.30 0.09 0.79 Not Significant
Organizing and Evaluation Strategy 0.137 0.0188 0.221 Not Significant
Affective Strategy 0.117 0.0137 0.295 Not Significant
Social Learning Strategy 0.833 0.6939 0.024 Significant
CONCLUSIONS
College students practice a high level of social learning strategy. However,

their feedback on the use of memory, cognitive and metacognitive, compensation,
organizing and evaluation, and affective strategies, respectively, suggest reluctance
on the use of these strategies. Regarding the English proficiency test, respondents
have shown a low level of performance. Moreover, it can be seen that social
learning strategy is significantly related to the students’ English proficiency.
A self-learning instructional material (SIM) emphasizing on social learning

strategy was developed and has been initially utilized by the first year students of
the college.
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163
Cooperative-Collaborative
Learning in Enhancing Creative
Writing Performance
DANDY G. ACUIN
http://orcid.org 0000-0002-2652-9012
dandyacuin1981@gmail.com
Leyte National High School- Senior High School
Tacloban City, Philippines
MONA LISA D. PETALLANA

modpetallana@yahoo.com
GERALDINE C. ESPERAS
esperasgeraldine46@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Writing is among the communication skills covered in both Filipino and

English language teaching that every learner should develop at any level of
education in the Philippines. However, teaching creative writing skills continues
to be a very challenging task for teachers. It is a challenge, therefore, for teachers
to motivate students to write. More so, it is a challenge for students to write
164
creatively. Using the action research design, this study aimed to test and examine
the effectiveness of cooperative-collaborative learning using the specific strategy,
Team Pair Solo, in enhancing their creative writing skills. Triangulation is also
used in this study to examine, verify, and cross-check the data at different angles
such as observation, analysis of the pre and post writing composition, and from
the interviews of the students. The finding shows positive effects of cooperative-
collaborative learning in enhancing creative writing performance among the
students. It is recommended that cooperative-collaborative learning strategy
(Team Pair Solo) should be used in teaching to enhance the creative writing
skills of students. It is further recommended that other cooperative-collaborative
learning strategies be studied for the same purpose.
Keywords — Cooperative-Collaborative Learning, creative writing, action

research design, learning styles, strategies and outcome, Philippines
INTRODUCTION
Writing is one of the important parts of communication skills that every

student should develop at any level of education. Nowadays, writing has a huge
part in every student’s life, starting with the simplest content to the most complex
writing pieces. They are asked to craft different types of essays, research papers
and other kinds of creative writing tasks. It is a skill that students will need for the
future that is why it is vital to develop. Unfortunately, majority of the students
still fail to improve their writing skills even after finishing schools (Anderson,
2017).
In the Philippines, students are expected to cultivate their writing skills,
both in Filipino and English language. However, developing writing skills is also
a problem for teachers and students in the country. According to Villafuerte and
Bernales (2008), writing a composition continues to be a problem at any level of
education in the Philippines. Teachers have problems in motivating students to
write a composition and more so to students on how to write it. Consequently,
to address the matter, many scholars promote the use of cooperative-collaborative
learning strategy in teaching because of its effectiveness in enhancing students’
performance. Cooperative-collaborative learning is defined as a teaching method
where the students work together as a team in the assigned task while the teacher
acts as a facilitator. D.W. Johnson, R.T. Johnson, and Smith (2006) believe
that cooperative learning can improve student’s performance compared to the
conventional method of teaching.
165
The study is undertaken to test the effectiveness of cooperative-collaborative

learning strategy in enhancing creative writing skills. Furthermore, the study
validates the importance of cooperative-collaborative in enhancing students’
performance in creative writing among the Grade 12 students of Leyte National
High School- Senior High, Tacloban City, Philippines.
FRAMEWORK
Lev Vygotsky (1980) believes that students are capable of performing at

higher intellectual levels when asked to work in collaborative situations than
when asked to work individually. He also added that when a student is at a
particular task, and provided with appropriate assistance (scaffolding), it will give
the students enough boost to achieve the task. Once the student masters the
task, the scaffolding can then be removed and then the students will be able to
complete the task again on their own.
The study is composed of three phases: The pre-writing assessment,
cooperative-collaborative learning (Team Pair Solo) and the post writing
assessment phase. The researcher administered a pre-writing to students
involved in the study to determine the level of writing skills of each student in
the Filipino language. The result of this served as the baseline of heterogeneous
grouping. The cooperative-collaborative learning (Team Pair Solo) strategy was
then administered as an intervention. Finally, the post-writing assessment was
conducted to determine the progress of the students in their written output.
Figure 1. Research Paradigm
166
This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of cooperative-collaborative

learning in creative writing composition among students of section 12-
MAKABANSA of Leyte National High School- Senior High School, Tacloban
City, S.Y. 2017-2018. The study also sought to: 1) Determine the level of
writing skills of the students before and after teaching the composition using the
cooperative-collaborative (Team Pair Solo) learning strategy based on 1.1 Focus
and Detail; 1.2 Organizations; 1.3 Writer’s Voice; 1.4 Choosing Appropriate
Words; 1.5 Structures, Grammars, Punctuation, and Spelling; 2) Test the
effectiveness of cooperative-collaborative (Team Pair Solo) learning strategy in
enhancing the students writing skills based on the grade of their composition
before and after teaching the composition; and, 3) Identify the strengths and
weaknesses of the cooperative-collaborative strategy (Team Pair Solo) learning
based on the attitude and perspectives of the students.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This study is an Action Research which consist of process of planning,
conducting, observation and reflection as proposed by Fraenkel and Wallen
(1993). This study also used Triangulation to examine data at different angles
such as observation of participants, review of compositions and interview of the
participants.
Participants of the Study

Together with the researchers, forty-two (42) students of Grade 12-
MAKABANSA of Leyte National High School-Senior High School, Tacloban
City of S.Y 2017-2018 were involved in this study. For Focus Group Discussion
(FGD), ten (10) students were selected using random sampling.
Instrumentation
The proposed writing marking guide (Rubrics) of Santos, Jocson and Perez
(2016) using five criteria as follows: 1.) focus and detail, 2.) organization, 3.)
voice of the writer, 4.) choice of appropriate words, and 5.) structure, grammar,
punctuation, and spelling was used in reviewing and marking the composition
of the students. Each criterion is given 10 points as the highest score, 6 points
167
in succession, followed by 3 points and the lowest points is 1. The score each
student gets in their composition was given the corresponding grade based on the
latest DepEd Department Order (D.O. # 8 s. 2015). The grades obtained by each
student are grouped into the following description; 1.) Outstanding (90-100),
2.) Very Satisfactory (85-89), 3.) Satisfactory (80-84), 4.) Fairly Satisfactory (75-
79) at. 5.) Did Not Meet Expectation (Below 75), it is still in compliance with
the Order of Order as 8 series 2015.
The content and activities of the lesson plan done by the researcher were
consulted by the Head Teacher of the General Academic Strand and two teachers
teaching Filipino for evaluation. The practice of writing the persuasive texts used
by the researcher is reflected in the Curriculum Guide of the subject Pagbasa at
Pagsusuri ng Iba’t Ibang Teksto Tungo sa Pananaliksik.
The review focused on the writing compositions written by the students
before and after teaching the composition using the cooperative-collaborative
(Team Pair Solo) strategy of learning. A self-made questionnaire was used for
Focus Group Discussion.
Data Collection
Students were tested on a writing composition cycle composed of pre-writing
assessment and post-writing assessment using the cooperative-collaborative
(Team Pair Solo) strategy of learning. The result of the pre-writing assessment
was the basis of the grouping of students to form the heterogeneous grouping.
The focus group discussion was then conducted to test and validate the results of
the students’ compositions. Five students were selected for focus group discussion
using random sampling.
Data Analysis
Frequency count and percentages were used in this study.
The level of writing skills of students before and after teaching the
composition using the cooperative-collaborative (Team Pair Solo) learning
strategy
168
Table 1. Level of Writing Skills Before Teaching the Creative Composition Using
Cooperative- Collaborative (Team Pair Solo)
Total
Criteria Mean Grade Description
Score
Focus and Detail 159 37.90 69% Did Not Meet Expectation
Organization 91 21.70 65% Did Not Meet Expectation
Writers Voice 134 31.90 67% Did Not Meet Expectation
Choosing Appropriate
127 30.20 67% Did Not Meet Expectation
Words
Structure, Grammars,
Punctuations, and 131 31.20 67% Did Not Meet Expectation
Spelling
Table 1 shows the results of the writing skill level analysis before teaching the
composition using cooperative-collaborative (Team Pair Solo) learning strategies.
The table shows that all the criteria are in the description of “Did Not Meet
Expectation.” The result shows the poor writing performance of the students in
the individual writing output. The individual task has a low effect on students’
writing performance. The result is supported by the findings of the study by
Storch (2005) stating that students who had worked in pairs had produced
better texts than texts written by individuals in terms of complexity, accuracy
and fluency. Johnson et al. (2006) performed a meta-analysis of 168 studies
comparing cooperative learning to competitive learning and individualistic
learning among college students. They found that cooperative learning produced
greater academic achievement than both competitive learning and individualistic
learning across the studies.
Table 2. Level of Writing Skills after Teaching the Creative Composition Using
Cooperative- Collaborative (Team Pair Solo)
Total
Criteria Mean Grade Description
Score
Focus and Detail 313 74.50 84% Satisfactory
Organization 283 67.40 79% Fairly Satisfactory
Writers Voice 339 80.70 87% Very Satisfactory
Choosing Appropriate Words 338 80.50 87% Very Satisfactory
Structures, Grammars,
265 63.10 76% Fairly Satisfactory
Punctuation, and Spelling
169
Table 2 shows the result of the writing skill level analysis on the students’
writing composition after teaching the composition using the cooperative-
collaborative (Team Pair Solo) learning strategy. The table shows that Focus and
Details are in the Satisfactory description. The Writer’s Voice and Choosing the
Appropriate Words are in the Very Satisfactory description. While the critical
organizations and structures, grammars, punctuation, and spelling are in the
Fairly Satisfactory description. The result shows a significant increase in the
students’ performance after the integration of the cooperative-collaborative (Team
Pair Solo) learning strategy. This result is in agreement with the findings of the
study of Gokhale (1995) that students who participated in collaborative learning
had performed significantly better than students who studied individually. The
result is also supported by a study conducted by Kagan and High (2002) which
showed that students performed better in writing when cooperative learning was
incorporated in the classroom. In the study of Keshavarz, Shahrokhi, and Negad
(2014), the implementation of cooperative learning in writing has been proven
to produce positive effects in students’ learning in writing.
Table 3. Effectiveness of Cooperative-Collaborative (Team Pair Solo) in

Enhancing the Students Writing Skills based on the Grade of their Composition
Before and After Teaching the Composition
Number of Students Percentage
Description Grading Scale
Before After Before After
Outstanding 90-100 0 10 23.81% 23.81%
Very Satisfactory 85-89 0 10 23.81% 23.81%
Satisfactory 80-84 2 15 35.71% 35.71%
Fairly Satisfactory 75-79 7 7 16.67% 16.67%
Did Not Meet
Below 75 33 0 0 0%
Expectation
TOTAL 42 42 100% 100%
Table 3 shows that most of the students involved in the study before
teaching the composition or the pre-writing are included in the “Did Not Meet
Expectation” description with 33 and 78.57% of the total. The Fairly Satisfactory
description comprises a total of seven (7) students and a percentage of 16.67%
satisfactory description with two (2) counts and a percentage of 4.76%. No
students got a score that is included in the Outstanding and Very Satisfactory
170
description. This table also shows the significant increase in the grades of
students after teaching the composition or the post-writing using that strategy.
After teaching the composition using Team Pair Solo, none of the students have
earned or been included in the “Did Not Meet Expectation” description. The
result shows that students performed significantly better after the integration of
cooperative-collaborative (Team Pair Solo) learning strategy. This result affirms
with the learning theory of Vygotsky (1980) that students have the capability
of performing at higher intellectual levels when asked to work in collaborative
situations than when asked to work individually. The result is also supported
in the study of Siddique and Singh (2016) that cooperative learning strategy is
effective in enhancing students’ essay writing skills.
Strengths and weaknesses of the cooperative-collaborative strategy (Team

Pair Solo) learning based on the attitude and perspective of the students
In the focus group discussion (FGD), the first question; 1.) Has the strategy/
activity helped you in enhancing your writing skills? All students answered “Yes”
as a positive response to a group activity. In the second question; 2.) How did
the strategy/activity help you with your writing skills? Almost everyone involved
said that they have added and given a new idea of their
knowledge of the subject
through collaborative sharing of knowledge. The third question; 3.) Are there
problems you face in writing your creative composition using cooperative-
collaborative (Team Pair Solo) strategy? Participants have two responses. Four
(4) said nothing because all the members cooperated well. Six (6) answered there
is because of different ideas but at the end they find ways to find a solution and in
the end agrees on the topic. The result conforms to the idea of Bruner (1985) that
cooperative learning methods improve problem-solving strategies because the
students are confronted with different views and opinion of the given situation.
The peer support system makes it possible for the learner to internalize both
external knowledge and critical thinking skills. Harmer (2001) also believes that
writing in groups is effective. Students found the activity motivating in terms of
the writing itself.
CONCLUSION
Based on the results of this study, the cooperative-collaborative strategy

has been effective in enhancing the writing skills of the students in developing
a creative composition that conforms to the responses of the students in the
171
FGD. Students had an increase of grades in their composition after teaching the
composition using cooperative-collaborative (Team Pair Solo) learning strategy.
The findings of the study may be best translated to teachers to incorporate

cooperative-collaborative learning (Team Pair Solo) strategy in teaching especially
in enhancing creative writing skills. Furthermore, other cooperative-collaborative
learning strategies may be used in enhancing creative writing skills. This study
will also contribute to the existing body of literature in affirming the effectiveness
of using of cooperative-collaborative learning strategy in enhancing students’
performance. This study may also be presented as a topic during LEAP session or
INSET training of teachers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The researchers would like to thank the Department of Education of the

Philippines for funding this research through The Basic Education Research
Fund (BERF). Gratitude is also due to Dr. Ramil Uytico, Deped Regional
Director-Region VIII and Dr. Thelma C. Quitalig, Division Superintendent-
Tacloban City Division for their considerable academic support and highest
encouragement they had given to the researchers.
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Anderson, S. (March 30, 2017). Common Writing Challenges High-School

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Bruner, J. (1985). Vygotsky: An historical and conceptual perspective. Culture,

communication, and cognition: Vygotskian perspectives, 21-34. London:
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Fraenkel, J., & Wallen, N. (1993). How to design and evaluate research in
education: 8th edition. Mc Graw Hill Inc. https://goo.gl/sW84dh
Gokhale, A. (1995). Collaborative learning enhances critical thinking. Journal

of Technology Education. https://goo.gl/v8SPGM
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Harmer, J. (2001). The practice of English language teaching. London/New York.

https://goo.gl/xqYd76
Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Smith, K.A. (2006). Active learning:
Cooperation in the university classroom (3rd edition). Edina, MN:
Interaction. https://goo.gl/yVVxrb
Kagan, S. & High, J. (2002). Kagan structures for English language learners.
Kagan Online Magazine. http: www.KaganOnline.com
Keshavars, S.M. Shahrokhi, M. & Talebi Negad, M.R. (2014). The effect of
cooperative learning techniques on promoting writing skill of Iranian
EFL learners. International Journal of Language Learning and Applied
Linguistics World (ISLLALW: www.ijllalw.org https://goo.gl/ikeCT6
Santos C., Jocson S. D., & Perez, A. J. (2016). Filipino sa piling larang-
akademic:Patnubay ng guro. Pasig City: DepEd- BLR. Retrieved from
http://depedligaocity.net/fil_tgtvl_final_v3_060816.pdf
Siddique, M. & Singh, M. (2016). Effectiveness of cooperative learning in

enhancing students’ essay writing skills in Pakistani colleges. International
Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention. www.ijhhsi.org/v5(8)
version-3/L0508036870.pdf
Storch, N. (2005). Collaborative writing: Product, process, and students’

reflections. Journal of Second Language Writing, 14(3), 153–173. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2005.05.002
Villafuerte, P., at Bernales, J. (2008). Pagtuturo ng/sa Filipino: Mga teorya at

praktika. Valenzuela City: Mutya Publishing House. Inc. http://koha.nlp.
gov.ph/cgi-bin/koha/opac-ISBDdetail.pl?bib=410370
Vygotsky, L. (1980). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological

processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. https://goo.gl/oeBr2o
173
The Validity of Astronomical Calculation

in Determining the Lunar Month
ÁLEEM MORAD S. UMPA
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4230-5331
msumpa594@gmail.com
Mindanao State University
Marawi City
ABSTRACT
Astronomical calculations, in the view of the majority of jurists, rest on mere

assumptions and are hypothetical in nature. Therefore, significant acts of worship
such as the beginning and end of the month of Ramadhān cannot be determined
by calculations. The study aimed to validate the astronomical calculation in
determining the beginning of new lunar month in connection with Islamic acts of
worship. The study utilized descriptive and qualitative research method through
in-depth study of printed and internet sources. Results showed that sighting and
calculations are complementary and both are needed. Calculations to negate false
sighting is used, but not to completely replace sighting. Thus, if the calculations
say with certainty that Hilāl cannot be visible, then we should reject or negate
the false sighting and reduce errors. Since astronomical calculations, especially
on the birth of new Moon, are absolutely precise, the claim that a consensus
exists among all the Muslim jurists regarding absolute mistrust of astronomical
calculations, in all forms and ways, related to the beginning and ending of
the Islāmic months are unfounded, though the majority adopted that opinion
because of the uncertainties connected with calculations in their times. Although
174
calculations alone cannot be used to determine the start of the new lunar month,
this does not mean that we should disregard it. It is completely wrong to ignore
the information gained through astronomical calculation as this does not, in
reality, contradict Islamic teachings. Henceforth, the astronomical calculation is
valid in Islam as its prohibitions are merely due to misconceptions.
Keywords — Astronomical calculation, moon sighting, lunar month,

qualitative study, Islamic communities
INTRODUCTION
All praise and thanks are due to Alláh alone, the One, the All-High, and
All-Merciful. Blessings and peace be upon Prophet Muhammad, the last of His
messengers and prophets, his family, Companions and all those who follow in his
footsteps till the end of time.
Islām does not oppress the sound minds, the renewable life, or evolution
which is one of the laws of life and nature. It does not oppose any true scientific
theory, or any matter decided by the human mind to survive. It does not cancel
contemporary systems or scientific progress as long as its foundation rests on
Islāmic conception, together with the true Islāmic application that serve the needs
of the present time.
It is true that the Qur’ān and the Sunnah being the primary sources of
Islāmic law are fixed and unchangeable. However, it has the inherent capacity
to accommodate changes in society. Such ability is realized in the principles of
Ijtihād being the basis of movement in Islām.
There are changeable matters in human life which do not remain and
go on as they are exposed to events, calamities, and various times, places and
environments. With regard to these matters, Islām has a wise stand. It enlightens
their different sides. It emphasises and concentrates on the laws which control
them, and when they and their proofs are manifested and became clear, Islām
leaves the parts, the branches, and the secondary matters to the specialists on
legislation who know their general and specific meanings, and who understand
the time they live in for interpretation and application.1 What is needed in this
sense to confront the challenge of modernity is a comprehensive approach to the
law, in its totality.
1
The Characteristic of Islāmic Thought, p. 27
175
Astronomical calculations, in the view of the majority of jurists, rest on

mere assumptions and are hypothetical in nature. Therefore, significant acts of
worship such as the beginning and end of the month of Ramadhān cannot be
determined by calculations.
In such case, it is proper to consult experts, or the very learned persons to
see whether the matter concerned is in accordance with Islām and its axioms or
not. They are to decide whether to accept or refuse it accordingly. They have to
look for solutions to the problems at hand and have to enrich human knowledge.
For instance, in the past, the Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him]
together with his companions fought their enemies with swords, spears, and
arrows. At present, is it right to put our modern weapons aside and fight the
enemies with swords, spears, and arrows?
A true example from Islāmic history is that when the companions of the
blessed Muhammad were fighting their enemy (before the battle of Yarmūk) they
took their position in lines as they were standing in prayer. But Khālid ibn al-
Walīd, who was asked by the caliph ‘Umar ibn al-Khattāb to proceed from Irāq
to Syria to take the command of the Muslim army, reached the place, came over
a hill, and saw that the enemies were divided in squadrons. He directly made a
plan, and in the same way, then he fought the Romans and defeated them by the
will of Allāh. On that glorious day, Khālid ibn al-Walīd did not fight according
to the plan of the lines used by the blessed Muhammad and his companion Abū
Bakr. So, did that change in the military plan cause any harm to Ibn al-Walīd?
FRAMEWORK
In Islamic parlance, the months are composed of either 29 or 30 days only.

This can be ascertained by the practice of the Prophet Muhammad [peace be
upon him] of sighting the Hilal on the 29th day of the month. Furthermore, the
times of prayers were based on the actual estimation of the sun’s position on the
horizon.
These are all strongly based in the Qur’ān which is full of reflections on the
Heaven and Earth. The verses referring to the Creation already contain a broad
idea of what is to be found in the heavens, i.e., of everything outside the earth.
Apart from the verses that specifically describe the creation, let us remind
ourselves about the relevant verses of the Holy Qur’ān on this subject, and we must
remember what modern knowledge has to say about the evolution of the stars
in general and the Sun in particular, and the celestial bodies that automatically
176
followed its movement through space, among them the Moon. Allāh says:
[And He has made subservient to you, from Himself, all that is in the
heavens and on earth; in this behold, there are signs indeed for people who
think!]2
[And He has made the sun and the moon, both constantly pursuing their
courses, to be of service to you; and He has made the night and the day, to
be of service to you.]3
As to secondary rules that change in time, we select what suits our time and
get the benefit from jurisprudence, or from the other matters; because wisdom is
the aim of the faithful person.
The foregoing principle, is in short, the basis for the use and application
of scientific methods for calculating the appearance of the new moon. Thereby
giving us a valid framework in trying to validate astronomical calculation in
Islam.
The Astronomical New moon

The Qur’ān gives an end to the sun for its evolution and a destination
place. It also provides the moon with a settled place. To understand the possible
meanings of these statements, we must remember what modern knowledge has
to say about the evolution of the stars in general and the sun in particular, and the
celestial bodies that automatically followed its movement through space, among
them the moon.
The Qur’ān states:
[The one Who created the night, the day, the sun and the moon. Each one
is travelling in an orbit with its own motion.] 4
The Astronomical New Moon is known as New Moon Birth or Conjunction.

It is the moment of time when the earth, sun, and moon are in the same plane.
In scientific terms, the Birth of New Moon is the time when sun’s ecliptic
longitude and moon’s ecliptic longitude are the same with reference to the center
2 Al-Qur’ān, Sūrat al-Jāthiyah, 45:1
3 Al-Qur’ān, Sūrat Ibrāhīm, 14:33
4 Al-Qur’ān, Sūrat Al-Anbiyā’, 21:33
177
of the earth. This could happen at any moment from 0:00 hours to 23:59 hours
Universal Time (GMT), and at that moment the moon is dark as seen from the
earth. So, you can also think of a “New Moon” as “Dark Moon” or “Invisible
Moon.”5 At this moment the sunlight falling on the moon cannot come to the
earth.
The moon is totally a dark object; it does not have any light of its own. It
merely reflects the sunlight falling upon it. When the sun is on the opposite side
of the moon, looking from earth, the side of the moon facing earth is completely
dark, and we cannot see this moon for about 36 hours every month. On all other
days, the moon is at a different angle from the sun and we see different phases
of the moon. It rises and sets because of the curvature of the earth as the earth
revolves around its own axis.
The astronomical new moon happens when the moon comes between
the earth and the sun, and that new moon cannot be seen even by the most
sophisticated telescope. That is why it is called the invisible moon because its
lighted portion is towards the sun and the dark portion is towards the earth.
SIGHTING AND CALCULATIONS
Muslim astronomers in this age of technology are now in a position to

calculate the dates for possible or impossible moon sighting. So the validity of
sighting claims can be easily verified for correct moon sighting.
In the matters of confirming or negating the Islāmic months, especially
the month of Ramadhān, it is determined by the sighting of Hilāl. The Prophet
[peace and blessings be upon him] has said, “Fast at its sighting, and terminate the
fast at its sighting.”6 This hadīth is an explicit proof-text that the month is based
on sighting, and not on calculation.
Sighting is required in starting and stopping the acts of worship based upon
certainty. According to the majority of the jurists, the sighting of the new moon is
required by Islāmic Law, as only sighting can guarantee certainty. Actual sighting,
in the view of these scholars, seems to be the goal and not the means. Sighting
means the actual sighting of the moon with the naked human eyes.
The reason for starting the months with the actual sighting, according to
Hanafī jurist Abū Bakr ibn ‘Alī ar-Rāzī al-Jassās, is to begin the acts of worship
with certainty and not base them upon mere probabilities. 7
5 www.moonsighting.org
6 Al-Bukhārī and Muslim
7 ‘Umdat al-Qārī, vol. 1, p.279
178
Muhammad ibn ‘Abdullāh al-Kharshī presented the Mālikī position in the

following words: “The fasting cannot be observed by following the statement
of a stargazer. Neither the stargazer nor any one else can fast based upon that
because the Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him] has confined the fasting
solely to the sighting of the witnesses or completing the 30 days. No other
method is prescribed. Therefore, no attention should be paid to the statement
or calculations of the stargazer regarding the month whether one believes in the
preciseness of his calculations or not.”8
The Shāfi‘ī jurist Shihābuddīn ibn Ahmad ar-Ramlī argued that: The Prophet
[peace and blessings be upon him] did not depend upon calculations at all but
absolutely negated it by his statement that “we are an unlettered nation, we neither
write nor calculate.” Ibn ad-Daqīq al-Ēid stated that calculations could not be the
source of confirming the fasting (of Ramadhān).9
Abdul Rahīm ibn al-Husayn al-Irāqī, a renowned Shāfi‘ī scholar, contended
that clouds are very often in the horizon. The Shar‘ī reason for fasting is the
actual sighting. The majority of jurists connected the fasting with actual sighting
without resorting to any other method. This was the opinion of Mālik, Shāfi‘ī,
Abū Hanīfah, and the majority of scholars in the past and the present.10
One of the main reasons for such a total rejection, in the view of these
scholars, was the close connection between stargazing (astrology) and magic,
which is forbidden by the Prophet of Islām [peace and blessings be upon him].
Al-Hāfiz ibn Hajar strictly prohibited the use of calculation by quoting the
Prophetic sayings that warn Muslims about the evils of stargazing such as “no
one would learn any part of stargazing except that he has learned a part of magic.”
Caliph ‘Umar has been quoted as saying “Learn from stargazing whatever portion
is helpful in guiding you through the land and ocean and then stop.” Therefore, any
part of stargazing other than the directional symbols and signs, to Ibn Hajar, was
un-Islāmic.11
The renowed Hanbalī authority Imām Ibn Taymiyyah was the staunch
opponent of using stargazing calculations to confirm or negate the Islāmic
months. He emphatically argued that calculations could never lead to a certain
method of finding out the crescent and he, like al-‘Irāqī and al-Jassās, also claimed
agreement among the scholars about this matter.
8 Sharh Mukhtasar al-Khalīl, Vol. 2, p. 237

9 Sharh ‘Umdat al-Ahkām, Vol. 2, p. 59
10 Tarh at-Tathrīb, Vol. 4, pp. 113-114
11 At-Talkhīs, Vol. 2, p. 360
179
In spite of this overwhelming majority, there have always been voices of

dissent among the three schools of thought, except the Hanbalī School. Known
authorities in the Hanafī, Mālikī, and Shāfi‘ī schools have argued against the total
rejection of calculations in establishing the commencement of Ramadhān, etc. It
is only the Hanbalī School of fiqh, especially in the classical period that seems to
be enjoying a kind of consensus regarding the absolute rejection of calculations.
The claim that actual sighting or completion is the only method accepted
by the entire Ummah is not based upon historical facts.
A minute minority among the earlier jurists disagree with the notion of
complete dismissal of astronomical calculations. They, in opposition to the
established opinion, argue that calculations are a definitive way of knowing
the movements of celestial bodies and are more certain than just sighting the
moon with naked human eyes. This group does not see any prohibition, either
in the Qur’ān or Sunnah, manifestly banning usage of calculations in matters
of religion. They find support for their arguments within the Qur’ān and the
Sunnah, in addition to resorting to scientifically logical arguments.
The Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him] emphasized so much upon
sighting the new moon not because sighting is the objective of fasting or in any
way a goal of the ‘Ibādāt, but because it was a means to ascertain the presence of
the new moon, the knowledge of its presence is the objective of ‘Ibādāt.
If the objective can be achieved through a more authentic and precise
method (that is, astronomical calculations) then replacing actual sighting,
which is a probable mean of certainty, with a more accurate method is based on
categorical certainty will not be a deviation from the Prophetic commandment
or objectives of Islāmic Sharī‘ah, but will complement them.
There are two main groups in this category of scholars as follows:

The first group accepts astronomical calculations only in negating the
beginning of the month. That is, if the calculations prove it impossible to sight
the new moon or negate the birth of the new moon, then they do not accept
witnesses who claim the actual sighting even if the witnesses are trustworthy and
righteous Muslims. This is an old trend among scholars and can be traced back
all the way to the first century of Hijrah. Mutarrif ibn ‘Abdullāh (a Successor,
Tābi`ī), Abū al-‘Abbās Ahmad ibn ‘Umar ibn Surayj, and Taqī ad-Din ‘Alī as-Subkī
from the older times and contemporary scholars like Sheikh Yūsuf al-Qardhāwī,
Director of the Sunnah and Sīrah Research Center, University of Qatar, and
many others have championed this position.
180
The second group accepts astronomical calculations both in establishing the

beginning of the month as well as negating or dismissing any claim of sighting
if the calculations prove otherwise. This is a recent phenomenon among recent
scholars of the last century and contemporary scholars such as Dr. Muhammad
Mustafā al-Marāghī, Grand Imām of Al-Az’har 1935–1945; the celebrated
Egyptian and encyclopedic authority and 1984 King Faisal International Prize-
winner Sheikh Mahmūd Shākir (1909–1997); Sheikh Mustafā az-Zarqā’ (1901–
1999); the Syrian-born judge, broadcaster, author, editor, teacher, orator, and
1990 King Faisal International Prize-winner Sheikh ‘Alī at-Tantāwī (1908–1999);
the contemporary Jordanian jurist Dr. Sharaf al-Qūdah; and many others.
VALIDITY OF ASTRONOMICAL CALCULATION
The time of conjunction or completely dark Astronomical New Moon can

be exactly computed. But the calculations for Islāmic Dates should be for the
Visible Crescent by naked-eye from the surface of the earth in local Matla’, and
not the calculations for the dark invisible astronomical new moon (no moon),
which is typically one day before the Hilāl. The main criterion for Hilāl visibility
is the angular separation between the Sun and the Moon at sunset.12
The scholars in favor of calculations argued that calculations are a definitive
way of knowing the movements of celestial bodies and are more accurate than
just sighting the moon with the naked eyes.
A. FROM SCIENTIFIC POINT OF VIEW

The relationship between the Qur’ān and science is one of harmony and not
of discord. This relationship has not always been the same in any one place or
time. For instance, in the Christian world, scientific development was opposed
by the authorities in question, on their own initiative and without reference to
the authentic Scriptures.
In the case of Islām, the attitude towards science was quite different. Nothing
could be clearer than the famous Hadīth of the Prophet [peace and blessings be
upon him], “Seek for Science, even in China” or the other hadīth which says that
the search for knowledge is a strict duty for every Muslim man and woman.13
The Qur’ān in inviting us to cultivate science, it contains many observations
on natural phenomena and includes explanatory details which are seen to be in
12 www.Hilalsighting.org/Dr. Salmān Shiekh

13 The Bible, The Qur’ān, and Science
181
total agreement with modern scientific data. The fact that, in these reflections, we
can find allusions to data connected with scientific knowledge is surely another
of God’s gifts whose value must shine out in this age where scientifically based
materialistic athiesm. Scientific knowledge would seem to be highly conducive to
reflection on the existence of God.14
Today it is known how the celestial organisation is balanced by the position
of stars in a defined orbit and the interplay of gravitational forces related to their
mass and speed of movement, each with its own motion. But this is not what the
Qur’ān describes, in terms which have only become comprehensible in our own
day, when it mentions the foundation of this balance in the Qur’ān:
“(God is) the One Who created the night, the day, the sun and the moon.
Each one is travelling in an orbit with its own motion.”15
The word which expresses this movement carries with it the idea of a motion
which comes from any moving body, be it the movement of one’s legs as one runs
on the ground, or the action of swimming in water. In the case of a celestial body,
one is forced to translate it in the original sense, that is, ‘to travel with one’s own
motion’.
The Qur’ān states that Allāh created specified orbits for the sun and moon
so that human beings can know the number of years and the calculations:
“God is the One Who made the sun a shining glory and the moon as a
light and for her ordained mansions so that you might know the number
of years and the reckoning (of the time). God created this in truth. He
explains the signs in details for people who know.” 16
The practical angle from which this perfect celestial order is seen is
underlined on account of its value as an aid to man’s travel on earth and by sea
and to his calculation of time. This comment becomes clear when one bears in
mind the fact that the Qur’ān was originally a preaching addressed to men who
only understood the simple language of their everyday lives. This explains the
presence of the following reflections:
14 Ibid.
15 Al-Qur’ān, Sūrat al-Anbiyā, 21:33
16 Al-Qur’ān, Sūrat Yūnus, 10:5
182
“And He has subjected to you the night and the day, the sun and the moon;
the stars are in subjection to His command. Verily in this are signs for
people who are wise.” 17
It is also a historical fact that astronomical calculations and their use in

the matters of dīn and ‘ibādāt is nothing new. They have been used long ago
to determine the times of the five daily prayers, sahūr and iftār, and also to
determine the direction of the qiblah. The jurists since the old times have not
only accepted calculations without any problem but have required Muslims to
learn about them.
Zaynuddin ibn Ibrāhīm ibn Nujaym argued that Ibn ash-Shihnah says that
the magician and astrologist mentioned in the hadīth are the ones who tell about
the unseen or claim knowledge of the future. The statement of such a person will
not be accepted and approving such claims will constitute an act of disbelief. But
calculations of the moons have nothing to do with that. They are based upon pre-
cise calculations and are not fortune-telling or things connected with the unseen.
Do you not you see what Allāh says in the Qur’ān: [He prescribed for (the moon)
computed stages so that you can learn about the numbers of years and calculations].18
Taqi ad-Din ‘Alī ibn ‘Abdul Kāfi as-Subkī, put the point in a nutshell: “It
cannot be that the Sharī‘ah has categorically prohibited the use of astronomical
calculations. That is not the case. How could it be while the calculations are being
used in the obligatory as well as other matters (of dīn)? The oft-quoted hadīth
mentions writing and calculations. Now, when writing is not forbidden, how
could astronomical calculations be?” 19
With regard to the hardship argument, it must be noted that we are
living in a time when the entire world has become a small village. In this age of
communication, the news gets all over the world not within minutes but within
seconds. Therefore, the argument of hardship leveled by An-Nawāwī and others
loses its ground. In reality, it is the other way around, as Dr. Al-Qardhāwī rightly
contends.20 Muslims all over the globe, and especially in the West, suffer many
hardships due to uncertainties connected with actual sighting. Some of them
wait till midnight just to start their Tarāwīh Prayers or to decide about their ‘Eid
Prayers. There are many hardships for the working class as well as for Muslim
students. Therefore, dependence upon actual sighting rather than astronomical
17 Al-Qur’ān, Sūrat an-Nahl, 16:12

18 Al-Asbah wa an-Naza’ir, vol. 2, p. 284
19 Fatāwā as-Subkī, vol. 1, p. 211
20 Fatāwā Mu’āsarah, vol. 2, pp. 212-217
183
calculations is the source of hardships in our times.

The jurists have categorized the knowledge of stars into two categories.
First is the calculation of celestial bodies and their movements to determine the
beginning of the months. The one who practices this kind of stargazing is called
the astronomer. There is no disagreement among the jurists that such an exercise
is permitted. It is allowed to learn such science to know the prayer timings and the
directions of the qiblah. The majority of the jurists (jumhūr) are of the opinion
that it is obligatory that such knowledge be sought by a number of Muslims
at all times. Ibn ‘Abidīn in his Hāshiyāt says that “astronomical calculations are
Islāmically approved.” That is what the Qur’ān precisely says: [the sun and the
moon follow meticulous calculations]. The jurists have allowed depending upon
calculations in relation to the timings of the daily prayers as well as directions of
the qiblah. The astronomical calculations connected with the new moons, lunar
and solar eclipses are correct. Almighty God has fixed a system for the celestial
bodies, and they always follow that system to the full extent. The same is the
four seasons. The aspects of nature that are continuously repeating themselves
are categorical in nature. Therefore, they should be relied upon in the matters of
prayer timings as well as qiblah directions.21
Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Hamāwī, the known Hanafī jurist, stated
the same: “The calculations related to the new moons and eclipses are based
upon actual realities and experiments. They do not come under the category of
prohibited acts by the Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him]. This argument
is substantiated by the fact that the jurists have allowed knowledge of calculations
when it comes to knowing the timings of daily prayers and directions of the
qiblah.” 22
Perhaps these are the reasons that Mustafā az-Zarqā’ was amazed that a good
number of present-day conservative jurists are so adamant about not accepting
the astronomical calculations in confirming or negating the month of Ramadhān
while they are using the same calculations in acts of worship that are far more
important in significance as well as frequency, such as daily prayers. The classical
jurists were rightfully correct in their stance against these calculations during
their times. The science in their times had not reached the levels of authenticity
and certainty where it is in our times. They could not have based important acts
of worship, such as the fasting of the month of Ramadhān, upon calculations
that were not 100 percent precise. Are we going to drag their opposition to
21 Fatāwā Mu’āsarah, vol. 14, p. 53

22 Ghamz ‘Uyūn al-Basa’er, vol. 2, p. 66
184
calculations to the times where the reason they adopted such a view no longer
exists? Cause and effect always go hand in hand. If the cause no longer exists, the
effect must also go away.23
Furthermore, the Muslim Ummah for many centuries in the past followed
the shadow of poles to determine the timings for the Zuhr and ‘Asr prayers. The
Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him] himself ordered Muslims to follow the
shadow of the sun to determine the prayer timings.
It is a known fact among the jurists that sighting in itself is not a condition
for the month of Ramadhān, as Muhammad ibn ‘Alī ibn ad-Daqīq al-‘Ēid, the
renowned Shāfi‘ī authority, stated that the actual sighting is not a prerequisite to
the fasting. There is agreement (among the jurists) that if someone is imprisoned
in the basement and knows, either through completing 30 days or through
estimation by following the signs, that the month of Ramadhān has started, then
he is required to start fasting even if he has neither sighted the moon by himself
nor has been informed by the one who sighted it.24
The famous classical Hanafī jurist Sa‘duddin Mas‘ūd ibn ‘Umar at-Taftazānī
stated that all the Muslim jurists agree that sighting the new moon is just a means
and not the objective in itself. The meanings of the Qur’ānic verse (whoever
witnesses the month) mean being present in the month. Witnessing the month is
just a means. The Prophetic statement “fast by sighting it” also leads to that. All
the Muslim jurists agree that actual sighting is not the objective, but the objective
is what the sighting proves, and that is the coming of the (new) month.25
Actual sighting with the naked human eye was prescribed by the Prophet
[peace and blessings be upon him] as it was the only method available to the
Muslims of that time to confirm with certainty the beginning or ending of the
month. The reason for such a need was also given by the Prophet [peace and
blessings be upon him], and that was the unlettered status of the Ummah of that
time.
Some contemporary Muslims argue that Islāmic Law has also fixed the
means to achieve Islāmic goals such as halāl and lawful earning is a means to
achieve the goal of feeding one’s family. A Muslim is not permitted to adopt an
unlawful means such as stealing to achieve the above goal. Likewise, the objective
of procreating cannot be achieved by unlawful means of adultery and fornication.
Feeding the family by unlawful means such as stealing or cheating is harām
because Allāh has clearly prohibited adopting such means in many verses of
23 Fatāwā, pp. 157-159
24 Ihkām al-Ahkām Sharh ‘Umdat al-Ahkām, vol. 2, p. 8
25 Sharh at-Talwīh ‘ala at-Tawdhīh, vol. 1, p. 401
185
the Qur’ān and through the Prophetic narrations. Likewise, fathering children
through unlawful means is prohibited by the Qur’ān. [Do not even come close to
adultery]26 is the Qur’ānic dictum. That is why any such means will be prohibited
because they are unlawful in themselves. There are different kinds of means
mentioned in the Qur’ān, such as those in the following verse:
“Against them make ready your strength to the utmost of your power, including
steeds of war, to strike terror into (the hearts of ) the enemies, of Allāh and your
enemies, and others besides, whom ye may not know, but whom Allāh doth know.
Whatever ye shall spend in the Cause of Allāh, shall be repaid unto you, and ye shall
not be treated unjustly.”27
Here Allāh clearly mentions horses as one of the means of striking fear
in the hearts of the enemies. The Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him]
explicitly asked for arrows as a source of power: “Certainly the might is consisting
of archery; certainly the might is archery.”28
In modern warfare, we would look stupid if we followed the same means
of might against the enemies of Islām. Those means were good to achieve the
aspired goal in those days but are not appropriate for modern warfare. Therefore,
adopting the new means of tanks, missiles, and combat aircrafts to achieve the
desired goal of power and might will not be harām but obligatory to adapt to our
times. There is no Qur’anic text that stops the use of such new means, and that
is why it is obligatory to use them. Would anyone insist upon using arrows and
horses in the battlefield because Allāh and His Prophet fixed the means through
the authentic Qur’ānic and Prophetic texts?
Likewise, astronomical calculations are a means to achieve the aspired
goal of certainty. The Prophetic tradition prohibited them because at that
time the overwhelming majority of the Ummah was unlettered in the matters
of sophisticated astronomical calculations. The same was true with the later
generations of the Ummah. The majority of the classical scholars were absolutely
right in rejecting calculations, as they were inaccurate and mostly done by
astrologists and magicians.
But astronomical calculations in our time are no longer the work of
magicians or fortune-tellers, but the work of bona fide scientists and astronomers
who base their knowledge on scientific observations and facts.
Here we are referring to the astronomical calculations to prove the possibility
of sighting and not the birth of the new Moon to try to fulfill the Sunnah in
26 Al-Qur’ān, Sūrat Al-Isrā’, 17:32
27 Al-Qur’ān, Sūrat Al-Anfāl, 8:60
28 Jāmi’ al-Bayān fi Tafsīr al-Qur’ān, vol. 10, p. 21
186
letter and spirit. These astronomical calculations are already being used in acts of
Islāmic worship such as:
Widely Accepted Time Calculations for Sahūr:

Allāh States:
“And eat and drink until the [first] streak of light of dawn becomes clear to you
against the darkness [of night].”29
This method determines the end of the period of Sahūr: This was the method
used by Prophet Muhammad [peace and blessings be upon him] and the earlier
Muslims since they did not know how to pre-compute the instant of time when
the first streak of light in the morning occurs. The verse defines a particular instant
of time, and it is important to adhere to it and not necessarily to the method
suggested in the verse. Any other way of establishing that instant, if possible,
would be acceptable. In fact, Muslim astronomers who did the pioneering work
in astronomy did compute and prepare schedules for this instant of time for any
day of a year for various places on the earth. These schedules are used by most
Muslims today. They are using a method different from the one in the Noble
Qur’ān, but they still satisfy the basic principle in the Qur’ān relating to the time
for the end of the Sahūr.
Accepted Time Calculations For Maghrib:

To determine the time of sunset for breaking fast or to offer Maghrib prayer,
the Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him] and earlier Muslims used to wait
and watch the setting of the sun when the sky was clear. They did not know
how to compute the time for sunset. Sighting the sunset with the naked eyes
was the only way! Of course, in modern times, perhaps no Muslim goes out to
watch the setting of the sun. Schedules giving distinct times for sunset for any
day in a year for various places on the earth are now available and they are almost
universally used. Their use of this method different from what the Prophet [peace
and blessings be upon him] used is not a violation of the Sunnah since the basic
principle in the method used by the Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him]
is preserved.
Accepted Time Calculations For ‘Asr:

To determine the time for the ‘Asr prayer, the Prophet [peace be upon him]
29 Al-Qur’ān, Sūrat al-Baqarah, 2:187
187
used a stick and placed it vertically on the ground. If the length of the shadow
of the stick equaled [or exceeded] the length of the stick, it was time for the ‘Asr
prayer. Nowadays, we do not use a stick, but we use schedules computed by
Muslim astronomers to know the time for the ‘Asr prayer.
The fact that scholars have approved new methods for determining times
for different prayers and the time for the end of Sahūr shows that, methods
different than those used by the Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him] are
consistent with the Noble Qur’ān and the Sunnah, as long as these new methods
satisfy the principles which are behind the methods stated in the Noble Qur’ān
and those used by the Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him].
Calculation of the birth of the new moon does not necessarily mean that the
new moon will be seen or can even be seen, therefore we cannot automatically say
that the month is in, with the birth of the new moon because the crescent might
not rise above the horizon after conjunction (the meeting of the sun and moon
on the horizon).
B. FROM THE ISLĀMIC POINT OF VIEW:

The group of scholars permitting the use of astronomical calculations
argued that sighting the new moon is not an act of worship in itself. It is a means
of achieving the goal of certainty. Now if the goal of certainty can be achieved by
a different and more accurate method, then, following such a method will be as
Islāmic as sighting the moon with the naked eyes. These scholars believed that,
currently, astronomical calculations were more precise than the sighting method.
This group quoted the following Prophetic narrations to prove their point:
1. The Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him] mentioned Ramadhān
and said, “Do not fast until you see the moon and do not break fast until
you see it. If it is cloudy, then estimate it.” (al-Bukhārī)
2. “The month (sometimes) consists of twenty-nine days. Therefore, do not fast
until you see it and do not break the fast until you see it. Calculate it if it is
cloudy.” (ad-Dārimī)
3. “Do not fast until you see it and do not break the fast until you see it except
that if it was cloudy. Calculate about it if it is cloudy.” (Ibn Hibbān)
The jurists have given the following three interpretations of these Prophetic
narrations. Imām Ahmad interpreted the ahādīth (sing. Hadīth) as demanding
the start of Ramadhān following the 29th in case it is cloudy. Mutarrif ibn
188
‘Abdullāh, Ibn Surayj, and Ibn Qutaybah interpreted them as demanding the use
of astronomical calculations when the horizon is cloudy. Mālik, Abū Hanīfah,
Shāfi‘ī, and the majority (jumhūr) said that one should complete 30 days and
then fast. That is, in their opinion, the meanings of estimation mentioned in the
ahādīth.
Al-Mawsū‘ah al-Fiqhiyyah gave this explanation in the article Ru’yat al-Hilāl:
“This opinion holds astronomical calculations as a genuine method of estimating
the stages of the moon. It has been attributed to Mutarrif ibn ‘Abdullāh ibn
ashākir from the successors, Abū al-‘Abbās ibn Surayj from the Shāfi‘ī school, and
Ibn Qutaybah from the Hadīth scholars. Ibn Rushd has narrated the statement of
Mutarrif that astronomical calculations can determine the new moon in case of
obscurities. He has also narrated that such a view is attributed to Shāfi‘ī in one of
the reports. The known opinion from Shāfi‘ī is that fasting cannot be observed
except through actual moon sighting or the witness of a trustworthy Muslim, as
the majority of jurists contend.
An-Nawāwī also told us that, linguistically, the word used in the ahādīth
means estimation or calculations.30
Linguistically and contextually, the word in the above ahādīth leads to
the meaning of taqdīr as Abū Sulaymān Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-
Khattābī preferred: that is, it gives a sense of counting and calculation in case of
cloudy weather or lack of visibility. That is why scholars like Al-Khattābī, Ad-
Dāwūdī and many others took it to mean that if it happens to be cloudy on the
29th of Sha`bān, then going with the authentic astronomical calculations is not
only permitted but required by the Sunnah.
Al-Bājī reported that Abū ‘Abdullāh Muhammad ibn Saīd ad-Dāwūdī az-
Zāhirī had leaned to such a meaning of the ahādīth.31
Ibn ad-Daqīq al-‘Ēid reported that some Mālikī scholars from Baghdād
and some leading authorities from the Shāfi‘ī school had adopted this position
especially in regards to the astronomer himself. The astronomer is required to start
fasting on the day his calculations determine it to be the first day of Ramadhān.32
Mutarrif was reported to have said that the astronomer must follow his
calculations. Abū al-‘Abbās ibn Surayj, the renowned Shāfi‘ī scholar of the third
Hijrī century, took the position that “calculate” is an address to the people who
posses the knowledge of calculation and “sighting” is for use by the common
Muslims.
30 Al-Majmū’ Sharh al-Muhadzab, vol. 6, p. 276
31 Al-Muntaqā Sharh al-Muwatta’, vol. 2, p. 38
32 Ihkām al-Ahkām Sharh ‘Umdat al-Ahkām, vol. 2, p. 8
189
For instance, in the famous hadīth of the Dajjāl (antichrist) in which the
Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him] informed the Companions that at
the time of the Dajjāl, the real time would seem to extend so tremendously that
a day, during that period, will be equal to a year, a month, or a week. 33 The
Companions asked how to perform the five daily prayers then. In response, the
Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him] replied, “Faqdurū lahu,” meaning
to calculate for it. There is no way to interpret the phrase as 29 or 30 days or
completion. It means to estimate.
Therefore, the interpretation of “Faqdurū lahu” as calculating the month
or the stages of the moon is perhaps more appropriate. That is why some known
authorities in the three schools of fiqh have no problem accepting the astronomical
calculations in this matter.
Imām Taqi ad-Din as-Subkī, a well-known Shāfi‘ī scholar, categorically
rejected even the trustworthy witnesses if the authentic astronomical calculations
negate the possibility of sighting the moon. He emphatically argued that: “There
is another scenario and that is if the astronomical calculations prove it impossible
to sight (the moon) and this is known through categorical inferences such as
the moon being too close to the sun at the time of sunset, in this case, it is not
possible to see it with our human senses because such a sighting is impossible.
Now if one person or two or a group of untrustworthy individuals come up
with the witness that they have sighted it, their witness must be rejected. This is
because the astronomical calculations are precise while human witness and news
are hypothetical; the hypothetical cannot contradict something categorical let
alone supersede it. For a witness to be accepted it is required that what is being
witnessed about is possible Islāmically (legally), logically, and sensually. Therefore,
if the astronomical calculations prove sighting impossible, it would be impossible
to accept any claim of that Islāmically because what is being witnessed is not
there, and Islāmic Sharī‘ah does not come up with something self-contradictory
and impossible in itself.”34
According to as-Subkī, the Sharī‘ah has not forbidden calculations at all:
“It is obligatory upon the ruler not to accept the witness of such people if he
knows by himself or through a trustworthy person that the calculations prove the
impossibility of actual sighting. He should neither accept such a witness nor give
any ruling based upon such a claim. The month should be considered continuing
until the otherwise is proven, as the Sharī‘ah requires. And we do not say that the
33 Sunan Abī Dāwūd, no. 4317

34 Fatāwā As-Subkī, vol. 1, p. 209
190
Sharī‘ah has abolished the use of astronomical calculations at all.”35

We have no doubt in our mind that the human witness cannot be accepted
against accurately precise calculations. But when the calculations are not certain
but probable, then weight should be given to the human witness and his capability
of sighting such as the strength of vision, etc. In such a case the judge must use
his judgment to the best of his ability. The Sharī‘ah would not prefer a probable
method over a certain and accurate method.
Ibn Hajar al-Asqalānī reported that Ibn al-Daqīq al-‘Ēid said that if the
astronomical calculations established the fact that the moon is there and can be
sighted, but the cloudy weather came between it and sighting it, in this case, the
fasting will become obligatory. 36 This constitutes a valid Islāmic reason to follow
the calculations.
Some of our scholars are of the opinion that there is nothing wrong in
depending upon the astronomical calculations. Muhammad ibn Muqātil used
to inquire of astronomers about the calculations and depend upon that if the
calculations were agreed upon by a group of astronomers.37
It seems that all the above-quoted jurists supported the use of calculations
to negate rather than confirm the month of Ramadhān although jurists like Ibn
al-Daqīq al-‘Ēid and Muhammad ibn Muqātil ar-Rāzī allowed using calculations
even to confirm when the weather was cloudy.
Among contemporary scholars, Sheikh Mustafā al-Marāghi, Sheikh ‘Alī at-
Tantāwi, Mahmūd Shākir, Mustafā az-Zarqā’, Sharaf al-Qūdah, and others have
argued that modern science has reached such a level of accuracy and preciseness
in the matters of astronomical calculations that there is no more need to sight the
moon with the naked eye. The Sharī‘ah required sighting when the Ummah was
mostly unlettered and mostly ignorant in astronomy and other sciences related to
attaining accurate calculations. Now once we have reached the level of certainty
in such matters, we must go with the calculations in determining the Islāmic
months without any need to resort to the actual sighting.
The ‘Arabs were called illiterate because writing skills were quite lacking
among them. Allāh Most High has said [It is He Who has sent among the illiterate
a messenger from among themselves].38 This fact cannot be refuted by the claim
that among the ‘Arabs there were individuals who could write or calculate because
the writing skills were very rare among them. And the reference to calculation
35 Ibid.
36 An-Nihāyah fi Gharīb al-Āthār, vol. 2, p. 360
37 Ghamz ‘Uyūn al-Basa’er, vol. 2, p. 65
38 Al-Jumu’ah, 62:2
191
in the hadīth is to astronomical calculations. They did not know much about
astronomical calculations except a very negligible portion of it. That is why the
Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him] connected the ruling of fasting with
actual sighting to avoid causing any hardship to them.39
Therefore, it is an established rule of Islāmic jurisprudence that the cause
and the effect go hand in hand. Now once the Ummah became free of illiteracy
and started writing and calculating, the effect must also be modified.
When the Ummah has come out of its unlettered status and started
writing and calculating, now once the Ummah can trust accuracy of the calcula-
tions just like their trust in actual sighting or even more, then it has also become
obligatory that they follow the authentic calculations only and not the sighting to
confirm the month of Ramadhān. The only exception will be if the calculations
were hard to come by.40
Sheikh Mustafā az-Zarqā’, after a detailed discussion of the issue, concluded
that there is nothing in the Sharī‘ah rules that stop Muslims in our times from
accepting astronomical calculations: “It is a fact that sighting the new moon is
not an act of worship in itself. It is just a mean to know the timings. It was the
only means available to the unlettered nation which knew not how to write or
calculate. Its unlettered status was the sole reason for dependence upon the actual
sighting. This is clear from the text of the Prophetic tradition which is the source
of such a ruling. Islāmically, what stops us now to depend upon the accurate
astronomical calculations which can determine for us quite ahead of time the
beginning of the new month? No cloud or fog can obscure our knowledge of the
month then except the fog or dust on the intellect.”41
After elaborating a great deal on the subject, Dr. Yūsuf al-Qardhāwī, con-
cluded that the Islāmic religion that prescribed sighting the moon as a valid meth-
od in confirming the month of Ramadhān would prefer accepting astronomical
calculations as a valid method also because there could always be doubts or mis-
takes in human sighting but not in the accuracy of the astronomical calculations.
Therefore, accepting astronomical calculations is exactly in line with the true
spirit of the Islāmic Sharī‘ah. The Ummah can be spared countless confusions and
problems by following the calculations.
Dr. Mustafā ‘Abdul Bāsit concluded that following astronomical calculations
was the original intent of the Islāmic Sharī‘ah. The sighting was prescribed for the
times when the Ummah was incapable of knowing accurate, precise calculations.
39 ‘Awn al-Ma`būd, Vol. 6
40 Awā’il as-Shuhūr al-‘Arabiyyah, pp. 7-17
41 Fatāwā, pp. 163-164
192
The rule of sighting must give way to the original rule once the Ummah has
attained the authentic knowledge of the calculations. The Islāmic months must
be confirmed by calculations to avoid the problems connected with the actual
sighting.
The study aimed to validate the astronomical calculation in determining

the beginning of new lunar month in connection with Islamic acts of worship.
Specifically, it sought to answer the following questions: 1) How valid is
astronomical calculation, as the methodology of determining the lunar month,
from the scientific and Islamic legal points of view? 2) Based on the different
views of Muslim scholars, can the Muslims adopt the astronomical method of
determining the beginning and end of the lunar month? To what extent and in
what condition can such adoption be done? Furthermore, it provided significant
guidelines, limitations or restrictions as to what extent and condition can
astronomical calculation can be applied in sighting the new lunar month.
Finally, this study served as the foundation of having a united observation
of the Islamic acts of worship such as the Ramadhan or Eid throughout the
whole Muslim nations by clarifying the misconceptions regarding the use of
astronomical calculation.
METHODOLOGY
Deals on how and where the writer expects to find data and factual
information about the study. It involves researcch design and data gathering.
The study used the descriptive and qualitative research design. Hence, an
in-depth study of the published works of Muslim scholars on the problems under
investigation was undertaken.
The data gathering procedure was done through an indepth study and
reading of available literatures including internet references; utilizing existing
records as the major tool.
Content analysis method was also used to determine whether the use of
astronomical calculation is valid in Islam. And if so, the same method was utilized
to identify the restrictions or limitations as regards its usage.
193
The start of Ramadhān is determined by the sighting of the Hilāl or that

refers to the bright waxing crescent when it becomes visible to a normal observer
by naked-eye. The Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him] has said, “Fast at its
sighting, and terminate the fast at its sighting.” (al-Bukhārī and Muslim) This hadīth
is an explicit proof-text that the month is based on sighting, not on calculation.
The reasoning of the proponents of calculation is hinged on two main
arguments:
Firstly, the saying of the Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him], “Do
not fast until you see the Hilāl, and do not break the fast until you have seen it, but if
conditions are overcast for you then enumerate for it.” (al-Bukhārī) The proponents
of calculation cite the statement, “then enumerate for it” as evidence for the
permissibility of calculation.
This reasoning, however, is unacceptable on two counts:

1. Assuming that “enumerate” in the above hadīth is, in fact, referring to
calculation, the hadīth would only indicate the permissibility of calculations in
overcast conditions.
2. The meaning of “enumerate” is clarified by another narration of
the hadīth, also extracted by al-Bukhārī, as well as by at-Tirmidzī, Abū Dāwūd,
Ibn Khuzaymah, Ibn Hibbān and at-Tayālisī, “Then complete the number of (days
of ) Sha`bān as thirty.” (Nasb ar-Rāyah, 2/437-8) This hadīth clarifies beyond doubt
that what is meant by “enumerate” in the first narration is to count thirty days,
for the first narration is general and imprecise (mujmal), whereas the second is
explicit (mubayyan), clarifying the imprecision in the first. Ibn Rushd says, “It is
obligatory to refer the mujmal to the mubayyan, and this is the way of the scholars
of usūl, without any disagreement.” (Bidāyat al-Mujtahid, 1/284)
Secondly, the saying of the Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him], “We are
an unlettered nation; we neither write nor calculate. The month is so-much and so-
much (i.e., sometimes 29 days, sometimes 30)” (al-Bukhārī). The proponents of
calculations argue that the only reason calculations were not used by the Prophet
[peace and blessings be upon him] was that people at that time were illiterate and
uneducated. Thus, they reason that since we are now educated and advanced
in astronomy, there is no harm in determining the start of Ramadhān purely by
calculations.
194
The refutation of this reasoning is as follows:

It is obvious that the Prophetic statement, “We neither write nor calculate” is
not meant literally, for it has been established that numerous Companions did in
fact write, and in the Farewell Pilgrimage, when a Yamānī man named Abū Shah
asked for a written copy of the sermon, the Prophet [peace and blessings be
upon him] told the people, “Write for Abū Shah.” [al-Bukhārī and Muslim].
Furthermore, we know that the ‘Arabs at the time used to engage in trade,
which inevitably requires calculation, and that astronomical knowledge, such as
recognition of the phases of the moon, and its waxing and waning, were present
even during that time.
In reality, the hadīth is merely stating a characteristic of this ummah,
namely that their means for determining the month is simple, not
requiring sophisticated science or education. Islām is a universal religion, and
its regulations are meant to be equally accessible to all people, scientists as well as
non-scientists. The progress of astronomy cannot abrogate the laws of Islām, for
the religion was completed and perfected in the time of the Prophet [peace and
blessings be upon him] himself.
As further reinforcement, it is worth noting that all of the four juristic
schools of thought are unanimous on the point that basing the Islamic month
purely on calculation is invalid. According to the Hanafī madz’hab in “ad-
Durr al-Mukhtār”, “The word of forecasters carries no weight; even if they are
Islāmically upright “Sharh al-Ghāyah” states the same of the Hanbalī madz’hab.
The Mālikī scholars, Sheikh Khalīl, states in his “Mukhtasar”, that the month is
not established by the saying of an astronomer. Al-Ardabīlī, the Shāfi‘ī scholar
states in “Al-Anwar,” “Fasting does not become obligatory by knowledge of the
phases of the moon.”
So as we have already established that calculations alone cannot be used
to determine the start of an Islāmic month, we must at the same time take due
notice that Islām does not ask us to divorce reason. Now, given that astronomy
today can accurately establish the time of birth of the new moon, and the
time interval when it is absolutely impossible to see the crescent-moo, there
is no harm in using this astronomical basis to reject a claimed sighting which
cannot possibly be correct. As-Shātibī said, in “Al-Muwāfaqāt”, “Anything which
is not in keeping with the principles of the Sharī‘ah or rational concepts is not
to be relied upon.” Ibn Hajar said, in “Sharh Nukhbat al-Fikr”, “Among the
associated circumstances by which fabrication (in hadīth) can be recognized
(things) which detract from the value of the narrator, and (others) which detract
195
from the value of the narration, such as it is in contradiction to the text of the

Qur’ān, or mass-narrated Sunnah, or decisive Ijmā` (consensus of scholars), or
clear common sense.”
Hence, if a sighting is reported when it was absolutely impossible for it to
have occurred, it will be rejected even if the one reporting it is an upright Muslim.
Although in that case, we will attribute the error to genuine misjudgment which
does not diminish his Islāmic uprightness and acceptability as a witness. Verdicts
in this vein have been given by the renowned Shāfi‘ī mujtahid, Taqi al-Din as-
Subkī, as well as by numerous recent and contemporary scholars, among them
‘Alī Tantāwi, Ahmad Shākir and Muhammad Sanbheli.
The differences above arise from giving priority to different narrations
on the matter, based on factors relating to the authenticities of the reports and
on different methodologies of usūl in reconciling different narrations. These
narrations are:
1. Abū Dāwūd had reported that the Prophet [peace and blessings be upon
him] said, “Fast at its sighting, and terminate fasting at its sighting. But,
if (conditions) are overcast for you, then complete thirty (days). But, if two
witnesses testify then fast and terminate fasting (as the case may be).”
2. At-Tirmidzī has reported that a Bedouin came to the Prophet [peace
and blessings be upon him] and said, “I saw the crescent-moon
tonight.” The Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him] asked him,
“Do you testify that there is no god but Allāh and that Muhammad is His
servant and messenger?” He said, “Yes.” The Prophet said, “O Bilāl!
Make adzān among the people, for they should fast tomorrow.”
3. Abū Dāwūd has reported that people were in the last day of Ramadhān
when two Bedouins stood up and testified to the Prophet [peace and
blessings be upon him] that they had seen the crescent-moon, whereupon
the Prophet [peace and blessings be upon him] ordered people to break
their fast.
Now, since the scholars differ markedly over the question of sighting in one
area, the question to resolve is: is it binding to Muslims in other areas?
According to the Shāfi‘ī school, the sighting is not binding beyond 81
kilometers, as stated by both Rāfi‘ī and Nawāwī. The authentic view of the
madz’hab is that it is binding on a strip of thickness 81km in either direction of
the place of the sighting. This strip extends from the North Pole to the South
Pole.
196
The verdicts in the standard classical references for the Hanafī, Mālikī and
Hanbalī schools state that one sighting is binding to the whole world. (See Fat’h
al-Qadīr, Mukhtasar Khalīl, and al-Mughni respectively)
However, the Mālikī scholar, Ibn Rushd has cited consensus of the scholars
that the obligation of fasting based on a sighting in another area is not observed
for places which are very distant from one another, such as Spain and ‘Arabia.
(Bidāyat al-Mujtahid, 1/288) This verdict was also explicitly stated by the Hanafī
scholars al-Kasānī, az-Zaylā`ī and al-Kashmīrī. Sheikh Muhammad Burhānuddin
Sanbheli says, “Contemporary scholars, in general, have gone by (the view of
different sightings for) different rising-places (of the moon).” (Qadhāya Fiqhiyyah
Mu‘āsarah, p. 94)
The primary evidence for a sighting not being binding on distant places
is the hadīth narrated by Muslim, Abū Dāwūd, Tirmidzi and Nasā’ī, in which
Kurayb traveled to Syria and encountered the start of Ramadhān there on a
Friday. When he returned to Madīnah, he informed Ibn ‘Abbās that he had
seen the crescent-moon on the night of Friday and that the people in Syria,
including Mu‘āwiyah, the governor, had fasted on Friday. Ibn ‘Abbās replied
that they (in Madīnah) had seen the crescent-moon on Saturday and that they
would not stop fasting until they either saw it again or had completed thirty
days. Kurayb asked, «Will you not suffice with the sighting of Mu‘āwiyah?” Ibn
‘Abbās replied, «No, that is how the Messenger of Allāh [peace and blessings be
upon him] commanded us.” This hadīth is quite clear in this respect, and although
it does not state the limit beyond which a sighting is not binding, this latter issue
becomes a matter of Ijtihād for the scholars.
As for the argument that following a single sighting worldwide is in
the interests of unity, this is weak as the Pious Predecessors themselves differed
on the start and end of Ramadhān and they are the best of generations. These
differences did not cause disunity among them, and so there is no reason why it
should at the present. Rather, the disunity seen today arises from other causes,
such as ignorance, intolerance and fanaticism. Furthermore, it is not practically
possible for Ramadhān or ‘Eid to coincide exactly for all the Muslims since day
and nights occur at different times around the globe.
Finally, the issue of calculations was discussed even in the first century of
Hijrah and has been discussed throughout Islāmic history. The majority of the
Classical jurists rejected the use of calculations because the calculations were not
precise during their times. The calculations were usually connected with astrology
and magic. Moreover, due to lack of high speed internet, telephone and other
197
means of communications, each locality used to go by its local sighting, and the
Ummah did not suffer because of going with the actual sighting the way we are
suffering in our times.
CONCLUSIONS
In the light of the important findings of the study, the researcher concludes
the following:
1. Calculations should be used for Hilāl visibility, not for Astronomical
New Moon (No Moon).
2. Calculations for Hilāl visibility have a Zone of Uncertainty and if the
western part of our Matla’ is in this zone, calculations cannot give an
answer thus sighting is the only way.
3. We should use Calculations to negate false sighting, but not to
completely replace sighting.
4. The claim that a consensus exists among all the Muslim jurists regarding
absolute mistrust of astronomical calculations, in all forms and ways,
related to beginning and ending of the Islāmic months are unfounded,
though the majority adopted that opinion because of the uncertainties
connected with calculations in their times.
5. Modern science has attained such a level of authenticity in the matters
of calculations that achieving certainty about the birth, presence, or
absence of the moon on the horizon is not hard at all. This scientific
method is more trustworthy than the efforts of people to observe the
moon with naked human eyes.
6. Once it has been proven that certainty and not the actual sighting is
the goal of the Islāmic Sharī‘ah, then wasting our time on the issues of
visibility and non-visibility will be a fruitless endeavor.
7. The notion that Astronomy is prohibited in Islām is a misconception
that emerged some 1200 years ago when Astrology and Astronomy were
not considered separate sciences and ‘Ilm an-Nujūm was encom-passing
both astronomy and astrology. Now it is clearly understood that astrology
is prohibited but astronomy (‘ilm al-falakiyāt) is not. Astronomy is the
knowledge of movement and position of cosmos (heavenly bodies),
while astrology is the effect of the position of those heavenly bodies on
human beings. Future is not known to anyone except Allāh so astrology
is considered harām in Islām.
198
Finally, calculations alone cannot be used to determine the start of an

Islāmic month. However, Islām does not ask us to divorce reason. So, given that
astronomy today can accurately establish the time of the birth of the new moon,
and the time interval when it is absolutely impossible to see that crescent-moon
although it is not yet present, there is no harm in using this astronomical basis to
reject a claimed sighting which cannot possibly be correct.
Therefore, accepting astronomical calculations in confirming as well as
negating the month of Ramadhān is in line with the Sunnah and in no way or
form constitutes any deviation from the spirit of the Islāmic Sharī‘ah. In contrast,
it is perhaps the only method available at our disposal which, if applied in spirit,
can realize the Islāmic goals of authenticity, certainty, and unity.
Allāh Almighty knows best.
This research is already on the process of making its debut as a book. This
would be combined with another topic to form as a single manuscript regarding
the Sighting as a procedural requisite in determining the beginning of the
Holy month of Ramadhan among Muslims. This would be of great value and
importance to the whole Muslim nation by fostering the initial steps towards
united observance of Ramadhan.
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204
Enhancing the Demands

of ZAMPEN-SUCs AFNR Graduates
THrough Curriculum Intervention
Using Modular Approach
with High S &T Content
CHONA Q. SARMIENTO
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7396-2273
drchonaqs623@yahoo.com.ph
Western Mindanao State University
PATERNA J. SAAVEDRA
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1113-0540
paternasaavedra57@gmail.com
Western Mindanao State University
ABSTRACT
The contribution of the DOST-PCARRD AFNR Project 2.3 from SY

2009-2011 has demonstrated transformed changes in the AFNR curriculum.
These changes are well recognized as it has attracted more enrollees in the region’s
dwindling AFNR courses. The study presented the implementation of the AFNR
Project 2.3 in Zamboanga Peninsula as an intervention to the observed down
trend enrolment in the AFNR courses since SY 2001 onwards. The AFNR Project
2.3 was implemented for the duration of two years from SY Feb 2009-Feb 2011.
The project at the regional level enabled students’ preparation for employability,
equipped them with entrepreneurial skills, with the integration of strong S & T
205
contents in the courses through the modular approach. The Western Mindanao
State University (WMSU) played the lead institution in the region with three
collaborating SUCs, namely, JH Cerilles State College (JHCSC), Zamboanga
State College of Marine Sciences and Technology (ZSCMST), and the two
campuses of Jose Rizal Memorial State University (JRMSU). Towards the end of
its implementation for the second year, the project achieved the following gains
based on its objectives: (a) Enriched 10 BS curricular programs (b) reviewed 81
AFNR subjects (c)enriched at least 70 courses in the 10 BS AFNR Programs and
(d) introduced 30 short term courses respectively.
Keywords — Institutional Research, AFNR Project 2.3, agriculture

curriculum, Zamboanga Peninsula, Philippines
INTRODUCTION
The past two decades showed a declining record in the enrolment of schools
offering the agriculture and fisheries courses particularly in WMSU, JH Cerilles,
JRMSU and ZSCMST in the Zamboanga Peninsula (ZAMPEN).
The enrolment report from SUCS revealed that for over a period of 10 years
(1998-1999 to 2007-2008), the enrolment trend in the regional level exhibited
a decline for about 70% in the baccalaureate degrees and 38% in the associate
courses. The AFNR tracer study conducted by Narvaez and Subong, (2009)
cited that agriculture was badly hit by the decline in enrolment. Initially, an
increase was observed up to the 3rd year and enrolment was on its peak with 1,
371; however, a drastic decline followed by more than half of the population in
2002-2003. This observation was happening to three HEIs integrated to SUCs
which also started offering non-AFNR courses dispersing the enrollment to these
courses.
From the same report, agriculture was seen having the highest enrolment in
all the AFNR courses in the region and all the other AFNR courses had limited
enrolment. In this case, WMSU enrolment followed certain trend showing
general increase in the first three years (1998, 1999, to 2000-2001). However,
after the semester, the enrolment declined in all courses up to SY 2007-2008. A
bigger decline of 50% followed in Forestry course starting 2005-2006. One of
the probable reasons of the decline was the transfer of the BS Forestry to become
an integral part of the Agriculture campus aggravated by distance. The new site
for the College of Forestry was 23 kilometers away compared to its original
206
location in the main campus. For the entire university, the decline was very much
pronounced between 30-60% in the various courses for the period of 10 years.
The tracer study of Narvez and Subong (2009) showed that the JH Cerilles
in Dumingag had the highest decline by 90% in the enrolment for over 10 years.
In this SUC, students were given option to enroll in the non AFNR programs to
expand other programs even if it was still a WMSU Satellite campus.
In both campuses of JRMSU in Tampilisan and Katipunan, a decline in
agriculture enrolment was observed from 1998-1997 to 2007-2008, respectively.
The expansions of the non-AFNR courses as well as the offering of other courses
were seen as the contributing factors. However, in contrast, the Agricultural
Engineering showed the reverse trend with an increasing trend for five years.
On the other hand, the ZSCMST which initially offered an eight-degree
programs with one diploma course also reported a decline in the BS Marine
Biology and BS Fisheries. The BS Biology started with 90 students in 1998-
1999; however, about 65 students were retained in 2008-2000. Although the BS
Fisheries started with 115 students in 1999-2000, it only showed a retention rate
of 73 students towards 2007-2008.
As early as 1988, some agricultural institutions in United States had already
experience similar trends of steadily dropping enrollment for over the past 10
years at a rate of 1% to 3% annually (National Research Council, 1988). The
total agricultural education enrolment that had dropped came from students
with traditional farm backgrounds. Consequently, the state felt the need for a
traditional production agriculture curriculum in agricultural education programs
to sustain the declining students’ enrollment (Peasley, & Henderson, 1992).
Whereas, when the new students being recruited into the Agriculture programs,
the number being retained is far below the level needed to maintain a consistent
supply of graduates for the agriculture industry. From the findings of the study,
it revealed that the forefront of the challenges was the recruitment and retention
of students who are likely to enter employment in agriculture.
In the Philippines, this drift in the enrolment has also posed a major
challenge not only in ZAMPEN HEIs but also in most colleges offering
agriculture nationwide. The present challenge calls for a total renewal of the
agricultural education system to attract a new breed of students who will play
a vital role in meeting the challenges of the future agriculture program. Total
renewal specifically entails a new direction, a new sense of urgency, new training
and instructional approaches, a new level of scientific and financial support, and
a new approach to cooperation among all players more specifically, the academe,
the industry, and the society as a whole.
207
As agricultural development is one of the major concerns in ZAMPEN,

efforts to maximize its growth and sustainability lies not only in application of
improved innovations, but on highly trained and well-prepared human capital
that will manage and sustain agricultural activities in the region. As the national
government is geared towards improving agricultural productivity in the face of
rapidly increasing population, higher education institutions in the region must
be able to respond to the opportunities that can transform agriculture as a new
and innovative growth sector in Western Mindanao.
Among other things, the present agricultural education system needs to be
enhanced giving emphasis on advancing “knowledge with practice” as a mode
for agriculture students to comprehend and internalize information and new
methods of managing crops, livestock, fisheries, and agricultural resources. This
initiative is imperative to ZAMPEN where agriculture and fisheries are a way
of life of the rural populace. The region’s agricultural education system should
be able to contribute in harnessing the competitive advantage of the region
in agriculture and fisheries. For one thing, ZAMPEN is a major producer of
coconut, rubber, and marine products like seaweeds and tuna. The economic
gains to be brought about by improvement in the region’s competitive advantage
in these commodities along with other equally important agricultural products
will transform the region into an agribusiness hub and a true growth sector in
Mindanao. With transformation and economic development comes change in
community and people, and a sense of belongingness that hopes to bring about
lasting peace that has long been elusive in most regions of Mindanao. This project
aims to contribute to this transformation.
FRAMEWORK
The AFNR Curriculum in ZAMPEN-SUCs needs to be nationally and

globally competitive. The contribution of the AFNR project to the present
AFNR curriculum is widely acknowledge in enhancing usefulness of agriculture
education in terms of (i) students’ entrepreneurial preparations,(ii) developing
human resources in knowledge, skills, and applications, and, (iii) employability
of graduates in major sectors like business, government and other profit-oriented
organizations. The project followed the Log Model Framework using the input-
process-output. The AFNR program focused on SUCs collaboration provided
mutual benefits and strengthened each SUC niche select areas on banana tissue
culture, rubber, and coconut and seaweeds entrepreneurship.
208
As shown in Figure 1, the inputs involved curriculum enhancement with

high S&T, human resources development and facilities upgrading including
establishment of business ventures to showcase students’ skills in entrepreneurship.
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of AFNR Project 2.3
The AFNR curriculum enhancement developed learning resources

used in training students via modular approach. The five technical and four
entrepreneurial modules developed were used as an intervention on the existing
AFNR curricular courses across the four ZAMPEN SUCs.
The Project 2.3 conceptual framework provided the actual hands-on
experiences in the operation of the IGP and entrepreneurial activities. It
started with an opportunity for students to carry out a mini trial experience on
entrepreneurial practices. The module development workshop took off from the
input discussion of experts followed by a forum with resource speakers from
the business sector having extensive knowledge on business and entrepreneurial
ventures.
The human resource enhancement activities involved Group Trainings
and in-service trainings of AFNR faculty and non-faculty training specialists
209
in ZAMPEN-SUCs. The various activities included the module development,

educational visits to model institutions which provided access to training
materials and information from the visited model schools. The model schools
had large number of successful experiences to share that provided the means
to impart relevant skills on the production and processing technologies as well
as entrepreneurial skills and business ventures. The enhancement also provided
industry-academe interfacing to provide supplement strategies by which synergies
can be induced to orient education and involved other sectors to program
expansion and collaboration.
The training component in Project 2.3 provided hands-on applications,
experiences, and the preparation of the students’ business plan into the actual
entrepreneurship ventures in accordance to the budgetary requirements of their
respective IGPs. Correspondingly, the students’ business plan describes students’
involvement in small groups with a student leader. The plan procedures and steps
were carried out and validated as operational outputs to serve as the blueprint of
standard operating procedures in the conduct of an e- IGP subsequently carried
out in Project 3.1on Students IGPs.
The trainings / workshops adopted the following methods and strategies:
• Participatory approach in carrying out the business plan among
prospective trainees;
• Utilization of small groups with student leaders identified by their
specified roles and responsibilities laid out in their business plans;
• Presentation of outputs in the plenary after the actual hands-on
experiences during the trial runs during the actual training for
validation; and,
• Integration, institutionalization and internalization of outputs during
the monitoring.
The program flowchart shows the link of Project 2 (Institutional Capacity

Building) and Project 3 in support to (IGP) supported by three components. The
Project 2, inputs and process have reached large number of students through
oriented trainings with modular intervention in the AFNR courses. The project
outputs provided trained and developed new breed of entrepreneurs from AFNR
graduates, exposing faculty and student skills training and enhanced AFNR
programs from the three major component areas as reflected in the diagram
through: (a) human resource development; (b) curriculum enrichment and (c)
facilities upgrading.
210
These three major components in the boxes, (a) (b) and (c) provided inputs
to human resource development to support faculty capability enhancement
through various mechanisms illustrated in the separate boxes, namely, trainings,
module preparation, and exposure to other technology and faculty visits. The
AFNR curriculum enhancement through modular approach exposed the students
to the needed skills in production, processing technologies, and entrepreneurship
to support the three identified IGPs for Project 3 among ZAMPEN SUCs.
The last box illustrates the outputs of the link between Project 2 and 3
showing high employability and entrepreneurship skills for the graduates of the
enhanced AFNR curriculum.
The project aimed to increase the enrolment in agriculture and forestry

courses through curricular enhancement and employability of graduates of
agriculture, forestry and fisheries in the ZAMPEN SUCs. Specifically, the
project aimed to: 1) Enhance/enrich students’ learning and training through
modular intervention programs on existing AFNR curricular courses in the
ZAMPEN-SUCs; 2) Enhance the capability of faculty and training specialist as
Entrepreneurial Educators; 3) Improve the learning environment by upgrading
the existing facilities of the ZAMPEN-SUCs and showcasing agribusiness and
fishery ventures with S&T application; and, 4)Introduce and prepare students’
career entry by linkaging and networking with various organizations and expose
them to the world of agribusiness.
METHODOLOGY
The project was implemented in five ZAMPEN SUCs, namely: WMSU

(Zamboanga City); JRMSU (Tampilisan and Katipunan campuses, Zamboanga
del Norte), JHCSC (Dumingag campus, Zamboanga del Sur) and ZSCMST
(Zamboanga City).
The activities are focused on students enrolled in the AFNR courses of
the collaborating institutions, the unemployed AFNR graduates and retooling
of SUCs faculty members. For students currently enrolled in the AFNR, the
trainings were initiated on the2ndyear of the program as preparatory period prior
to engagement in actual business enterprise. The actual business ventures were
conducted during the last year of the students’ academic program through the
income generating projects (IGPs) established by the SUCs.
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Component 1. Capability Building of Faculty/Specialist
Instructional Materials Development. A critical mass of faculty members

was selected in the preparation of the nine training modules and one
training manual.
Training of Faculty/Specialist. The 70 faculty specialists from the various

SUCs in ZAMPEN underwent four short-term in-service trainings to
prepare them for entrepreneurial attributes prior to the implementation
of the AFNR enhancement program. The short-term training identified
faculty specialist to at least attend four trainings in entrepreneurship
modules and one technical skill module. The training duration lasted from
two (2) days for skills and additional five (5) days per module training as
required.
Educational Visits to Model Institutions. Educational tour and field visits

were conducted to selected SUCs and private Universities with established
agribusiness farms and success stories on entrepreneurships. The SUCs
visited included Bicol University, Cavite State University, University of
Asia and the Pacific, University of the Philippines at Los Baños, Central
Luzon State University, Benguet State University. These institutions are
known to implement innovative strategies in curriculum enhancement and
development in entrepreneurship, curriculum delivery, quality assurance,
learning resources, field demonstrations, commercialization of technology,
regulatory and policy frameworks relating to applications of science
technology and biotech parks. A total of 18 strong faculty specialists
were part of the AFNR educational tour to model institutions in Luzon
conducted at the early implementation of last March 29 to April 7, 2009.
Academe-Industry Linkaging and Interfacing. Linkage is necessary

for building connections with local farmers, industries and prospective
Agribusiness sectors on farm production and marketing. As the students
started to venture in business on their final year in the academic program,
the faculty mentors assisted the students in networking and building
connections with the local businesses, markets, extension programs,
farm demonstrations with interested farmers, and part time farmers. This
enabled students to directly market their produce, enrich their skills in
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production management and farm planning. The focus was on enterprise,

based on local market needs and production management to meet market
requirements (organic, local, and high quality).
In interfacing, activities were related to marketing and alternative enterprises
connection with local agriculture community sectors. The activities
also included students monitoring, reporting results and evaluation for
program improvement. The interfacing served as an avenue for graduating
students seeking prospective employers or possible sources of funding for
entrepreneurial undertakings.
Mentor Relationships. All students were assigned to Entrepreneurial

Educators/ Mentors to provide advice and support in developing their
entrepreneurial skills and interests as their proposed as program of work.
The mentoring involved areas like risk assessments, venture capitalization,
change management and issues related to organization start up. Faculty
members were assigned to students who worked as a team to create a new
venture plan which could result to a feasible business proposal.
Component 2. Enhancement of Student Learning Through Modular Training
Development of Manuals and Modules. Nine modules and one training

manual for the faculty trainers were developed to enriched the existing
AFNR curricular offerings. The modules were used as a course enrichment
to enhance students’ skills on processing, production management, and
entrepreneurship. The training on module preparation was part to equip
ZAMPEN SUCs involved in the AFNR curriculum enhancement program.
The timeline for module preparation, pilot testing and application of its
copyright was done in eight months.
Likewise, the course syllabi of the various AFNR subjects offerings
were enriched to match the use of the modules and laboratory manual.
The modules and the training manual served as a guide for the laboratory
activities of students in the AFNR courses, including agribusiness and
entrepreneurship subjects during the semester. Subjects from the different
courses that were included in enhancement program were also realigned to
maximize the use of the laboratory facilities.
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Course Enhancement using the Modules. The modules were used as

course enrichment on the major courses offered in Agriculture and Fisheries.
The subjects were incorporated with entrepreneurship principles based on
the nature and content of each course and technical skills component for
internship subjects.
Conduct of Short-Term Training Courses. The short-term training course

was conducted for students and unemployed AFNR graduates within the
duration of two years during the project implementation. The trainings
involved two aspects namely, the technical skills and entrepreneurial skills
enhancement.
The first phase focuses on the enhancement of technical skills of
the students/participants on selected topics with high S & T content and
market opportunities. A total of five short training courses were conducted
during the implementation period. At least 20 participants were expected
per training course with 4 batches per topic. Thus, a total of 80 trained
participants were expected per topic and a total of 450 trained participants
for the six topics were proposed for the duration of the project.
The second type of training was on entrepreneurial skills. The
participants who attended the short-term training courses on technical
skills were those who had already identified their specific enterprise prior to
use and engage on the chosen enterprise as the focus of the training. A series
of four trainings corresponding to 4 modules were also done involving 25
participants per short training course. Thus, a total of 100 participants were
projected to be trained on entrepreneurship.
The skills training hoped to instill on students a degree of healthy
competition, combined with shared goals, personal friendships and feeling
of trusts and confidence among students involved in applying their newly
acquired skills in the business ventures.
Component 3. Facilities Upgrading & Establishment of Demonstration

Enterprises
The AFNR facilities upgrading included all of the following; a) Expansion

of Rubber Nursery and Budwood Garden, b) Production and Processing
Room for Coconut Sugar, c) Seaweed Production and Drying Facilities and;
d.) Training Room with Audio Visual Facilities.
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The upgrading of facilities with the necessary equipment provided support

on the enhanced courses, short course training and workshops for the
income generating projects of the ZAMPEN-SUCs involved.
A. INSTITUTIONAL CAPABILITY ENHANCEMENT
1. Formal Curricular Program Innovations

Table 1 presents the curricular enhancement across the four SUCs in five
campuses. It can be noted that the reviews and enhancement exceeded more
than 100% from its set target initially, having reviewed and enriched a total of
10 curricula during the project implementation. The same table presents the 81
courses reviewed on the third, fourth, and fifth year levels of the AFNR courses
during the first and second semester of School Year 2009-2011, respectively.
Across the implementers, the frequency of subjects/ courses enriched/ and
reviewed revealed 10 courses as the least compared to the highest at 36.A total
of30 new short-term courses were offered, however, each SUC showed an average
of 5-7 new short-term courses offerings. Among all the SUCs, no one reported
to have revised their curriculum. Furthermore, it was because when the AFNR
was implemented, the curriculum was recently revised. Curricular revision must
be done within the last three years in compliance with the CHED Memo Order
14. The CHED order explicitly defines curriculum revision to be done every
three years for the BS Agriculture degrees and other related programs. The latest
curriculum revision was done in 2008 prior to the implementation of the AFNR
project in Feb 2009.
Table 1. Curricular Enhancement

SUCs implementing AFNR Curricula
CURRICULA Total Actual
ENHANCEMENT JRMSU JRMSU JHC- Target Accomp.
WMSU ZSCMST
Tampilisan Katipunan SC
No. of Curricula
5 6 4 5 1 9 10
Reviewed
No. of Curricula
5 5 4 5 1 9 10
Enriched
No. of Curricula
0 0 0 0 0 4 0
Revised
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No. of Newly
Developed 0 0 0 0 0 - 0
Curricula
No. of Courses/
36 9 16 10 10 - 81
Subjects Reviewed
No. of Courses/
29 5 16 10 10 - 70
subjects Enriched
New Short-term
7 5 6 7 5 - 30
courses offered
Figure 2 presents the 10 curricular programs involved in the AFNR

curriculum enhancement across the four SUCs. The same table shows the five
programs in Agriculture, one for the BS Forestry and Environmental Science,
and four for the Marine Sciences.
Figure 2. Implementing SUCs with AFNR Enriched Curriculum
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Upon the implementation of the AFNR curricular enhancement in SY

2009, all the ten BS courses were provided with enrichment. In general, most
agriculture courses were introduced with Entrepreneurship modules. Three
course subjects, Agri Econ 120, Agri Econ 130 and Ag Mgt 101, were integrated
with the four entrepreneurship modules among 4th year students in their first and
second semester. Among 3rd and 4th year students in the first and second semester,
entrepreneurship modules were integrated in courses such as Agri RES 101, Agri
Tech 136, Agri Bus 117 & 105, and MB 112 for Module 1 (Feasibility Study,
Project Proposal & Business Plan); An Sci 106, Crop Sci 105, Agri Tech 143, Agri
Bus 117 & 141, Maj. 105 and Elec 2 for Module 2 (Product Development);Agri
Bus 153 & 104 and Ag Econ 120 for Module 3 (Marketing Management); An
Sci 108, Agri Bus 115 and Agri Bus 108 for Module 4 (Accounting for Non-
Accountants).
Technical skills module is vastly integrated from 2nd year to 5th year, mostly
in the second semester. Module 5 (Tissue Culture of Abaca & Banana) was
integrated in seven courses; An Sci 113, Crop Sci 107, AE 153, 154 & 157, Agri
Bus 117 and ABM 190. This was implemented among 3rd, 4th and 5th year in the
first and second semester. Module 6 (Coco Sap Sugar Processing) was integrated in
most courses and implemented from 2nd to 5th year. All technical skills module
was integrated in Crop Sci 112 and Agri Tech 119 and implemented among 4th
year students in the second semester.
For the BS Fisheries and related courses, the subjects like Marine Bio 112,
Aquaculture 1 and Aquaculture 4, Aquatic Fisheries 2 and Mar Tech 112 were
introduced with Module 7 (Deepsea seaweeds Farming) in the 4thyear programs.
For the enrichment of student entrepreneurial knowledge and skills Ag Econ
120/ Ag Mgt 101, Agtech 136, Practicum, Marine Bio 12 and Aquaculture,
Aquaculture 4 was introduced with Module 3 (Marketing Management) in the
third year.
During the curricular enhancements, the BS courses in Marine Science in
their senior years were exposed on the actual seaweed enterprise making use of
the facilities provided. Prior to this, the students underwent immersion on deep
sea seaweed production through pilot farms. On the last year of their academic
programs they were introduced with enterprise management through the
organized seaweed farming, including market and trading activities.
The Agri Bus 108 and ABM 171 were integrated with modules 7 (Seaweed
Farming), 8 (Rubber Nursery Management) and 9(Rubber Budwood Production) on
4th year students in the first and second year. All the BS courses contained more
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S&T content integrated with biotechnology specifically on plant propagation

and tissue culture techniques relating the content to the scientific and technical
nature of the field of agriculture. The fisheries curricular courses were also
introduced for students to acquire skills and techniques in seaweed production
and management.
2. Facilities Upgrading & Equipment Procurement
Table 2. Facilities Enhanced

Total Investment
Name of Facility Target Actual Location
DOST-GIA Counterpart
500,000.00 27,000.00
Training Room 1 1 WMSU
($10,000) ($540)
Coco-sugar Processing 500,000.00 17,000.00
1 1 WMSU
Room ($10,000) ($340)
Deep Sea Seaweed
300,000.00
Production and 1 1 - ZSCMST
($6,000)
Processing Room
250,000.00 10,000.00 WMSU &
Rubber Nursery Garden 2 2
($5,000) ($200) JRMSU-T
250,000.00 250,000.00 WMSU &
Rubber Budwood Garden 2 2
($5,000) ($5,000) JRMSU-T
Note: 1 USD= 50Php
Table 2 shows the facilities upgraded by SUCs and the total budget for each
facility provided for the period of two years SY 2009-2011. The budgetary cost of
the total project was Php 9,804,126.00 ($196,082.00) comprising the amount of
Php 2,784,000.00 ($55,680.00) for the facilities and equipment enhancement.
Among the SUCs implementers, only WMSU, JRMSU Tampilisan Campus and
ZSCMST were provided with facilities and equipment upgrading.
Prior to the finalization of the actual cost for each of the SUCs implemented,
it was felt by the concerned proponents during the proposal preparation the need
to prorate the proposed amounts in specified areas like Processing and Drying
facilities for Seaweeds, Training room for the expanded number of clients taking
new courses in Agriculture, the additional equipment and supplies for the Tissue
Culture laboratory, and the Rubber and Budwood Gardens for the rubber
projects in two sites, WMSU and JRMSU Tampilisan.
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Table 3. Total Equipment Procured

Qty.
YEAR I & II Purchased Items DOST-GIA
Target Actual
1. PC Notebooks 2 3 81,510.00 ($1,630)
2. Desktop Computer 4 4 85,100.00 $1,702)
3. Computer Printer 3 3 21,335.00 ($426)
4. Air conditioner (Window Type) 2 3 87,350.00 ($1,747)
5. Refrigerator 2 3 56,670.00 ($1,133)
6. Water Pump 3 3 67,000.00 ($1,340)
7. Audio Mixer 1 1 7,000.00 ($140)
8. Power Amplifier 1 1 9,000.00 ($180)
9. Speaker 1 1 7,500.00 ($150)
10. CamCorder-Video 1 1 34,999.00 ($670)
11. Digital Camera 1 1 9,650.00 ($193)
12. DVD Player 1 1 5,999.00 ($120)
13. LCD Projector 2 2 69,375.00 (1,387)
14. Sala Set 1 1 13,500.00 ($270)
15. Tables and Chairs 1 1 22,670.00 ($453)
16. Autoclave 1 1 48,428.00 ($968)
17. Autoclave/Pressure Cooker 1 2 71,750.00 ($1,435)
18. Monitoring Equipment “Banca” 4 4 126,764.00 ($2,535)
19. Fabricated Economical Kiln 1 1 99,369.00 ($1,987)
20. Photocopying Machine 1 1 40,000.00 ($800)
21. Built-in LCD Screen 1 2 65,550.00 ($1,311)
22. Laminating machine 1 1 4,300.00 ($86)
22. Distilling Apparatus 1 1 60,000.00 ($1,200)
TOTAL EQUIPMENT COST P 1,094,819.00 ($21,896)
Note: 1 USD= 50Php
Table 3 shows the list of equipment provided for the project in all
the SUCs. From the list, about four items (PC notebooks, air-conditioner,
refrigerator, and pressure cooker) were increased from their original quantity. In
this case, permission to add an item was sought from the AFNR–PMO with the
justification that the original price quotation of an item was low. One similar
additional item is still within its total cost.
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Overall, the facilities upgraded were the training room with audio visual
facilities, the expansion of the rubber nursery and budwood garden, processing
room for the coco-sugar and the seaweed production facilities. Since the
upgrading of the rubber nursery, it has served as demonstration site for rubber
budding, production and its management. The seaweed production facility has
also provided ZSCMST students an avenue to experience seaweed production
and improvement of culture techniques using the deep-sea method, the post-
harvest and processing facility for students enrolled in the BS Aquaculture, BS
Fisheries, BS Marine Biology and BS Marine Technology.
3. Short-Term Trainings for faculty, students and alumni
• In-service Training. A total of nine (9) batches of trainings were

conducted. This includes the Training of Trainers (TOT) on Entrepreneurship
and Technical skills done on-site in each of the respective campuses of the
SUCs (refer to Table 4). The first training was done on the first week of August
and ended in the first week of October 2009 at JRMSU campuses, Bunguiao
Eco Farm Training Center, WMSU San Ramon and ZSCMST Campus. This
approach was done in order not to disrupt the classes taught by the individual
faculty involved in each of SUCs implementing the modular approach. Figure
3 shows the total Training of Trainers attendance with 74 faculty members
involved in the entrepreneurship training. Out of the 74 faculty members, a total
of 71 trainers completed a series of training totaling to five for entrepreneurship
training and one technical skills training respectively. During the on-site trainings,
100% of the teachers involved in Agriculture and related program received in-
service trainings which were also considered a form of professional development
for teachers given the nature of the workshop. The workshop approaches were
observed very effective in increasing the collaboration among agriculture faculty
members as participants of the workshops. Individual faculty were also given the
task to submit their Multiplier Effects Proposal cascading the number of classes/
and the courses where the modules were integrated for the enhancements on the
following semester.
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Table 4. Duration and Type of Training

No. of
No. of Total hours
Type of Training Train- Venue
days duration *
ers
1. Entrepreneurship 2 5 40 JRMSU KatipunanZaNorte
2. Coco-sugar
2 3 24 JRMSU TampilisanZaNorte
Processing
3. Rubber Budwood/
2 3 24 JRMSU TampilisanZaNorte
Nursery Production
4. Entrepreneurship 2 5 40 JRMSU TampilisanZaNorte
5. Entrepreneurship 2 5 40 Bunguiao, Zambo. City
6. Tissue Culture 2 3 24 San Ramon, Zambo. City
7. Coco-sugar
2 3 24 San Ramon, Zambo. City
Processing
8. Deep Sea Seaweeds
2 3 24 Rio Hondo, Zambo. City
Farming
9. Entrepreneurship 3 5 40 San Ramon, Zambo. City
TOTAL 35 days 232 hours
* No. of days x 8 hours per day
As the curricular enhancements were first introduced to the Regional

Trainers in all SUCs, the modules were well received. The teachers were taught to
use the Multiplier Effects (ME) Templates to plot in which subject/courses will
provide quantifiable deliverables using this scheme.
Faculty Trainers across ZAMPEN who attended the Training of Trainers
(TOT) were tasked to submit a Multiplier Effects Template. This was used to
forecast and plot which subjects/courses would be incorporated in the AFNR
modules, the methods used in teaching, time frame and other significant
information regarding the subjects content to be able to forecast if the deliverables
were actually met. The ME templates provided relevance and broadened the
scope of the curriculum using the modules. During the implementation of the
modular enhancements, curricular changes were not reflected in the title of the
courses, however, over time substantive changes in the content were observed in
what is being taught in the AFNR courses.
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Figure 3. Total Number of Faculty Members Trained
About three (3) faculties were trained on Coco-sugar Processing. Training

was conducted from April 21 to 24, 2009 at the local PCA-ZRC San Ramon
on Coco-sugar processing Coco honey and jelly. The immersion of the faculty
was an avenue to hone their technical skills in the various steps and procedure
for coco-sugar processing and other value added products. The other related
trainings done included two (2) faculties sent to UPLB to attend a two-week
intensive training on Tissue Culture from May 17-23 and July 12-18, 2009 at
Biotech Laboratory, UP Los Baňos Laguna. Training on Multiplier’s Training for
Seaweed production was attended by one faculty from ZSCMST from May 6-9,
2009 at Garden Orchid Hotel, Zamboanga City.
• Alumni and Student Trainings. During the implementation of the

curricular enhancements, students were trained in the entrepreneurial as well as
in the four technical skills to include Rubber Budding, Tissue Culture, and Coco-
sugar processing for those enrolled in the Agriculture education. For students
enrolled in the marine sciences, both the entrepreneurial as well as the deep
seaweed production were given. Students during the curricular enhancements
were also asked to submit their group project proposal, feasibility study following
the procedures on the learning modules provided per topic.
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Figure 4. Total Number of Unemployed Graduates Trained
To reach out a maximum number of unemployed graduates, announcement

via radio broadcast, words of mouth and fliers posted along bus stations, market
places, and business establishments were done.
Figure 4 presents the total of 477 trained unemployed graduates across
the four SUCs for the technical and entrepreneurial trainings offered. 135
unemployed graduates were trained in entrepreneurship and 342 graduates were
trained in technical skills courses. A larger number of alumni have been trained
in Technical Skills, specifically on Rubber Nursery and Budwood Production.
From the in-campus trainings, the SUCs had observed a change of attitude
among graduates who were provided 10 days free trainings specifically on
entrepreneurship and technical skills. The students revealed that their learning
experiences reflected a shift of emphasis on entrepreneurial ventures and hands-
on trainings on tissue culture techniques and coco-sugar processing.
During the trainings, the graduates raised issues on farm techniques on
seaweed production, profitability, and trade and project employment. These
offered added challenges and opportunities for SUC providers thought provoking
ideas on ways or strategies on marketing, product processing and packaging.
Secondly, the issue on the conduct of follows ups for the trainees who had finished
their training specifically on the application of new knowledge and technologies
in rubber budding, rubber seed production, seaweeds processing and marketing.
The issues also included starting a coco-sugar processing asa timely substitute for
unemployed graduates whose parents had background on seaweed, coconut and
banana farming.
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From the observed change of attitude among graduates, this observation

corroborates the studies done by Martin, Rajasekaran, and Vold, (1989)
who reported factors related to ways through which individual responds to a
curriculum change. The national study of high school agriculture teachers on
the studies of (Martin et al., 1989) also revealed that teachers’ changed attitude
toward the importance of teaching science content is related to age, experience
and the educational level of the teacher. Moreover, these observations from
AFNR experience support the above authors. Based on the open-ended questions
given during the training evaluation, the findings revealed that both teachers’ and
students’ desire to apply the learning modules, share their ideas about the new
skills they have acquired and experienced, and get more interested on how to
market and work on the product development.
Figure 5. Total students enrolled in AFNR enriched curriculum per SUC
In Figure 5,a total of 902 students were reached out for the technical
trainings while 303 received the Entrepreneurship trainings. Among the SUCs,
JHCSC had trained 422 students in the technical skills specifically on rubber
budding and coco-sugar. JRMSU Katipunan showed no results for either training
due to the late implementation period of their AFNR enriched curriculum.
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4. Learning Materials Development

During the conceptualization and development of the nine Learning
Modules, and one Training Manual, a critical mass of faculty and experts were
identified. The module writing workshop was necessary in preparation for the
faculty attending the Training of Trainers (TOT).
The Module writing progress through the individual presentation of the
individual authors followed by the critiquing process, which was scheduled
for three days from April 29-30, 2009. The last day of the workshop finalized
the contents of the learning modules and the final suggestions were done by
a Development Communication expert, Dr. Felix Librero from UPLB. Each
identified specialist/ and experts from partner school in the region were also
given copies of the final drafts and were invited as critique on the last day of
the workshop based on their work expertise and areas of discipline to critique to
improve on the module content and presentation.
• Module Preparation Writeshop. About 12 faculty members attended a
module write shop session for the development of the learning modules.
The full module development progressed in 6 months, which was
initiated through the collection of materials from the Lakbay Aral. The
individual authors at the same time also continued stacking reviews of
related literature to enrich the content presentation of the modules.
During the module development, each module underwent a series of
re-writing sections and revision based from the individual consultant’s
reviews. The contents of each topic were written by at least two to three
authors. The first draft was initially pilot tested during the conduct of
the first and second trainings on various campuses. Suggestions from
the consultants who reviewed the modules were incorporated in the
final version of the module prior to the application of its copyright. The
various courses enhanced using the modules were based on the specific
nature of the subject. The modules were also used by student interns and
those students doing their practicum.
• Development of the Learning Modules. In pursuance to the curriculum
enhancements using the modular approach, nine modules and one
Training Manual were developed. The development of the Learning
Modules, was initiated through a workshop among Agriculture/ Fisheries
Specialist identifying the important aspects to address the Maximum
Learning Competencies (MLC’s) of the users. From the nine modules,
four were entrepreneurial and five modules were on technical skills.
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The development of the modules followed a set of criteria on four

emboldened issues: (i) presentation of the Key Concepts (2) Objectives of the
training guide (3) Activities to be done (clarity of the procedures and task) ; and
(4) FAQ- Frequently Asked Questions at the end of the learning task.
The modules were used in the re-orientation of the teaching content, course
curricula, and interaction with students. The modules developed were used as
new learning resources to enhance the quality of teaching and training including
research. Harnessing the student’s technical skills as well as the entrepreneurial
knowledge was central to achieve the goal of the AFNR project 2.3.
Table 5. List of Modules and Manual Developed

Type Title Author(s)
Training ENTREPRENEURSHIP MODULES
Modules
Module 1: Feasibility Study, Project Engr. Danilo Fonollera
Proposal & Business Plan Prof. Arbaiya Abdula
Prof. Florenchita Somblingo
Module 2: Product Development Prof. Arbaiya Abdula
Module 3: Marketing Management Prof. Arbaiya Abdula
Module 4: Accounting for Non- Prof. Arbaiya Abdula
Accountant Prof. Florenchita Somblingo
TECHNICAL SKILLS MODULES
Module 5: Tissue Culture of Abaca Dr. Jocelyn Pedroso
& Banana Prof. Elmer Galo
Module 6: Coco-Sap Sugar Dr. Rafael Baguio
Processing Prof. Concesa Mangaya-ay
Module 7: Deep Sea Seaweeds Prof. Oliver Tito
Faming Prof. Rolando Pelinggon
Module 8: Rubber Nursery Dr. Moises Glenn Tangalin
Management Prof. Pepito Lacbao
Module 9: Rubber Budwood Dr. Moises Glenn Tangalin
Production Prof. PepitoLacbao
Training General Guidelines: Empowering Dr. Vivian R. Molina
Manual AFNR Trainers
Table 5 presents the title of the modules and the various authors in their
field of expertise. Shown below in Figure 6 is the cover for the Training Manual
which provides the overall concept on the use of the nine learning resources. The
226
picture below shows the Training Manual developed to guide trainers on all the
modules for the curricular enrichment.
Figure 6. Training Manual/ANFR Modules Cover
5. Institutional Benefits
In pursuance to the implemented curricular enhancement and facilities
upgrading, the AFNR project has derived the following benefits:
a. The project has reoriented the 74AFNR faculty mentors from ZAMPEN
and invigorated the agriculture, forestry and fishery curriculum with
trained human resource and, quality of teaching. The project likewise
provided in-service training for the faculty from the Training of Trainers
(TOT) workshops, consultancy, public-private sector partnership,
industry academia interfaced under the AFNR project.
b. The project has also contributed significant income for the students and
better training opportunities with the enhanced facilities and provided
better equipment to further improve the student’s e-IGP. Further, the
trainings have exposed various faculty and other practitioners to new
developments in the niche/emerging /cutting edge areas. The durations
of the training have even extended local hospitality of each host SUC
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conducting the trainings on site and ensured access to their facilities.

c. The AFNR project was well recognized as a timely intervention among
SUCS implementer in terms of the change of attitude among trainers
and entering first year students enrolling in the AFNR courses. This
greatly helped raise the enrolment figures from the dwindling trend of
the AFNR courses.
d. The process of introducing strong S&T content and enrichment
in the subjects helped AFNR faculty enrich their respective subject
areas, expand curriculum content, and the entrepreneurial application
and training of students in selected courses. The AFNR provided
opportunities to enrich existing course curricula, developed and used
new learning resources to emphasize acquisition of students’ skills and
knowledge on enterprise, product marketing and needed IGP operations
among student trainees.
e. The involvement of some sectors as business partners was identified
when the products were produced out of the students’ training and
activities integrated in the entrepreneurial ventures. Future prospects
for DTI for the product certification as well as TESDA accreditation
on the workshops to be institutionalized using AFNR as the accredited
program.
f. The selected SUC implementers developed greater alliance
complementing their strength in terms of products developed and
marketed like the rubber specific for JRMSU and JH Cerilles campuses,
WMSU on Tissue Culture seedlings and Coco-sugar products and
ZSCMST on Seaweeds. The faculty visits from either SUCs being
AFNR implementer provided an opportunity for more institutional
intervention as insights for consideration.
g. The project also contributed indirectly aspects of R& D on the
sustainability of some products developed especially on the cost
efficiency on the use of the existing laboratory for training or IGP.
Likewise, the project’s contribution was seen on the actual products like
better packaging materials, shelf life, cost efficiency (firewood or fuel) in
sugar processing, other forms and appearance, the other forms of retail
and marketing strategies.
h. The Project has forged further ties with other government agencies in
the operation of the student e-IGPs like jointly promoting academe-
private partnership on education and training, service and commercial
linkage.
228
i. The SUC implementers were also identified leaders in different aspects

of product development based on their rich experiences. Future R
& D collaboration for product development as significant areas for
complementation on each other’s capabilities as a new strategic area like
rubber, seaweeds and biotechnology.
B. POST PROJECT OUTCOMES

A post tracer study as part of the Project 2.3 deliverables was conducted
towards the end of the Project 2.3 implementation. The target respondents
were the unemployed AFNR participants who took the various trainings in five
campuses.
The source of names of the target respondents was from the attendance
sheet listing of training participants on different dates and nature of trainings
obtained from each SUC Training Coordinators. The participants from each
SUCs were randomly selected, taking only at least 20unemployed graduates from
the list of111 names. The participants were informed of the post tracer study and
were requested to return back to campus for the conduct of the FGD. Frame of
error for this study was controlled by cross-checking the names of the students
in the master list of participants by SUCs/ title of training /dates of training.
Selection error was controlled by checking the list to ensure that there were no
duplicate names on the list and to make sure selection of the participants for the
FGDs have Case Stories.
A constructed questionnaire consisting of 20 items was developed. The
items statements on the questionnaire asked the following questions:
• the relevance of the AFNR trainings and Benefits derived from the
training
• How the training will relate to their future prospects/
• Insights and lessons learned/ challenges faced after the trainings
• Strength and weakness of the trainings
• Other future prospects
For the case study the selection of the respondents were based on a criteria
as follows (a) AFNR unemployed graduates who received the campus trainings
(b) self-employed operating on the AFNR banner commodities (c) or those who
have newly undertaken AFNR-S&T-based business start-ups. The results of the
post tracer are also presented in the following section.
229
General Findings of the Tracer Study:
A. Profile of AFNR Trainee-Graduates

1. The AFNR trainee-graduates were relatively young with an average age
of 20 years old, single, from rural origin and were from economically
poor families. Majority are children of farmers, forestry workers &
fishermen.
2. The ZAMPEN AFNR trainings across SUCs were done for a period
of ten months from May 2010 - February 2011. A total of 380
graduating students and 80 alumni unemployed graduates were
trained. The training schedules were varied per institution depending
on various factors such as time, resources and category of participants.
Each institution conducted at least three cycles of trainings on
entrepreneurial and technical skills on coco-sugar production, banana
tissue culture seedling production, rubber nursery management & bud
wood production and deep seaweeds production.
3. From the total of 111 respondents involved in the post tracer study, 37
% (41) were trained in coco sugar, 23 % (26) on seaweeds production,
27% (31) on rubber nursery & bud wood production, and only 3 %
(4) were trained on tissue culture. Only the students from WMSU
College of Agriculture were given this training since other SUCs do
not have a Tissue Culture Laboratory.
4. As revealed by the respondents, aside from the AFNR trainings the
44% of the respondents were also given other training opportunities
on crop & livestock production & management sponsored by private
companies, other government line agencies and non-government
organizations.
B. Employment Status
1. While SUCs AFNR trainings prepare and equip students on both
technical and entrepreneurial skills for self-employment purposes,
a number of graduates have also tried other jobs from other sectors.
The 42% of the AFNR trainees after graduation found employment
from a wide range of sectors. Most of them (58%) were employed in
local private firms, local government units (22%), national government
agencies (11%), and non- government organizations (9 %).
2. About 31 % of the AFNR graduates found jobs after graduation, 17 %
230
found jobs after 6 months, about 17 % were employed after a year with
only 10% self- employed.
3. Most graduates who found jobs after graduation worked in different
sectors. The nature of their positions varied. The 72%however, were
casuals /contractual employees, 6 % were hired as regular employees
with permanent items.
4. For the other 52 % unemployed, the 38 % were enrolled in other BS
courses in the 3rd and 4th year levels failing to get jobs after finishing the
2-year program in Diploma in Agricultural Technology.
5. The other unemployed graduates cited lack of job opportunities with no
civil service eligibility as prime reasons for not getting hired. However,
a significant percentage (32 %) of these unemployed graduates is now
processing requirements to start up their own business ventures.
6. Of the 10% self-employed graduates, about 60% worked in retails and
merchandizing jobs, (30%) engaged in producing/ manufacturing,
and the (20%) in service-related jobs (20%). The (60%) self-employed
AFNR graduates got their sources of capital from their own families
and (40%) made loans from informal lending institutions.
7. Most of the employed graduates (42%) admitted have jobs not related
to their degrees earned because of the salary and benefits offered after
they graduated. The salary offered was only from Php 3,000 – Php
7,000 monthly, however, it compensated other forms of expenses since
the job location was near their residences.
C. Future Plans
1. Most employed graduates (60%) still planned to seek other employment
if given the chance. Higher salaries and benefits were the main reason
and the other reason cited was the job’s being related to their degree
earned. The other 40% preferred self- employment if given the chance
to acquire capital for doing business.
2. The respondents preferred self-employment, farming & merchandizing
as the most cited type of enterprises. Graduates who owned a parcel of
land planned to engage in integrated farming enterprise and at the same
time engage in retail/ merchandizing business in their communities.
They cited that their capital investment would probably start from Php
30,000 to Php100,000 as beginning capital.
231
D. Relevance of the AFNR Training

1. The AFNR graduates revealed a very good feedback on the quality
and adequacy of the AFNR training services and facilities. Over all,
the graduates were “very satisfied” with the different trainings &
entrepreneurial skills conducted under the AFNR Enhancing Program
conducted from SY 2009-2011.
2. Specifically, the graduates were interested in the various technical
skills which were dependent on the availability of resources in their
own homes and communities. Graduates from Jose Rizal Memorial
State University, Josefina H. Cerilles State College rated the trainings
as “very relevant” on rubber management & bud wood nursery, coco
sugar, & banana tissue culture. Similarly the graduates from Western
Mindanao State University also rated the trainings as “very relevant”.
For the Zamboanga State College of Marine Sciences &Technology,
their graduates rated all the trainings on the skills for deep seaweeds
production as “very relevant”.
3. Overall, graduates in ZAMPEN SUCs rated the AFNR trainings
“very relevant” on the AFNR actual hands-on experience. Almost all
have observed change of attitude towards business venture and self-
employment.
POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
Increasing the employability of graduates of agriculture, forestry and fisheries

(AFNR) in the ZAMPEN SUCs is a gigantic steps towards the creation of a
favorable and conducive scenario coupled with sincere commitment of all actors
from the national government, academe and the human resource in the AFNR
sector. The national government has to increase annual budget for agriculture
education and institute reforms in support for modernizing agriculture. In the
academe, this requires investment of modern laboratory and teaching facilities
and equipment, continuous training and capacitation of faculty for instruction
geared towards student centered approach. State Universities and Colleges must
integrate the high Science and Technology content in the curricular programs
utilizing modular instructional strategy of all AFNR courses offered in the
country. Moreover, students must be equipped with entrepreneurial skills in and
out of the campus for better exposure and practicum in preparation for a brighter
career entry level after graduation from college.
232
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the Philippine Council for Agriculture,

Aquatic, Forestry and Natural Resources and Development (PCAARRD) for
funding the study.
LITERATURE CITED
Martin, R., Rajasekaran, B., & Vold, L. (1989). A national study to determine
the role of bioscience/biotechnology in the study of agriculture as perceived
by vocational agriculture instructors. In Proceedings of the sixteenth annual
National Agriculture Education Research Meeting, Orlando, FL. Retrieved
from https://goo.gl/2NU2GA
Narvaez, T. A & Subong, J. 2009.AFNR Human Resource Tracer Study.

PCARRD-DOST Terminal Report. Western Mindanao State University,
Zamboanga City. Philippines. Retrieved from http://wmsu.edu.ph/dost-
pcarrd-wmsu-conduct-afnr-workshop.html
National Research Council. (1988). Understanding agriculture: New directions
for education. National Academies Press. Retrieved from https://eric.
ed.gov/?id=ED338795
Peasley, D. D., & Henderson, J. L. (1992). Agriscience curriculum in Ohio

agricultural education: Teacher utilization, attitudes, and knowledge. Journal
of Agricultural Education, 33(1), 37-45. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/
UhAFCE
233
Multidisciplinary Research
The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is published four times a year by

Philippine Association of Institutions for Research (PAIR).
Send inquiries to:

info@philair.ph
journals@philair.ph
Articles may be research manuscripts and notes on original and applied

research, research reviews and notes on issues, problems and discoveries of
interest to researchers and stakeholders.
All papers undergo double-blind review. The Editorial Board makes

the final decision on the acceptability of a manuscript after reviewing the
compliance of the researcher to the instructions of the peer reviewers.
The editorial policy is published in this issue and can be accessed

through the journal website at www.philair.ph/publication.

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EDITORIAL BOARD

José G. Vargas-Hernández, Ph.D.

Gul Muhammad Baloch, Ph.D

Al-Assad Omar, Ph.D.

Jamilah Yusof, PhD

AIMS AND SCOPE

Print ISSN 2012-3981 • Online ISSN 2244-0445

© 2018 by JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research

1 Grounded Theory: A Practical

30 The Manifestation of Socio-Cultural Components in the

53 Beliefs, Health-Seeking Practices, and Effects of

67 Production and Quality Evaluation of Probiotic

90 Jigsaw Technique in Learning Physics

110 Development and Evaluation of Nipa

124 Profile and Level of Competence of Information and

149 Influence of Language Learning Strategies to the

164 Cooperative-Collaborative Learning in Enhancing

174 The Validity of Astronomical Calculation

205 Enhancing the Demands of ZAMPEN-SUCs AFNR

Policy on Digital Preservation

Policy on Handling Complaints

Policy on Conflicts of Interest

Publication Ethics and Publication Malpractice

The Peer Review System

Recruiting Referees. The task of picking reviewers is the responsibility of

Reviewers and editors are responsible for providing constructive and

In situations where the referees disagree substantially about the quality of a

Technology-based Quality Assurance

Gunning Fog Index. Developed by Robert Gunning, an American

Plagiarism Detection. Contributors are advised to use software for plagiarism

Appropriateness of Citation Format. Contributors are advised to use the

Word Count, Spelling and Grammar Checks. Contributors are encouraged

I. Qualifying Standards for Electronic Submission

A full manuscript should pass the following criteria:

Criterion 1: Scope, Newness and Relevance/Applicability to International

Criterion 2: Results of Plagiarism, Grammar and Readability Check – 20%

• The manuscript obtains the minimum result: plagiarism detection – 95%;

Criterion 3: Quality of References – 20%

Criterion 4: Completeness of Parts – 15%

• Each part of the manuscript contains appropriate and sufficient substance.

Manuscript Formatting Guide

Title by Scope: Categorizing Communication Strategies in the Oral

Title by Result: Fillers, Mime and Self-Repetitions as Most Frequently Used

Keywords — Linguistics, communication strategies, descriptive design,

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For Social Sciences:

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

• Acknowledge service agencies that funded the study (required).

work. Literature must be traceable online from peer-reviewed, indexed,

Bei, G. X. (2012). Effects of Immediate Repetition in L2 Speaking Tasks: A

NOTE: Do not label this section “Bibliography”. A bibliography contains

ADVISORY FOR LITERATURE CITED

1. Traceability refers to the verification by independent parties of the original

Grounded Theory: A Practical

Originality: 98 • Grammar Check: 98 • Plagiarism: 2

how to implement it effectively in carrying out a research study. This manuscript

Keywords — Grounded theory, Glaser, qualitative research, Philippines

Defining Grounded Theory as a Research Design

Characteristics of the Glaserian School

The purpose is theory building. The primary purpose of GT as used by

Ignoring preconceived ideas. The second characteristic, ignoring

from contaminating, stifling, or impeding the generation of categories from the

Constant comparison. Thirdly, the process of analysis and conceptualization