Gupta Empire

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Gupta Empire
गुप्ता राजवंश
Gupta Rājavaṃśa

→
←
 

 
AD 320–AD 600s →
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Gupta Empire 320 – 600 A.D.

Capital Pataliputra

Language(s) Sanskrit

Hinduism
Religion
Buddhism
Government Monarchy

Maharajadhiraja

 - 240s–280s Sri-Gupta

 - 319–335 Chandragupta I

 - 540–550 Vishnugupta

Historical era Antiquity

 - Established AD 320

 - Disestablished AD 600s

 India
 Pakistan
Today part of  Bangladesh
 Myanmar
 Nepal

History of South Asia

Stone age (7000–1400 BCE)[show]

Bronze Age (7000–1300 BCE)[show]

Iron age (1200–26 BCE)[show]

Classical period (1–1279 CE)[show]

Late medieval age (1206–1596 CE)[show]

Early modern period (1526–1858 CE)[show]

Other states (1102–1947 CE)[show]

Colonial period (1505–1961 CE)[show]

Kingdoms of Sri Lanka (543 BCE–1948 CE)[show]

Nation histories[show]
 Regional histories[show]

 v
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Gupta Empire (Sanskrit: गुप्त साम्राज्य, Gupta Sāmrājya) was an ancient Indian empire which
existed approximately from 320 to 550 AD and covered much of the Indian Subcontinent.[1]
Founded by Maharaja Sri-Gupta, the dynasty was the model of a classical civilization.[2] The
peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and
artistic endeavors.[3] This period is called the Golden Age of India[4] and was marked by
extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature,
logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is
generally known as Hindu culture.[5] Chandragupta I, Samudragupta the Great, and Chandragupta
II the Great were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty.[6] The empire covered much of the
Indian Subcontinent.[7] 4th century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, credits Guptas with having
conquered about twenty one kingdoms, both in and outside India, including the kingdoms of
Parasikas (Persians), the Hunas, the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys,
the Kinnaras, Kiratas etc.[8]

The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculptures and paintings.[9]
The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma
and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields.[10][11] Science and
political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era.[12] Strong trade ties also made
the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence
nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, Malay Archipelago and Indochina.[13]

The earliest available Indian epics are also thought to have been written around this period. The
empire gradually declined because of many factors like the substantial loss of territory and
imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories and the invasion by the Huna
peoples from Central Asia.[14] After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India
was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms. A minor line of the Gupta clan continued to
rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by
Vardhana ruler Harsha Vardhana, who established an empire in the first half of the 7th century.

Contents
 [hide] 

 1 Origin of the Guptas

 2 Srigupta and Ghatotkacha
 3 Chandragupta I
 4 Samudragupta
 5 Succession of Samudragupta
 6 Ramagupta
 7 Chandragupta II
o 7.1 Chandra Gupta II's campaigns against Foreign Tribes
 8 Kumaragupta I
 9 Skandagupta
 10 Decline of the empire
 11 Military organization
 12 Gupta administration
 13 Legacy of the Gupta Empire
 14 Gupta dynasty rulers
 15 See also
 16 Notes
 17 References
 18 Further reading
 19 External links

[edit] Origin of the Guptas

Main article: Origin of the Gupta dynasty

Fa Xian was the first of the Chinese pilgrims who visited India during the reign of Gupta
emperor Chandragupta II. He started his journey from China in 399 CE and reached India in 405
CE. During his stay in India up to 411 CE, he went on a pilgrimage to Mathura, Kanauj,
Kapilavastu, Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi and Rajgriha and made careful
observations about the empire's conditions. Fa Xian was pleased with the mildness of
administration. The Penal Code was mild and offences were punished by fines only. From his
accounts, the Gupta Empire was a prosperous period.

The Chinese traveler Yijing (see also Xuanzang) provides more knowledge of the Gupta
kingdom in Magadha. He came to north India in 672 CE and heard of Maharaja Sri-Gupta, who
built a temple for Chinese pilgrims near Mi-li-kia-si-kia-po-no (Mrigasikhavana). According to
Yijing, this temple was "about 40 yojanas to the east of Nalanda, following the course of the
Ganga".[15]

[edit] Srigupta and Ghatotkacha

The most likely time for the reign of Sri Gupta is c. 240–280 CE. A number of modern
historians, which include Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay and K. P. Jayaswal, think he and his son
were possibly feudatories of the Kushans.[16] His son and successor Ghatotkacha ruled probably
from c. 280–319 CE. In contrast to their successor, Chandragupta I, who is mentioned as
Maharajadhiraja, he and his son Ghatotkacha are referred to in inscriptions as Maharaja[17] At
the beginning of the 5th century the Guptas established and ruled a few small Hindu kingdoms in
Magadha and around modern-day Bihar.
[edit] Chandragupta I
Main article: Chandragupta I

Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I, depicted on a coin of their son Samudragupta,
335–380 CE.

Ghatotkacha (reigned c. 280–319 CE), had a son named Chandragupta (reigned c. 319–335 CE)
(not to be confused with Chandragupta Maurya (340–293 BCE), founder of the Mauryan
Empire.) In a breakthrough deal, Chandragupta was married to Kumaradevi, a Lichchhavi
princess—the main power in Magadha. With a dowry of the kingdom of Magadha (capital
Pataliputra) and an alliance with the Lichchhavis, Chandragupta set about expanding his power,
conquering much of Magadha, Prayaga and Saketa. He established a realm stretching from the
Ganges River to Prayaga (modern-day Allahabad) by 321 CE. He assumed the imperial title of
Maharajadhiraja.

[edit] Samudragupta
Main article: Samudragupta

Coin of Samudragupta, with Garuda pillar. British Museum.

A Terracotta relief panel of a meditating Buddha from the Gupta era.

Samudragupta, Parakramanka succeeded his father in 335 CE, and ruled for about 45 years,
until his death in 380 CE. He took the kingdoms of Ahichchhatra and Padmavati early in his
reign. He then attacked the Malwas, the Yaudheyas, the Arjunayanas, the Maduras and the
Abhiras, all of which were tribes in the area. By his death in 380, he had incorporated over
twenty kingdoms into his realm and his rule extended from the Himalayas to the river Narmada
and from the Brahmaputra to the Yamuna. He gave himself the titles King of Kings and World
Monarch. Historian Vincent Smith described him as the "Indian Napoleon".[18] He performed
Ashwamedha yajna (horse sacrifice) to underline the importance of his conquest. The stone
replica of the sacrificial horse, then prepared, is in the Lucknow Museum. The Samudragupta
Prashasti inscribed on the Ashokan Pillar, now in Akbar’s Fort at Allahabad, is an authentic
record of his exploits and his sway over most of the continent.

Samudragupta was not only a talented military leader but also a great patron of art and literature.
The important scholars present in his court were Harishena, Vasubandhu and Asanga. He was a
poet and musician himself. He was a firm believer in Hinduism and is known to have
worshipped Lord Vishnu. He was considerate of other religions and allowed Sri Lanka's
Buddhist king Sirimeghvanna to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya. That monastery was called by
Xuanzang as the Mahabodhi Sangharama.[19] He provided a gold railing around the Bodhi Tree.

[edit] Succession of Samudragupta

According to A.S. Altekar, a king named Ramagupta intervened between Samudragupta and
Chandragupta II. His theory is based on a tradition that, Samudragupta's eldest son Ramagupta,
who succeeded him, was a weak ruler. After suffering a humiliating defeat at the hands of the
Sakas, he agreed to surrender his wife Dhruvadevi or Dhurvasvamini to the Saka Chief (who,
Altekar believes is Rudrasena II). But, Rama Gupta’s younger brother Chandra Gupta II,
protested against this dishonour and went to the Saka camp disguised as the queen and
assassinated the Saka Chief. After this he killed his brother Rama Gupta, married Dhruvadevi
and ascended to the throne. But this theory is not supported by any contemporary epigraphic
evidence. The earliest version of this narrative is found in the Harshacharita of Bana. The later
versions are found in a number of texts, which include the extracts of the Devichandragupta, a
historical drama of Vishakhadatta found in the Natyadarpana of Ramachandra and Gunachandra
and also in the Shringaraprakasha of Bhoja I.[20] The version of this narrative given by Bana in
his Harshacharita differs significantly from all the later versions, even the narrative known to the
author of the Kavyamimamsa (c.900). The Harshacharita only mentions that Chandragupta II,
disguised as a female, destroyed a Saka king, who coveted the wife of another, in the very city of
the enemy.[15] It does not mention anything about Ramagupta.

[edit] Ramagupta

The Dashavatara Temple or Vishnu Temple also called Gupta temple at Deogarh

Entry frame of the Dasavatara temple

Vishnu reclining on the serpent Shesha (Ananta) on a side panel of the Vishnu temple of 5th
century.[21]
Main article: Ramagupta

Although, the narrative of the Devichandragupta is not supported by any contemporary

epigraphical evidence, the historicity of Ramagupta is proved by his Durjanpur inscriptions on
three Jaina images, where he is mentioned as the Maharajadhiraja. A large number of his copper
coins also have been found from the Eran-Vidisha region and classified in five distinct types,
which include the Garuda,[22] Garudadhvaja, lion and border legend types. The Brahmi legends
on these coins are written in the early Gupta style.[23] In opinion of art historian Dr. R. A.
Agarawala, D. Litt., Ramagupta may be the eldest son of Samudragupta. He became king
because of being the eldest. It may be a possibility that he was dethroned because of not being
the worthy enough to rule and his younger brother Chandragupta II took over.

[edit] Chandragupta II
Main article: Chandragupta II
A Terracotta relief panel depicting a scene from the Rāmāyaṇa, built during the Gupta era.

According to the Gupta records, amongst his many sons,Samudragupta nominated prince
Chandra Gupta II, born of queen Dattadevi, as his successor. Chandra Gupta II, Vikramaditya
(the Sun of Power), ruled from 380 until 413. Chandra Gupta II also married to a Kadamba
princess of Kuntala region and a princess of Naga lineage (Nāgakulotpannnā), Kuberanaga. His
daughter Prabhavatigupta from this Naga queen was married to Rudrasena II, the Vakataka ruler
of Deccan.[24] His son Kumaragupta I was married to Kadamba princess of karnatka region .
Emperor Chandra Gupta II expanded his realm westwards, defeating the Saka Western
Kshatrapas of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra in a campaign lasting until 409, but with his main
opponent Rudrasimha III defeated by 395, and crushing the Bengal (Vanga) chiefdoms. This
extended his control from coast-to-coast, estabilshed a second capital at Ujjain and was the high
point of the empire.

Gold coins of Chandragupta II.

Despite the creation of the empire through war, the reign is remembered for its very influential
style of Hindu art, literature, culture and science, especially during the reign of Chandra Gupta
II. Some excellent works of Hindu art such as the panels at the Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh
serve to illustrate the magnificence of Gupta art. Above all it was the synthesis of elements that
gave Gupta art its distinctive flavour. During this period, the Guptas were supportive of thriving
Buddhist and Jain cultures as well, and for this reason there is also a long history of non-Hindu
Gupta period art. In particular, Gupta period Buddhist art was to be influential in most of East
and Southeast Asia. Many advances were recorded by the Chinese scholar and traveller Faxian
(Fa-hien) in his diary and published afterwards.

The court of Chandragupta was made even more illustrious by the fact that it was graced by the
Navaratna (Nine Jewels), a group of nine who excelled in the literary arts. Amongst these men
was the immortal Kalidasa whose works dwarfed the works of many other literary geniuses, not
only in his own age but in the ages to come. Kalidasa was particularly known for his fine
exploitation of the shringara (romantic) element in his verse.

Silver coin of Chandragupta II, minted in his Western territories, in the style of the Western
Satraps.
Obv: Bust of king, with corrupted Greek legend "OOIHU".[25][26]
Rev: Legend in Brahmi, "Chandragupta Vikramaditya, King of Kings, and a devotee of Vishnu" ,
around a peacock.
15mm, 2.1 grams. Mitchiner 4821–4823.

[edit] Chandra Gupta II's campaigns against Foreign Tribes

4th century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, credits Chandragupta Vikramaditya with having
conquered about twenty one kingdoms, both in and outside India. After finishing his campaign in
the East and West India, Vikramaditya (Chandra Gupta II) proceeded northwards, subjugated the
Parasikas (Persians), then the Hunas and the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east Oxus
valleys respectively. Thereafter, the king proceeds across the Himalaya and reduced the
Kinnaras, Kiratas etc. and lands into India proper.[27]

The Brihatkathamanjari of the Kashmiri writer Kshmendra states, king Vikramaditya (Chandra
Gupta II) had "unburdened the sacred earth of the Barbarians like the Sakas, Mlecchas,
Kambojas, Yavanas, Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas, etc. by annihilating these sinful Mlecchas
completely".[28][29][30]

[edit] Kumaragupta I
Main article: Kumaragupta I

Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second son Kumaragupta I, born of Mahadevi

Dhruvasvamini. Kumaragupta I assumed the title, Mahendraditya.[31] He ruled until 455.
Towards the end of his reign a tribe in the Narmada valley, the Pushyamitras, rose in power to
threaten the empire.

[edit] Skandagupta
Main article: Skandagupta

Silver coin of the Gupta King Kumara Gupta I AD (414–455) (Coin of his Western territories,
design derived from the Western Satraps).
Obv: Bust of king with crescents, with traces of corrupt Greek script.[32][33]
Rev: Garuda standing facing with spread wings. Brahmi legend: Parama-bhagavata rajadhiraja
Sri Kumaragupta Mahendraditya.

Skandagupta, son and successor of Kumaragupta I is generally considered to be the last of the
great Gupta rulers. He assumed the titles of Vikramaditya and Kramaditya.[34] He defeated the
Pushyamitra threat, but then was faced with invading Hephthalites or "White Huns", known in
India as the Huna, from the northwest. He repulsed a Huna attack c. 455, But the expense of the
wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to its decline. Skandagupta died in 467 and
was succeeded by his agnate brother Purugupta.[35]

[edit] Decline of the empire

Skandagupta was followed by weak rulers Purugupta (467–473), Kumaragupta II (473–476),
Budhagupta (476–495?), Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta III, Vishnugupta, Vainyagupta and
Bhanugupta. In the 480's the Hephthalite King Oprah broke through the Gupta defenses in the
northwest, and much of the empire in northwest was overrun by the Huna by 500. The empire
disintegrated under the attacks of Toramana and his successor Mihirakula. The Hunas conquered
several provinces of the empire, including Malwa, Gujarat and Thanesar. It appears from
inscriptions that the Guptas, although their power was much diminished, continued to resist the
Hunas. They were eventually driven out of India in 528 AD by a coalition oconsisting of Gupta
emperor Narasimhagupta and the king Yashodharman from Malwa.[36]. The succession of the
sixth-century Guptas is not entirely clear, but the tail end recognized ruler of the dynasty's main
line was king Vishnugupta, reigning from 540 to 550. In addition to the Huna invasion, the
factors, which contribute to the decline of the empire include competition from the Vakatakas
and the rise of Yashodharman in Malwa.[37]

[edit] Military organization

Gold coin of of Gupta era, depicting a Gupta king holding a bow.

The Imperial Guptas could have achieved their successes through force of arms with an efficient
martial system. Historically, the best accounts of this come not from the Hindus themselves but
from Chinese and Western observers. However, a contemporary Indian document, regarded as a
military classic of the time, the Siva-Dhanur-veda, offers some insight into the military system of
the Guptas.
The Iron pillar of Delhi is notable for the composition of the metals used in its construction.

The Guptas seem to have relied heavily on infantry archers, and the bow was one of the
dominant weapons of their army. The Hindu version of the longbow was composed of metal, or
more typically bamboo, and fired a long bamboo cane arrow with a metal head. Unlike the
composite bows of Western and Central Asian foes, bows of this design would be less prone to
warping in the damp and moist conditions often prevalent to the region. The Indian longbow was
reputedly a powerful weapon capable of great range and penetration and provided an effective
counter to invading horse archers. Iron shafts were used against armored elephants and fire
arrows were also part of the bowmen's arsenal. India historically has had a prominent reputation
for its steel weapons. One of these was the steel bow. Due to its high tensility, the steel bow was
capable of long range and penetration of exceptionally thick armor. These were less common
weapons than the bamboo design and found in the hands of noblemen rather than in the ranks.
Archers were frequently protected by infantry equipped with shields, javelins, and longswords.

The Guptas also had knowledge of siegecraft, catapults, and other sophisticated war
machines,and master at adobe

The Guptas apparently showed little predilection for using horse archers, despite the fact these
warriors were a main component in the ranks of their Scythian, Parthian, and Hepthalite (Huna)
enemies. However, the Gupta armies were probably better disciplined. Able commanders like
Samudragupta and Chandragupta II would have likely understood the need for combined armed
tactics and proper logistical organization. Gupta military success likely stemmed from the
concerted use of elephants, armored cavalry, and foot archers in tandem against both Hindu
kingdoms and foreign armies invading from the Northwest. The Guptas also maintained a navy,
allowing them to control regional waters.

The collapse of the Gupta Empire in the face of the Huna onslaught was due not directly to the
inherent defects of the Gupta army, which after all had initially defeated these people under
Skandagupta. More likely, internal dissolution sapped the ability of the Guptas to resist foreign
invasion, as was simultaneously occurring in Western Europe and China.

[edit] Gupta administration

A study of the epigraphical records of the Gupta empire shows that there was a hierarchy of
administrative divisions from top to bottom. The empire was called by various names such as
Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, Mandala, Prithvi and Avani. It was divided in to 26 provinces, which
were styled as Bhukti, Pradesha and Bhoga. Provinces were also divided into Vishayas and put
under the control of the Vishayapatis. A Vishayapati administered the Vishaya with the help of
the Adhikarana (council of representatives), which comprised four representatives:
Nagarasreshesthi, Sarthavaha, Prathamakulika and Prathama Kayastha. A part of the Vishaya
was called Vithi.[38]

[edit] Legacy of the Gupta Empire

The Ajanta paintings were made during the Gupta period

Scholars of this period include Varahamihira and Aryabhata, who is believed to be the first to
come up with the concept of zero, postulated the theory that the Earth moves round the Sun, and
studied solar and lunar eclipses. Kalidasa, who was a great playwright, who wrote plays such as
Shakuntala, which is said to have inspired Goethe, and marked the highest point of Sanskrit
literature is also said to have belonged to this period.The famous Sushruta Samhita, which is a
Sanskrit redaction text on all of the major concepts of ayurvedic medicine with innovative
chapters on surgery, dates to the Gupta period.

The flow of invasions from the Huns from central Asia aided in accelerating the demise of the
glorious Gupta dynasty rule in India, although the effects of its fall was far less devastating than
that of the Han or Roman at the same time. According to historian's work,
 “
The Gupta Empire is considered by many scholars to be the "classical age" of Hindu
and Buddhist art and literature. The Rulers of the Gupta Empire were strong
supporters of developments in the arts, architecture, science, and literature. The
Gupta Empire circulated a large number of gold coins, called dinars, and supported
the Universities of Nalanda and Vikramasila. ”
Chess is said to have originated in this period,[39] where its early form in the 6th century was
known as caturaṅga, which translates as "four divisions [of the military]" – infantry, cavalry,
elephants, and chariotry – represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn,
knight, bishop, and rook, respectively. Doctors also invented several medical instruments, and
even performed operations. The Indian numerals which were the first positional base 10 numeral
systems in the world originated from Gupta India. The ancient Gupta text Kama Sutra is widely
considered to be the standard work on human sexual behavior in Sanskrit literature written by the
Indian scholar Vatsyayana. Aryabhata, a noted mathematician-astronomer of the Gupta period
proposed that the earth is not flat, but is instead round and rotates about its own axis. He also
discovered that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight. Instead of the prevailing
cosmogony in which eclipses were caused by pseudo-planetary nodes Rahu and Ketu, he
explained eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth. These and the other
scientific discoveries made by Indians during this period about gravity[citation needed] and the planets
of the solar system spread throughout the world through trade.

[edit] Gupta dynasty rulers

The main branch of the Gupta dynasty ruled the Gupta Empire in India, from around 320 to 550.
This dynasty was founded by Srigupta. The rulers are:

 Srigupta
 Ghatotkacha
 Chandragupta I
 Nishamusgupta
 Samudragupta
 Ramagupta
 Chandragupta II
 Kumaragupta I
 Skandagupta
 Purugupta
 Kumaragupta II
 Budhagupta
 Narasimhagupta Baladitya
 Kumaragupta III
 Vishnugupta
 Vainyagupta
 Bhanugupta
 Preceded by Magadha dynasties Succeeded by
Kanva dynasty AD 240–550 possibly Pala dynasty

[edit] See also

 Indian numerals
 Chess
 Udayagiri Caves
 Vakataka dynasty
 Aulikaras

Middle kingdoms of India

Northwestern
Timeline: Northern India Southern India
India
 6th century  Gandhara  Magadha
BCE  Shishunaga dynasty
 5th century (Persian rule)  Nanda empire  Pandyas
BCE (Greek conquests)  Kalinga  Cholas
 4th century  Maurya Empire  Cheras
BCE  Sunga Empire  Satavahana
 Indo-Greeks Empire
 3rd century
BCE
 2nd century  Kuninda Kingdom
BCE  Indo-Scythians
 Indo-Parthians
 1st century  Kushan Empire  Kalabhras
BCE  Western Satraps  Kadamba
 1st century CE Dynasty
 Gangas
 Indo-Sassanids  Pallava
 2nd century  Kidarite  Gupta Empire
 3rd century Kingdom  Chalukya
 4th century  Indo-
 5th century Hephthalites
 6th century  Harsha
 7th century  Gurjara Pratihara  Rashtrakuta
 8th century (Islamic conquests)
 9th century
10th century  Shahi
11th century  Pala Empire  Western
(Islamic Empire)  Solanki Chalukyas
 Eastern Ganga  Hoysala Empire
dynasty
  Sena dynasty

Maurya Empire
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Mauryan Empire

← →
   

← 322 BC–185 BC →
   

← →

Maurya Empire at its maximum extent (Dark Blue), including its vassals

(Light Blue).
 Pataliputra (Modern
Capital
day Patna)

Old Indic Languages

Language(s) (e.g. Magadhi Prakrit,
Other Prakrits, Sanskrit)

Hinduism
Buddhism
Religion
Jainism
Ājīvika

Absolute Monarchy as
Government described in the
Arthashastra

Samraat (Emperor)

 - 320–298 BCE Chandragupta Maurya

 - 187–180 BCE Brhadrata

Historical era Antiquity

 - Established 322 BC

 - Disestablished 185 BC

5,000,000 km2
Area
(1,930,511 sq mi)

Currency Panas

Today part of  India

 Afghanistan
  Bangladesh
 Bhutan
 Iran
 Nepal
 Pakistan
 Sri Lanka

The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power in ancient India,
ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BC. Originating from the kingdom of Magadha
in the Indo-Gangetic plains (modern Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bengal) in the eastern side
of the Indian subcontinent, the empire had its capital city at Pataliputra (modern Patna).[1][2] The
Empire was founded in 322 BC by Chandragupta Maurya, who had overthrown the Nanda
Dynasty and rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India taking
advantage of the disruptions of local powers in the wake of the withdrawal westward by
Alexander the Great's Greek and Persian armies. By 320 BC the empire had fully occupied
Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander.[3]

With an area of 5,000,000 sq km, it was one of the world's largest empires in its time, and the
largest ever in the Indian subcontinent. At its greatest extent, the empire stretched to the north
along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam.
To the west, it conquered beyond modern Pakistan, annexing Balochistan, south eastern parts of
Iran and much of what is now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat[3] and Kandahar
provinces. The Empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors
Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded a small portion of unexplored tribal and forested
regions near Kalinga (modern Orissa), till it was conquered by Ashoka. Its decline began 60
years after Ashoka's rule ended, and it dissolved in 185 BC with the foundation of the Sunga
Dynasty in Magadha.

Under Chandragupta, the Mauryan Empire conquered the trans-Indus region, which was under
Macedonian rule. Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus I, a Greek general
from Alexander's army. Under Chandragupta and his successors, internal and external trade,
agriculture and economic activities, all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation
of a single and efficient system of finance, administration, and security.

After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced half a century of peace and security under
Ashoka. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and
expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism
increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of
Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace
and non-violence across all of India. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri
Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia and Mediterranean Europe.[3]
The population of the empire has been estimated to be about 50-60 million making the Mauryan
Empire one of the most populous empires of the time.[4][5]

Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black
Polished Ware (NBPW). The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary sources of
written records of Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath, has been made the
national emblem of India.

Contents
 [hide] 

 1 Early history
o 1.1 Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya
o 1.2 Conquest of Magadha
 2 Chandragupta Maurya
 3 Bindusara
 4 Ashoka the Great
 5 Administration
 6 Economy
 7 Religion
o 7.1 Hinduism
o 7.2 Buddhism
o 7.3 Jainism
 8 Architectural remains
 9 Natural history in the times of the Mauryas
 10 Contacts with the Hellenistic world
o 10.1 Foundation of the Empire
o 10.2 Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 310 BCE)
o 10.3 Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE)
 10.3.1 Marital alliance
 10.3.2 Exchange of ambassadors
 10.3.3 Exchange of presents
o 10.4 Greek population in India
o 10.5 Buddhist missions to the West (c.250 BCE)
o 10.6 Subhagsena and Antiochos III (206 BCE)
 11 Decline
o 11.1 Sunga coup (185 BCE)
o 11.2 Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE)
o 11.3 Reasons
 12 See also
 13 Notes
 14 References
 15 External links
Early history
Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya

Main articles: Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya

A Hindu brahmin named Chanakya (real name Vishnugupta, also known as Kautilya) traveled to
Magadha, a kingdom that was large and militarily powerful and feared by its neighbors, but was
dismissed by its king Dhana Nanda, of the Nanda Dynasty. Meanwhile, the conquering armies of
Alexander the Great refused to cross the Beas River and advance further eastward, deterred by
the prospect of battling Magadha. Alexander returned to Babylon and re-deployed most of his
troops west of the Indus river. Soon after Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE, his empire
fragmented, and local kings declared their independence, leaving several smaller disunited
satraps. Chandragupta Maurya deposed Dhana Nanda.

The Greek generals Eudemus, and Peithon, ruled until around 316 BCE, when Chandragupta
Maurya (with the help of Chanakya, who was now his advisor) utterly defeated the Macedonians
and consolidated the region under the control of his new seat of power in Magadha.[3]

Chandragupta Maurya's rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy. On the one hand,
a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama Mudrarakshasa (Poem of Rakshasa –
Rakshasa was the prime minister of Magadha) by Visakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and
even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya tribe known as the Maurya's are referred to in
the earliest Buddhist texts, Mahaparinibbana Sutta. However, any conclusions are hard to make
without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as
"Sandrokottos". As a young man he is said to have met Alexander.[6] He is also said to have met
the Nanda king, angered him, and made a narrow escape.[7] Chanakya's original intentions were
to train a guerilla army under Chandragupta's command. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as
well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king
Parvatka, sometimes identified with Porus (Sir John Marshall "Taxila", p18, and al.).[8][9][10]

Conquest of Magadha

Main articles: Chandragupta Maurya, Nanda Dynasty, and Magadha

Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne of Magadha.
Using his intelligence network, Chandragupta gathered many young men from across Magadha
and other provinces, men upset over the corrupt and oppressive rule of king Dhana, plus
resources necessary for his army to fight a long series of battles. These men included the former
general of Taxila, other accomplished students of Chanakya, the representative of King Porus of
Kakayee, his son Malayketu, and the rulers of small states.

Preparing to invade Pataliputra, Maurya hatched a plan. A battle was announced and the
Magadhan army was drawn from the city to a distant battlefield to engage Maurya's forces.
Maurya's general and spies meanwhile bribed the corrupt general of Nanda. He also managed to
create an atmosphere of civil war in the kingdom, which culminated in the death of the heir to
the throne. Chanakya managed to win over popular sentiment. Ultimately Nanda resigned,
handing power to Chandragupta, and went into exile and was never heard of again. Chanakya
contacted the prime minister, Rakshasas, and made him understand that his loyalty was to
Magadha, not to the Magadha dynasty, insisting that he continue in office. Chanakya also
reiterated that choosing to resist would start a war that would severely affect Magadha and
destroy the city. Rakshasa accepted Chanakya's reasoning, and Chandragupta Maurya was
legitimately installed as the new King of Magadha. Rakshasa became Chandragupta's chief
advisor, and Chanakya assumed the position of an elder statesman.

The approximate extent of the Magadha state in the 5th century BCE.

The Nanda Empire at its greatest extent under Dhana Nanda circa 323 BCE.

The Maurya Empire when it was first founded by Chandragupta Maurya circa 320 BCE,
after conquering the Nanda Empire when he was only about 20 years old.

Chandragupta extended the borders of the Maurya Empire towards Seleucid Persia after
defeating Seleucus circa 305 BCE.[11]


Chandragupta extended the borders of the empire southward into the Deccan Plateau circa
300 BC.[12]

Ashoka the Great extended into Kalinga during the Kalinga War circa 265 BCE, and
established superiority over the southern Approximate Dates of Mauryan Dynasty
kingdoms.
Emperor Reign start Reign end
Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta Maurya 322 BCE 298 BCE
Main article: Chandragupta Maurya
Bindusara 297 BCE 272 BCE
Chandragupta destroyed the Greeks when
Asoka The Great 273 BCE 232 BCE
Seleucus I, ruler of the Seleucid Empire, tried
to reconquer the northwestern parts of India, Dasaratha 232 BCE 224 BCE
during a campaign in 305 BCE, but failed
(Seleucid–Mauryan war). The two rulers Samprati 224 BCE 215 BCE
finally concluded a peace treaty: a marital
treaty (Epigamia) was concluded, in which Salisuka 215 BCE 202 BCE
the Greeks offered their Princess for alliance
and help from him. Chandragupta snatched Devavarman 202 BCE 195 BCE
the satrapies of Paropamisade (Kamboja and
Gandhara), Arachosia (Kandhahar) and Satadhanvan 195 BCE 187 BCE
Gedrosia (Balochistan), and Seleucus I
received 500 war elephants that were to have Brihadratha 187 BCE 185 BCE
a decisive role in his victory against western
Hellenistic kings at the Battle of Ipsus in 301
BCE. Diplomatic relations were established and several Greeks, such as the historian
Megasthenes, Deimakos and Dionysius resided at the Mauryan court.

Chandragupta established a strong centralized state with a complex administration at Pataliputra,

which, according to Megasthenes, was "surrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and
570 towers— (and) rivaled the splendors of contemporaneous Persian sites such as Susa and
Ecbatana." Chandragupta's son Bindusara extended the rule of the Mauryan empire towards
southern India. He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, named Deimachus (Strabo 1–70).

Megasthenes describes a disciplined multitude under Chandragupta, who live simply, honestly,
and do not know writing:

" The Indians all live frugally, especially when in camp. They dislike a great undisciplined
multitude, and consequently they observe good order. Theft is of very rare occurrence.
Megasthenes says that those who were in the camp of Sandrakottos, wherein lay 400,000 men,
found that the thefts reported on any one day did not exceed the value of two hundred
drachmae, and this among a people who have no written laws, but are ignorant of writing, and
must therefore in all the business of life trust to memory. They live, nevertheless, happily
enough, being simple in their manners and frugal. They never drink wine except at sacrifices.
Their beverage is a liquor composed from rice instead of barley, and their food is principally a
rice-pottage." Strabo XV. i. 53–56, quoting Megasthenes [13]

Bindusara
Main article: Bindusara

Ashoka the Great

Main article: Ashoka the Great

Chandragupta's grandson i.e., Bindusara's son was Ashokavardhan Maurya, also known as
Ashoka or Ashoka The Great (ruled 273- 232 BCE).

As a young prince, Ashoka was a brilliant commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain and
Taxila. As monarch he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Empire's superiority in
southern and western India. But it was his conquest of Kalinga which proved to be the
pivotal event of his life. Although Ashoka's army succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces
of royal soldiers and civilian units, an estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in
the furious warfare, including over 10,000 of Ashoka's own men. Hundreds of thousands of
people were adversely affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally
witnessed the devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse, and he cried 'what have I done?'.
Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings of
Gautama Buddha, and renounced war and violence. For a monarch in ancient times, this was
an historic feat.

Ashoka implemented principles of ahimsa by banning hunting and violent sports activity and
ending indentured and forced labor (many thousands of people in war-ravaged Kalinga had
been forced into hard labor and servitude). While he maintained a large and powerful army,
to keep the peace and maintain authority, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states
across Asia and Europe, and he sponsored Buddhist missions. He undertook a massive public
works building campaign across the country. Over 40 years of peace, harmony and
prosperity made Ashoka one of the most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history.
He remains an idealized figure of inspiration in modern India.

The Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent. Ranging from as
far west as Afghanistan and as far south as Andhra (Nellore District), Ashoka's edicts state
his policies and accomplishments. Although predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them
were written in Greek, and one in both Greek and Aramaic. Ashoka's edicts refer to the
Greeks, Kambojas, and Gandharas as peoples forming a frontier region of his empire. They
also attest to Ashoka's having sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the
Mediterranean. The edicts precisely name each of the rulers of the Hellenic world at the time
such as Amtiyoko (Antiochus), Tulamaya (Ptolemy), Amtikini (Antigonos), Maka (Magas)
and Alikasudaro (Alexander) as recipients of Ashoka's proselytism. The Edicts also
accurately locate their territory "600 yojanas away" (a yojanas being about 7 miles),
corresponding to the distance between the center of India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles).
[14]

A representation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka, which was erected around 250 BCE. It is
the emblem of India.

Statuettes of the Maurya period, 4th–3rd century BCE. Musée Guimet.

The distribution of the Edicts of Ashoka.[15] is a concrete indication of the extent of

Ashoka's rule. To the West, it went as far as Kandahar (where the Edicts were written in
Greek and Aramaic), and bordered the contemporary Hellenistic metropolis of Ai
Khanoum.
Administration

Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. British Museum.

The Empire was divided into four provinces, which one of the four, look like a giant
crescents. with the imperial capital at Pataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the names of the
four provincial capitals are Tosali (in the east), Ujjain in the west, Suvarnagiri (in the south),
and Taxila (in the north). The head of the provincial administration was the Kumara (royal
prince), who governed the provinces as king's representative. The kumara was assisted by
Mahamatyas and council of ministers. This organizational structure was reflected at the
imperial level with the Emperor and his Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers).

Historians theorize that the organization of the Empire was in line with the extensive
bureaucracy described by Kautilya in the Arthashastra: a sophisticated civil service governed
everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. The expansion and defense of the
empire was made possible by what appears to have been the largest standing army of its
time[citation needed]. According to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a military of 600,000
infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants. A vast espionage system collected
intelligence for both internal and external security purposes. Having renounced offensive
warfare and expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless continued to maintain this large army, to
protect the Empire and instill stability and peace across West and South Asia.

Economy

Silver punch mark coin of the Mauryan empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century
BCE.
For the first time in South Asia, political unity and military security allowed for a common
economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural
productivity. The previous situation involving hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies,
powerful regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way to a disciplined central
authority. Farmers were freed of tax and crop collection burdens from regional kings, paying
instead to a nationally administered and strict-but-fair system of taxation as advised by the
principles in the Arthashastra. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across
India, and a network of regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided
justice and security for merchants, farmers and traders. The Mauryan army wiped out many
gangs of bandits, regional private armies, and powerful chieftains who sought to impose their
own supremacy in small areas. Although regimental in revenue collection, Maurya also
sponsored many public works and waterways to enhance productivity, while internal trade in
India expanded greatly due to newfound political unity and internal peace.

Mauryan cast copper coin. Late 3rd century BCE. British Museum.

Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and during Ashoka's reign, an international network
of trade expanded. The Khyber Pass, on the modern boundary of Pakistan and Afghanistan,
became a strategically important port of trade and intercourse with the outside world. Greek
states and Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade
also extended through the Malay peninsula into Southeast Asia. India's exports included silk
goods and textiles, spices and exotic foods. The Empire was enriched further with an
exchange of scientific knowledge and technology with Europe and West Asia. Ashoka also
sponsored the construction of thousands of roads, waterways, canals, hospitals, rest-houses
and other public works. The easing of many over-rigorous administrative practices, including
those regarding taxation and crop collection, helped increase productivity and economic
activity across the Empire.

In many ways, the economic situation in the Mauryan Empire is analogous to the Roman
Empire of several centuries later. Both had extensive trade connections and both had
organizations similar to corporations. While Rome had organizational entities which were
largely used for public state-driven projects, Mauryan India had numerous private
commercial entities. These existed purely for private commerce and developed before the
Mauryan Empire itself. The Economic History of the Corporate Form in Ancient India.
University of Michigan.</ref> (See also Economic history of India.)

Religion

Balarama, holding mace and conch (lower right) on a Maurya coin. Balarama was originally a
powerful independent deity of Hinduism, and was considered an avatar of Vishnu. 3rd–2nd century
CE. British Museum.

Buddhist stupas during the Mauryan period were simple mounds without decorations. Butkara
stupa, 3rd century BCE.[16]
Buddhist proselytism at the time of king Ashoka (260–218 BCE).

Mauryan architecture in the Barabar Mounts. Grottoe of Lomas Richi. 3rd century BCE.

Hinduism

Hinduism was the only religion at the time of inception of the empire, Hindu priests and
ministers use to be an important part of the emperor's court, like Chanakya also known as
Vishnu Gupt. Ajivikas, an ascetic Hindu movement was also practiced, Bhattotpala, in 950
A.D. identified them with the "Ekandandins" (One-staff men[17]) writes that they are devotees
of Narayana (Vishnu), although Shilanka speaking of the Ekandandins in another connection
identifies them as Shaivas (devotees of Shiva).[17] Scholar James Hastings identifies the name
"Mankhaliputta" or "Mankhali" with the bamboo staff.[17] Scholar Jitendra N. Banerjea
compares them to the Pasupatas Shaivas.[18] It is believed by scholar Charpentier that the
Ajivikas before Makkhali Goshala worshiped Shiva.[19] Chanakya wrote in his text Chanakya
Niti, "Humbly bowing down before the almighty Lord Sri Vishnu, the Lord of the three
worlds, I recite maxims of the science of political ethics (niti) selected from the various
satras (scriptures)"[20]

Even after embracing Buddhism, Ashoka retained the membership of Hindu Brahmana
priests and ministers in his court. Mauryan society began embracing the philosophy of
ahimsa, and given the increased prosperity and improved law enforcement, crime and
internal conflicts reduced dramatically. Also greatly discouraged was the caste system and
orthodox discrimination, as Mauryans began to absorb the ideals and values of Jain and
Buddhist teachings along with traditional Vedic Hindu teachings.

Buddhism

Ashoka initially practiced Hinduism but later embraced Buddhism, following the Kalinga
War, he renounced expansionism and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of the
Arthashastra on the use of force, intensive policing, and ruthless measures for tax collection
and against rebels. Ashoka sent a mission led by his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta
to Sri Lanka, whose king Tissa was so charmed with Buddhist ideals that he adopted them
himself and made Buddhism the state religion. Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions to West
Asia, Greece and South East Asia, and commissioned the construction of monasteries,
schools and publication of Buddhist literature across the empire. He is believed to have built
as many as 84,000 stupas across India i.e. Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple, and he increased
the popularity of Buddhism in Afghanistan, Thailand and North Asia including Siberia.
Ashoka helped convene the Third Buddhist Council of India and South Asia's Buddhist
orders, near his capital, a council that undertook much work of reform and expansion of the
Buddhist religion. Indian merchants embraced Buddhism and played a large role in
spreading the religion across the Mauryan empire [21]

Jainism

Emperor Chandragupta Maurya embraced Jainism after retiring. At an older age,

Chandragupta renounced his throne and material possessions to join a wandering group of
Jain monks. Chandragupta was a disciple of Acharya Bhadrabahu. It is said that in his last
days, he observed the rigorous but self-purifying Jain ritual of santhara i.e. fast unto death, at
Shravana Belgola in Karnataka. However, his successor, Emperor Bindusara, was a follower
of a Hindu ascetic movement, Ājīvika and distanced himself from Jain and Buddhist
movements. Samprati, the grandson of Ashoka also embraced Jainism. Samrat Samprati was
influenced by the teachings of Jain monk Arya Suhasti Suri and he is known to have built
125,000 derasars across India. Some of them are still found in towns of Ahmedabad,
Viramgam, Ujjain & Palitana. It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent messengers
& preachers to Greece, Persia & middle-east for the spread of Jainism. But to date no
research has been done in this area. Thus, Jainism became a vital force under the Mauryan
Rule. Chandragupta and Samprati are credited for the spread of Jainism in South India.
Lakhs of temples & stupas were erected during their reign. But due to lack of royal
patronage & its strict principles, along with the rise of Shankaracharya and Ramanuja,
Jainism, once the major religion of southern India, began to decline.

Architectural remains
Main article: Edicts of Ashoka
Architectural remains of the Maurya period are rather few. Remains of a hypostyle building
with about 80 columns of a height of about 10 meters have been found in Kumhrar, 5 km
from Patna Railway station, and is one of the very few sites that has been connected to the
rule of the Mauryas. The style is rather reminiscent of Persian Achaemenid architecture.[22]

The grottoes of Barabar Caves, are another example of Mauryan architecture, especially the
decorated front of the Lomas Rishi grotto. These were offered by the Mauryas to the
Buddhist sect of the Ājīvikas.[23]

The most widespread example of Maurya architecture are the Pillars of Ashoka, often
exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the Indian subcontinent.

Natural history in the times of the Mauryas

The protection of animals in India became serious business by the time of the Maurya
dynasty; being the first empire to provide a unified political entity in India, the attitude of the
Mauryas towards forests, its denizens and fauna in general is of interest.

The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as a resource. For them, the most important forest
product was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not only upon horses and
men but also battle-elephants; these played a role in the defeat of Seleucus, Alexander's
governor of the Punjab[clarification needed]. The Mauryas sought to preserve supplies of elephants
since it was cheaper and took less time to catch, tame and train wild elephants than to raise
them. Kautilya's Arthashastra contains not only maxims on ancient statecraft, but also
unambiguously specifies the responsibilities of officials such as the Protector of the Elephant
Forests:[24]

On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest for elephants guarded by foresters. The
Office of the Chief Elephant Forrester should with the help of guards protect the elephants in any
terrain. The slaying of an elephant is punishable by death..

—Arthashastra

The Mauryas also designated separate forests to protect supplies of timber, as well as lions
and tigers, for skins. Elsewhere the Protector of Animals also worked to eliminate thieves,
tigers and other predators to render the woods safe for grazing cattle.

The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms and instituted curbs
and control measures over them. They regarded all forest tribes with distrust and controlled
them with bribery and political subjugation. They employed some of them, the food-
gatherers or aranyaca to guard borders and trap animals. The sometimes tense and conflict-
ridden relationship nevertheless enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast empire.[25]

When Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant
changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even
relinquished the royal hunt. He was the first ruler in history to advocate conservation
measures for wildlife and even had rules inscribed in stone edicts. The edicts proclaim that
many followed the king's example in giving up the slaughter of animals; one of them proudly
states:[25]

Our king killed very few animals.

—Edict on Fifth Pillar

However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events; the
mention of a 100 'panas' (coins) fine for poaching deer in royal hunting preserves shows that
rule-breakers did exist. The legal restrictions conflicted with the practices freely exercised by
the common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests.[25]

Contacts with the Hellenistic world

Mauryan Statuette, 2nd Century BCE.

Foundation of the Empire

Relations with the Hellenistic world may have started from the very beginning of the Maurya
Empire. Plutarch reports that Chandragupta Maurya met with Alexander the Great, probably
around Taxila in the northwest:
"Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often
said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since
its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth". Plutarch 62-3 [26]

Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 310 BCE)

Chandragupta ultimately occupied Northwestern India, in the territories formerly ruled

by the Greeks, where he fought the satraps (described as "Prefects" in Western sources)
left in place after Alexander (Justin), among whom may have been Eudemus, ruler in the
western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE or Peithon, son of Agenor, ruler of the
Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure for Babylon in 316 BCE.

"India, after the death of Alexander, had assassinated his prefects, as if shaking the burden of
servitude. The author of this liberation was Sandracottos, but he had transformed liberation in
servitude after victory, since, after taking the throne, he himself oppressed the very people he
has liberated from foreign domination" Justin XV.4.12–13 [27]

"Later, as he was preparing war against the prefects of Alexander, a huge wild elephant went to
him and took him on his back as if tame, and he became a remarkable fighter and war leader.
Having thus acquired royal power, Sandracottos possessed India at the time Seleucos was
preparing future glory." Justin XV.4.19[28]

Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE)

Silver coin of Seleucus I Nicator, who fought Chandragupta Maurya, and later made an
alliance with him.

Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian satrap of the Asian portion of Alexander's

former empire, conquered and put under his own authority eastern territories as
far as Bactria and the Indus (Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55),
until in 305 BCE he entered in a confrontation with Chandragupta:

"Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he
[Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria,
Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been
subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the
most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was
subject to Seleucus". Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55[29]

Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared

poorly against the Indian Emperor as he failed in conquering any territory,
and in fact, was forced to surrender much that was already his. Regardless,
Seleucus and Chandragupta ultimately reached a settlement and through a
treaty sealed in 305 BCE, Seleucus, according to Strabo, ceded a number of
territories to Chandragupta, including southern Afghanistan and parts of
Persia.

Accordingly, Seleucus obtained five hundred war elephants, a military asset

which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE.

Marital alliance

It is generally thought that Chandragupta married Seleucus's daughter, or a

Greek Macedonian princess, a gift from Seleucus to formalize an alliance. In
a return gesture, Chandragupta sent 500 war-elephants,[11][30][31][32][33][34] a
military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 302
BC. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador,
Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at
the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar state). Later
Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of
Ashoka the Great, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an
ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[35]

Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory

west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, modern day Afghanistan, and
the Balochistan province of Pakistan.[36][37] Archaeologically, concrete
indications of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka,
are known as far as Kandahar in southern Afghanistan.

"He (Seleucus) crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus
“ [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream,
until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a
marriage relationship."
”

"After having made a treaty with him (Sandrakotos) and put in order
“ the Orient situation, Seleucos went to war against Antigonus." ”
 —Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV, XV.4.15

The treaty on "Epigamia" implies lawful marriage between Greeks and

Indians was recognized at the State level, although it is unclear whether it
occurred among dynastic rulers or common people, or both[citation needed]. .

Exchange of ambassadors

Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and

later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra
(Modern Patna in Bihar state). Later Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of
Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka, is also recorded by Pliny the
Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.
[35]

Exchange of presents

Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty,

Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta
sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus:

"And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters [as to
make people more amorous]. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the
presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like
charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to
banish love" Athenaeus of Naucratis, "The deipnosophists" Book I, chapter 32[38]

His son Bindusara 'Amitraghata' (Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in

Classical sources as having exchanged present with Antiochus I:

"But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, as Aristophanes says,
"There's really nothing nicer than dried figs"), that even Amitrochates, the king of the Indians,
wrote to Antiochus, entreating him (it is Hegesander who tells this story) to buy and send him
some sweet wine, and some dried figs, and a sophist; and that Antiochus wrote to him in
answer, "The dry figs and the sweet wine we will send you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to be
sold in Greece" Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" XIV.67[39]

Greek population in India

Greek population apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian

subcontinent under Ashoka's rule. In his Edicts of Ashoka, set in
stone, some of them written in Greek, Ashoka describes that Greek
population within his realm converted to Buddhism:
"Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits,
the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-
of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma". Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika).

Bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from Kandahar.

Kabul Museum. (Click image for translation).

Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full

Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic has been discovered in
Kandahar. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek,
using sophisticated philosophical terms. In this Edict, Ashoka
uses the word Eusebeia ("Piety") as the Greek translation for the
ubiquitous "Dharma" of his other Edicts written in Prakrit:

"Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine
of) Piety (εὐσέβεια, Eusebeia) to men; and from this moment he has made men more pious, and
everything thrives throughout the whole world. And the king abstains from (killing) living beings,
and other men and those who (are) huntsmen and fishermen of the king have desisted from
hunting. And if some (were) intemperate, they have ceased from their intemperance as was in
their power; and obedient to their father and mother and to the elders, in opposition to the past
also in the future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better and more happily". (Trans.
by G.P. Carratelli [1])

Buddhist missions to the West (c.250 BCE)

 Front view of the single lion capital in Vaishali.

Also, in the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the

Hellenistic kings of the period as a recipient of his Buddhist
proselytism, although no Western historical record of this
event remain:

"The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas
(5,400–9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four
kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the
Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka)." (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S.
Dhammika).

Ashoka also claims that he encouraged the development

of herbal medicine, for men and animals, in their
territories:

"Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's [Ashoka's] domain, and among the
people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far
as Tamraparni and where the Greek king Antiochos rules, and among the kings who are
neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for
two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for
animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had
them imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them
imported and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of
humans and animals". 2nd Rock Edict
 The Greeks in India even seem to have played an
active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some
of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita,
are described in Pali sources as leading Greek
("Yona") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist
proselytism (the Mahavamsa, XII[40]).

Subhagsena and Antiochos III (206 BCE)

Sophagasenus was an Indian Mauryan ruler of the

3rd century BCE, described in ancient Greek
sources, and named Subhagsena or Subhashsena in
Prakrit. His name is mentioned in the list of Mauryan
princes[citation needed], and also in the list of the Yadava
dynasty, as a descendant of Pradyumna. He may
have been a grandson of Ashoka, or Kunala, the son
of Ashoka. He ruled an area south of the Hindu
Kush, possibly in Gandhara. Antiochos III, the
Seleucid king, after having made peace with
Euthydemus in Bactria, went to India in 206 BC and
is said to have renewed his friendship with the Indian
king there:

"He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India; renewed his friendship with
Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty
altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army:
leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had
agreed to hand over to him". Polybius 11.39

Decline
Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a
succession of weaker kings. Brhadrata, the last
ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, held territories that
had shrunk considerably from the time of
emperor Ashoka, although he still upheld the
Buddhist faith.

Sunga coup (185 BCE)

Brihadrata was assassinated in 185 BCE during a

military parade, by the commander-in-chief of
his guard, the Brahmin general Pusyamitra
Sunga, who then took over the throne and
established the Sunga dynasty. Buddhist records
such as the Asokavadana write that the
assassination of Brhadrata and the rise of the
Sunga empire led to a wave of persecution for
Buddhists,[41] and a resurgence of Hinduism.
According to Sir John Marshall,[42] Pusyamitra
may have been the main author of the
persecutions, although later Sunga kings seem to
have been more supportive of Buddhism. Other
historians, such as Etienne Lamotte[43] and
Romila Thapar,[44] among others, have argued
that archaeological evidence in favor of the
allegations of persecution of Buddhists are
lacking, and that the extent and magnitude of the
atrocities have been exaggerated.

Establishment of the Indo-Greek

Kingdom (180 BCE)

Main article: Indo-Greek kingdom

The fall of the Mauryas left the Khyber Pass

unguarded, and a wave of foreign invasion
followed. The Greco-Bactrian king, Demetrius,
capitalized on the break-up, and he conquered
southern Afghanistan and Pakistan around 180
BC, forming the Indo-Greek Kingdom. The
Indo-Greeks would maintain holdings on the
trans-Indus region, and make forays into central
India, for about a century. Under them,
Buddhism flourished, and one of their kings
Menander became a famous figure of Buddhism,
he was to establish a new capital of Sagala, the
modern city of Sialkot. However, the extent of
their domains and the lengths of their rule are
subject to much debate. Numismatic evidence
indicates that they retained holdings in the
subcontinent right up to the birth of Christ.
Although the extent of their successes against
indigenous powers such as the Sungas,
Satavahanas, and Kalingas are unclear, what is
clear is that Scythian tribes, renamed Indo-
Scythians, brought about the demise of the Indo-
Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained lands
in the trans-Indus, the region of Mathura, and
Gujarat.
Reasons

The decline of the Maurya Dynasty was rather

rapid after the death of Ashoka/Asoka. One
obvious reason for it was the succession of weak
kings. Another immediate cause was the partition
of the Empire into two. Had not the partition
taken place, the Greek invasions could have been
held back giving a chance to the Mauryas to re-
establish some degree of their previous power.
Regarding the decline much has been written.
Haraprasad Sastri contends that the revolt by
Pushyamitra was the result of brahminical
reaction against the pro-Buddhist policies of
Ashoka and pro-Jaina policies of his successors.
Basing themselves on this thesis, some maintain
the view that brahminical reaction was
responsible for the decline because of the
following reasons.

1. Prohibition of the slaughter of animals

displeased the Brahmins as animal sacrifices
were esteemed by them.
2. The book Divyavadana refers to the
persecution of Buddhists by Pushyamitra
Sunga.
3. Asoka's claim that he exposed the
Budheveas (brahmins) as false gods shows
that Ashoka was not well disposed towards
Brahmins.
4. The capture of power by Pushyamitra Sunga
shows the triumph of Brahmins.

All of these four points can be easily refuted.

1. Asoka's compassion towards animals was

not an overnight decision. Repulsion of
animal sacrifices grew over a long period of
time. Even Brahmins gave it up.
2. The book Divyavadana cannot be relied
upon since it was during the time of
Pushyamitra Sunga that the Sanchi and
Barhut stupas were completed. The
impression of the persecution of Buddhism
was probably created by Menander's
invasion, since he was a Buddhist.
 3. The word 'budheva' is misinterpreted
because this word is to be taken in the
context of some other phrase. Viewed like
this, the word has nothing to do with
brahminism.
4. The victory of Pushyamitra Sunga clearly
shows that the last of the Mauryas was an
incompetent ruler since he was overthrown
in the very presence of his army, and this
had nothing to do with brahminical reaction
against Asoka's patronage of Buddhism.
Moreover, the very fact that a Brahmin was
the commander in chief of the Mauryan
ruler proves that the Mauryas and the
Brahmins were on good terms.

After all, the distinction between Hinduism and

Buddhism in India was purely sectarian and
never more than the difference between saivism
and vaishnavism. The exclusiveness of religious
doctrines is a Semitic conception, which was
unknown to India for a long time. Buddha
himself was looked upon in his lifetime and
afterwards as a Hindu saint and avatar and his
followers were but another sect in the great
Aryan tradition. Ashoka was a Buddhist in the
same way as Harsha was a Budhist, or
Kumarapala was a Jain. But in the view of the
people of the day he was a Hindu monarch
following one of the recognized sects. His own
inscriptions bear ample withness to the fact.
While his doctrines follow the middle path, his
gifts are to the brahmibns, sramansa (Buddhist
priests) and others equally. His own name of
adoption is Devanam Priya, the beloved of the
gods. Which gods? Surely the gods of the Aryan
religion. Buddhism had no gods of its own. The
idea that Ashoka was a kind of Buddhist
Constantine declearing himself against paganism
is a complete misreading of India conditions.
Asoka was a kind or Buddhist Constantine
declearing himself against paganism is a
complete misreading of India conditions. Asoka
was essentially a Hindu, as indeed was the
founder of the sect to which he belonged.
Raychaudhury too rebuts the arguments of
Sastri. The empire had shrunk considerably and
there was no revolution. Killing the Mauryan
King while he was reviewing the army points to
a palace coup detat not a revolution. The
organization were ready to accept any one who
could promise a more efficient organisation.
Also if Pushyamitra was really a representative
of brahminical reaction he neighbouting kings
would have definitely given him assistance.

The argument that the empire became effete

because of Asokan policies is also very thin. All
the evidence suggests that Asoka was a stern
monarch although his reign witnessed only a
single campaign. He was shrewd enough in
retaining Kalinga although he expressed his
remorse. Well he was wordly-wise to enslave
and-and-half lakh sudras of Kalinga and bring
them to the Magadha region to cut forests and
cultivate land. More than this his tours of the
empire were not only meant for the sake of piety
but also for keeping an eye on the centrifugal
tendencies of the empire. Which addressing the
tribal people Asoka expressed his willingness to
for given. More draconian was Ashoka's
message to the forest tribes who were warned of
the power which he possessed. This view of
Raychoudhury on the pacifism of the State
cannot be substantiated.

Apart from these two major writers there is a

third view as expressed by kosambi. He based
his arguments that unnccessary measures were
taken up to increase tax and the punch-marked
coins of the period show evidence of
debasement. This contention too cannot be up
held. It is quite possible that debased coins began
to circulate during the period of the later
Mauryas. On the other hand the debasement may
also indicate that there was an increased demand
for silver in relation to goods leading to the
silver content of the coins being reduced. More
important point is the fact that the material
remains of the post-Asokan era do not suggest
any pressure on the economy. Instead the
economy prospered as shown by archaeological
evidence at Hastinapura and Sisupalqarh. The
reign of Asoka was an asset to the economy. The
unification of the country under single efficient
administration the organization and increase in
communications meant the development of trade
as well as an opening of many new commercial
interest. In the post - Asokan period surplus
wealth was used by the rising commercial classes
to decorate religious buildings. The sculpture at
Barhut and Sanchi and the Deccan caves was the
contribution of this new bourgeoisie.

Still another view regarding of the decline of

Mauryas was that the coup of Pushyamitra was a
peoples' revolt against Mauryans oppression and
a rejection of the Maurya adoption of foreign
ideas, as far interest in Mauryan Art.

This argument is based on the view that Sunga

art (Sculpture at Barhut and Sanchi) is more
earthy and in the folk tradition that Maruyan art.
This is more stretching the argument too far. The
character of Sunga art changed because it served
a different purpose and its donors belonged to
different social classes. Also, Sunga art
conformed more to the folk traditions because
Buddhism itself had incorporated large elements
of popular cults and because the donors of this
art, many of whom may have been artisans, were
culturally more in the mainstream of folk
tradition.

One more reasoning to support the popular revolt

theory is based on Asoka's ban on the samajas.
Asoka did ban festive meetings and discouraged
eating of meat. These too might have
entagonised the population but it is doubtful
whether these prohibitions were strictly
enforced. The above argument (people's revolt)
also means that Asoka's policy was continued by
his successors also, an assumption not confirmed
by historical data. Further more, it is unlikely
that there was sufficient national consciousness
among the varied people of the Mauryan empire.
It is also argued by these theorists that Asokan
policy in all its details was continued by the later
Mauryas, which is not a historical fact.

Still another argument that is advanced in favour

of the idea of revolt against the Mauryas is that
the land tax under the Mauryas was one-quarter,
which was very burden some to the cultivator.
But historical evidence shows something else.
The land tax varied from region to region
according to the fertility of the soil and the
availability of water. The figure of one quarter
stated by Magasthenes probably referred only to
the fertile and well-watered regions around
Pataliputra.

Thus the decline of the Mauryan empire cannot

be satisfactorily explained by referring to
Military inactivity, Brahmin resentment, popular
uprising or economic pressure. The causes of the
decline were more fundamental. The
organization of administration and the concept of
the State were such that they could be sustained
by only by kings of considerably personal
ability. After the death of Asoka there was
definitely a weakening at the center particularly
after the division of the empire, which inevitably
led to the breaking of provinces from the
Mauryan rule.

Also, it should be borne in mind that all the

officials owed their loyalty to the king and not to
the State. This meant that a change of king could
result in change of officials leading to the
demoralization of the officers. Mauryas had no
system of ensuring the continuation of well-
planned bureaucracy.

The next important weakness of the Mauryan

Empire was its extreme centralization and the
virtual monopoly of all powers by the king.
There was a total absence of any advisory
institution representing public opinion. That is
why the Mauryas depended greatly on the
espionage system. Added to this lack of
representative institutions there was no
distinction between the executive and the
judiciary of the government. An incapable king
may use the officers either for purposes of
oppression or fail to use it for good purpose. And
as the successors of Asoka happened to be weak,
the empire inevitably declined.

Added to these two factors, there is no

conception of national unity of political
consciousness. It is clear from the fact that even
the resistance against the greeks as the hated
miecchas was not an organized one. The only
resistance was that of the local rulers who were
afraid of losing their newly acquired territory. It
is significant that when Porus was fighting
Alexander, or when Subhagasena was paying
tribute to Antiochus, they were doing so as
isolated rulers in the northwest of India. They
had no support from Pataliputra, nor are they
even mentioned in any Indian sources as offering
resistance to the hated Yavanas. Even the heroic
Porus, who, enemy though he was, won the
admiration of the Greeks, is left unrecorded in
Indian sources.

Another associated point of great importance is

the fact that the Mauryan Empire which was
highly centralized and autocratic was the first
and last one of its kind. If the Mauryan Empire
did not survive for long, it could be because of
the failure of the successors of Asoka to hold on
to the principles that could make success of such
an empire. Further, the Mauryan empire and the
philosophy of the empire was not in tune with
the spirit of the time because Aryanism and
brahminism was very much there. According to
the Brahmin or Aryan philosophy, the king was
only an upholder of dharma, but never the crucial
or architecture factor influencing the whole of
life. In other words, the sentiment of the people
towards the political factor, that is the State was
never established in India. Such being the reality,
when the successors of Asoka failed to make use
of the institution and the thinking that was
needed to make a success of a centralized
political authority. The Mauryan Empire
declined without anyone's regret.
Other factors of importance that contributed to
the decline and lack of national unity were the
ownership of land and inequality of economic
levels. Land could frequently change hands.
Fertility wise the region of the Ganges was more
prosperous than northern Deccan. Mauryan
administration was not fully tuned to meet the
existing disparities in economic activity. Had the
southern region been more developed, the empire
could have witnessed economic homogeneity.

Also the people of the sub-continent were not of

uniform cultural level. The sophisticated cities
and the trade centers were a great contrast to the
isolated village communities. All these
differences naturally led to the economic and
political structures being different from region to
region. It is also a fact that even the languages
spoken were varied. The history of a sub-
continent and their casual relationships. The
causes of the decline of the Mauryan empire
must, in large part, be attributed to top heavy
administration where authority was entirely in
the hands of a few persons while national
consciousness was unknown.

Preceded by Succeeded by
Magadha dynasties
Nanda dynasty Sunga dynasty