Ruel U.

Peda
BSN IIIA
Discuss the structures, processes and functions of the nervous system.
Central Nervous System
The CNS comprises the brain, the spinal cord and associated nerves that control
voluntary acts. Structurally, the brain consists of the cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem and
limbic system.
The Cerebrum
It is divided into 2 hemispheres; all lobes and structures are found in both halves except
for the pineal body or gland, which is located between the hemispheres. The pineal body is an
endocrine gland that influences the activities of the pituitary gland, islet of Langerhans,
parathyroids, adrenals and gonads. The corpus callosum is a pathway connecting the two
hemispheres and coordinating their function. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the
body and is the center for logical reasoning and analytic functions such as: reading, writing and
mathematical tasks. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body and is the center for
creative thinking, intuition and artistic abilities. The cerebral hemisphere are divided into four
lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. The frontal lobe controls the organization of
thought, body movement, memories, emotions and moral behavior. The integration of all this
information regulates arousal, focuses attention, and enables problem-solving and decision-
making. Abnormalities in the frontal lobes are associated with schizophrenia, attention-deficit/
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and dementia. The parietal lobes interpret sensations of taste and
touch and assist in spatial orientation. The temporal lobes are centers for the senses of smell and
hearing and for memory and emotional expression. The occipital lobes assist in coordinating
language generation and visual interpretation such as depth perception.
Cerebellum
Located below the cerebrum and is the center for coordination of movements and
postural adjustments. It receives and integrates information from all areas of the body, such as
the muscles joints, organs and other components of the CNS. Research shown that inhibited
transmission of dopamine, a neurotransmitter, in this area is associated with the lack of smooth
coordinated movements in diseases such as Parkinson Disease and dementia.
Brain Stem
The brain stem includes the midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata and the nuclie for
cranial nerves III through XII. The medulla located at the top of the spinal cord, contains vital
centers for respiration and cardiovascular functions. Above the medulla and in front of the
cerebrum, the pons bridges the gap both structurally and functionally serving as a primary motor
pathway. The midbrain connects the pons and cerebellum with the cerebrum. It measures only
0.8 inches (2 cm) length and includes most of the reticular activating systems and the
extrapyramidal system. The reticular activating system influences motor activity, sleep,
consciousness and awareness. The extrapyramidal system relays information about movements
and coordination from the brain to the spinal nerves. The locus coeruleus, a small group of
norepinephrine-producing neurons in the brain stem is associated with stress, anxiety and
impulsive behavior.
Limbic System
The limbic system is an area of the brain located above the brain stem that includes the
thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala. The thalamus regulates activity, sensation
and emotion. The hypothalamus is involved in temperature regulation, appetite control,
endocrine function, sexual drive and impulsive behavior associated with feelings of anger, rage
or excitement. The hippocampus and amygdala are involved in emotional arousal and memory.
Disturbances in the limbic system have been implicated in a variety of mental illnesses, such as
the memory loss that accompanies dementia and the poorly controlled emotions and impulses
seen with psychotic or manic behavior.
Neurotransmitters
Approximately 100 billion brain cells form groups of neurons or nerve cells that are
arranged in networks. These neurons communicate information with one another by sending
electrochemical messages from neuron to neuron, a process called neurotransmission.
Neurotransmitters are the chemical substances manufactured in the neuron that aid in the
transmission of information throughout the body. They either excite or stimulate an action in the
cells (excitatory) or inhibit or stop an action (inhibitory). These neurotransmitters fit into specific
receptor cells embedded in the membrane of the dendrite, just like a certain key shape fits into a
lock. After neurotransmitters are released into the synapse and relay the message to the receptor
cells, they are either transported back from the synapse to the axon to be stored for later use
(reuptake) or metabolized and inactivated by enzymes, primarily monoamine oxidase (MAO)
Major neurotransmitters have been found to play a role in psychiatric illness as well as in the
actions and side effects of psychotropic drugs.
Elaborate different neurotransmitter. Its function and how can affect the mental status of a
person.

Type Mechanism of Physiologic Effects

Action

Dopamine  Excitatory  Controls complex movements,  

motivation, cognition; regulates  
emotional response

Norepinephrine   Excitatory  Causes changes in attention, learning and

memory, sleep and wakefulness, mood
 (noradrenaline)

Epinephrine Excitatory  Controls fight and flight response

(adrenaline) 

Serotonin  Inhibitory  Controls food intake, sleep and  

wakefulness, temperature regulation, pain
control, sexual behaviors, regulation of emotions.

Histamine  Neuromodulator  Controls alertness, gastric secretions, cardiac

stimulation, peripheral allergic responses. 

Acetylcholine  Excitatory or Controls sleep and wakefulness cycle, signals

Inhibitory  muscles to become alert

Neuropeptides  Neuromodulators  Enhance, prolong, inhibit or limit the effects of

principal neurotransmitters

Glutamate  Excitatory  Results in neurotoxicity if levels are too high

Aminobutyric acid  Inhibitory  Modulates other neurotransmitters

Dopamine is one of the “feel good” chemicals in our brain. Interacting with the pleasure and
reward center of our brain, dopamine — along with other chemicals like serotonin, oxytocin, and
endorphins — plays a vital role in how happy we feel. In addition to our mood, dopamine also
affects movement, memory, and focus
Norepinephrine works in the brain both in small daily amounts as well as large amounts needed
for adrenal responses. During non-stressful events, norepinephrine works to wake up the brain
and maintain a normal sleep-wake routine. It is also heavily correlated with the formation of
memories and an ability to focus on tasks
Epinephrine, more commonly known as adrenaline, is a hormone secreted by the medulla of the
adrenal glands. Strong emotions such as fear or anger cause epinephrine to be released into the
bloodstream, which causes an increase in heart rate, muscle strength, blood pressure, and sugar
metabolism.
Serotonin appears to function as an inhibitory transmitter that modulates the effects of light on
circadian rhythmicity. Direct application of 5-HT or receptor agonists to the SCN blocks light-
induced phase shifts during the subjective night but causes phase advances during the subjective
day. Such agents inhibit the excitatory effect of light, measured electrophysiologically, in either
the SCN or the lateral geniculate complex. The nonselective 5-HT agonist quipazine resets or
shifts the rhythm of spontaneous electrical activity of single cells recorded extracellularly in
SCN isolated in brain slices.
Histamine
 Alertness and Wakefulness
Histamine sets your circadian clock. The first type of histamine receptor, H1R, helps you stay
awake. Many antihistamine medications block this receptor, which is why they can make you
drowsy [1,2,3]. H3R, by contrast, lowers histamine andpromotes sleep. Neurons that
release histamine are active during the day, stop working as you get drowsy in the evening, and
start again after you wake up [4]. Low brain histamine can make you excessively sleepy during
the day.It might also make waking up in...
 Motivation and Exploration
Histamine increases motivation to meet goals. It also reduces the drive to eat, so you can focus
on completing tasks [6]. Brain histamine also makes animals more likely to explore new things.
Mice with low histamine or low H1R have less interest in novelty and explore less when they are
placed into a new environment. They also have reduced emotional responses to these new
environments [6]. In one study, patients with depression had reduced H1R binding. By the same
token, loss of histamine or...
 Stress Management
Histamine is part of the body’s alarm system. Brain histamine increases alertness and focus and
decreases painand the desire to eat; these changes are part of the fight or flight response and
prepare the body to respond to danger .
Acetylcholine is a neurochemical that has a wide variety of functions in the brain and other
organ systems of the body. Specifically, it is a neurotransmitter that acts as a chemical message
that is released by neurons and allows them to communicate with one another and other
specialized cells such as myocytes and cells found in glandular tissues. The name "acetylcholine"
is derived from its chemical structure, as it is an ester of acetic acid and choline. Tissues of the
body that use this chemical messenger or are responsive to it are referred to as cholinergic. There
is a class of chemicals called anticholinergics that interfere with acetylcholine's action on tissues
as well.  While ACh operates as a neurotransmitter in many parts of the body, it is most
commonly associated with the neuromuscular junction. The neuromuscular junction is where
motor neurons located in the ventral spinal cord synapse with muscles in the body to activate
them. Acetylcholine also functions as a neurotransmitter in the autonomic nervous system, acting
both as the neurotransmitter between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons as well as being
the final release product from parasympathetic postganglionic neurons.
Neuropeptides may exert actions as neurotransmitters, neuromodulators and/or neurohormones.
In the neurons, they coexist with classic transmitters and often with other peptides. After their
releasing, they bind to especific receptors to exert their action in the target cell.

Glutamate is the predominant excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian CNS. The

neurotransmitter pool of glutamate is stored in synaptic vesicles and, upon depolarization, is
released into the synaptic cleft in a Ca(2+)-dependent fashion. Glutamate is cleared from the
synaptic cleft by high-affinity, Na(+)-dependent uptake carriers located in both neurons and glia.
Glutamate acts on several distinct families of receptors, each of which has multiple subtypes
with distinct pharmacologic and physiologic properties. Under some conditions, glutamate and
related compounds act as excitotoxins and might participate in the events leading to neuronal
damage and death in a variety of acute and chronic neurologic disorders. The potential for
glutamate to become an excitotoxin is highly dependent upon neuronal metabolic status. A great
deal of interest in developing selective, well-tolerated glutamate receptor antagonists for the
treatment of a variety of neurologic disorders exists.
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is an amino acid that serves as the primary inhibitory
neurotransmitter in the brain and a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the spinal cord. It exerts
its primary function in the synapse between neurons by binding to post-synaptic GABA
receptors which modulate ion channels, hyperpolarizing the cell and inhibiting the transmission
of an action potential. The clinical significance of GABA cannot be underestimated. Disorder in
GABA signaling is implicated in a multitude of neurologic and psychiatric conditions.
Modulation of GABA signaling is the basis of many pharmacologic treatments in neurology,
psychiatry, and anesthesia.

Discuss what you have learn about anxiety.

Anxiety disorders are a spectrum of mental conditions characterized by persistent anxiety
and fear. Excessive anxiety may cause you to avoid work, school, family gatherings, and other
social settings that may exacerbate or provoke your symptoms.
Panic, fear, and uneasiness; feelings of panic, doom, or danger; sleep problems; inability
to stay calm and still; cold, sweaty, numb, or tingling hands or feet; shortness of breath;
hyperventilation; heart palpitations; dry mouth; nausea; tense muscles; dizziness; rumination;
inability to concentrate; intensely or obsessively avoiding feared objects or places
Anxiety is a natural response to stress that can be beneficial in certain circumstances. It
can warn us of impending threats and assist us in planning and paying attention. Anxiety
disorders are marked by excessive fear or anxiety, as opposed to normal emotions of
apprehension or anxiety. Anxiety disorders are the most common mental illnesses, afflicting
about one-third of all adults at some point in their lives. Anxiety disorders, on the other hand, are
curable, and there are a variety of effective treatments available. The majority of persons who
receive treatment are able to live regular, productive lives.
 Anxiety is characterized by muscle tension and avoidance behavior in anticipation of a
future worry. Fear is an emotional response to an impending threat that is more commonly
connected with a fight or flight response - staying to fight or fleeing to avoid danger.
People with anxiety disorders may try to avoid circumstances that trigger or exacerbate
their symptoms. Workplace performance, schoolwork, and personal relationships may all be
impacted. In order to be diagnosed with an anxiety disorder, a person's fear or worry must be out
of proportion to the scenario or age-inappropriate, and it must interfere with their ability to
operate normally.