o The Guptas are believed to be feudatories of the Kushans.

o They are most likely Vaishyas in origin, and they ruled over fertile parts of the madhyadesha, that is,
anuganga (the middle Gangetic basin), saketa (modern Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh), and magadha
(mostly Bihar).
o The Guptas could easily exploit the iron ore deposits of central India and southern Bihar, and also took
advantage of their proximity to the areas of north India which carried on silk trade with the Byzantine
empire (Eastern Roman empire).
o ‘Garuda’ was probably their state seal.
Sources of the Gupta Period
(a) Inscriptions
o Allahabad Prashasti (eulogy) talks about the greatness of Samudragupta as an administrator and as a
great conqueror who waged 100 battles. The king, Srigupta, has been identified as the first Gupta king
mentioned in the Allahabad pillar inscription.
o Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription – It talks about the greatness of Chandragupta Vikramaditya II and his
victory against the Sakas.
o Eran Copper Plate Inscription, found in Allahabad was issued by Bhanugupta. It is the first written
recorded evidence on the custom of Sati.
(b) Numismatics
o The Guptas issued silver coins on the model of the Kushans. In the coins of Samudragupta, he is shown
fighting with lions and playing harp (Veena-like musical instrument).
o Chandragupta I, in his silver coins is found depicted along with his wife, Kumaradevi. In the coins of
Chandragupta Vikramaditya II, the signs depicting Aswamedha are found.
(c) Literature
o Literature is an important source to construct the history of Guptas.
o Kalidas wrote the famous Avignanashakuntalam, Meghasandeshan, Ritusamharam, Kumarasabhavam,
Raghuvansam, Malavikaagnitram. In his writings, the Gupta society is reflected.
o Vajjika wrote Kaumudimohotsavam. It is a description about Chandragupta I coming to power.
o Visakhadutta wrote Devichandraguptam which talks about Chandragupta II coming to throne after
killing his brother Ramagupta and marrying his sister-in-law, Druvadevi.
o Sudraka wrote Mrichyakatikam meaning ‘Clay doll’.
o Bhasa wrote Vasavadatta, a play on the urban life under the Guptas.
o Meetakshara written by Vigneshwara, deals with social law and customs of the time and is most
important in the context of inheritance issues. It still forms the basis of many Indian Laws.
o Neetisara written by Kamandaka, also deals with law and is popular as The Arthashastra of the Guptas.
(d) Other Sources
o I-tsing, a Chineses traveler, came to India between A.D. 671 and 695. He mentioned Srigupta as the
builder of a temple at Gaya for the Chinese pilgrims about 500 years before his time.
o Puranas also mentioned that the early Guptas controlled the area along the Ganga (the middle Gangetic
basin), Prayag (Allahabad and surrounding region), Saketa (Ayodhya region), and Magadha.
Sri Gupta (c. AD 240 -280)
o Sri Gupta was the founder of the Gupta dynasty. Gupta Empire was based in Northern or Central
Bengal. However, little evidence is available to identify the exact boundaries of the empire.
o The Poona copper inscription of Prabhavati Gupta, a daughter of Chandragupta II, describes
"Maharaja Sri-Gupta" as the founder of the Gupta dynasty.
Ghatotkacha (c. AD 280-319)
o Ghatotkacha was the son of Sri Gupta. Very little is known of him. Ghatotkacha was succeeded by
his son, Chandragupta I.
Chandragupta I (320-330 AD)
o The first important king of the Gupta dynasty was Chandragupta I; laid the foundations of the
Gupta empire and claimed the title of maharajadhiraja (king of kings).
o His empire included parts of modern Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Bengal; with its capital was at
Pataliputra.
o Enhanced his power and prestige by marrying Kumaradevi, princess of Lichchhavi clan of Nepal
(since the Guptas were probably Vaishyas by caste, marriage into a Kshatriya clan granted
legitimacy, prestige, and strength to the Guptas).
o Chandragupta I can be regarded as a ruler of considerable importance because he started the
Gupta era in A.D. 319-20, which marked the date of his accession.
o Later many inscriptions came to be dated in the Gupta era.
o Chandragupta I issued silver Coins were struck in the joint names of the Emperor, his queen
(Kumara Devi's image imprinted on them), and the Lichchhavi nation, thereby acknowledging this
marital alliance. In fact, Samudragupta was referred to as Lichchhavi-dauhitra (grandson of the
Lichchhavis) in the famous Allahabad prashasti.
o The Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription mentions conquests of Chandragupta I. It is still not clear how
Chandragupta I managed to expand his small kingdom to the level of a large empire. The role of
matrimonial alliances in expansion of his kingdom is considered important.
o He had two sons. The eldest was Kachagupta and
the younger was Samudragupta. He was
succeeded by Kachagupta, who ruled for very
short duration. Kachagupta was further succeeded
by Samudragupta.
Samudragupta (c.335/336–375 CE)
o Samudragupta succeeded his father Chandragupta-I about A.D. 340. He earned a reputation as
one of the greatest kings and conquerors. He was chosen by his father as his successor because of
his qualities that would make him into a good king.
o It is generally believed that his father had chosen him successor even though he had several elder
brothers, which led to a struggle for succession after his father’s death.
o It is presumed that Samudragupta prevailed after subduing his rival, Kachagupta, an obscure
prince of the dynasty who was also his brother.
o Son of Chandragupta I, who followed a policy of war and conquest and enormously enlarged
his kingdom. His rule was one of expansion marked first by the conquest of his immediate
neighbours and then by campaigns to the east and the south, where chiefdoms and kingdoms
were subdued and forced to pay tribute to him. Due to this policy of his, the historian V. A. Smith
has called him the ‘Napoleon’ of India.
Conquests of Samudragupta
o He followed a policy called Sangraha (Total annexation), Vimochana (Liberation of some
territories) and Anugraha (Restoral).
o He defeated four Aryavarta kings namely Chandravarna, Achyuta, Ganapainaga and Nagasena.
o He liberated the forest tribal kingdoms (Vimochana) near Vindh and defeated 12 South Indian
Kings (Anugraha) and later restored them their thrones.
o He also conquered North Eastern States – Samatata, Davaka, Kamarupa and Nepala.
o The Allahabad pillar inscription (Prayagaprashasti) gives a detailed account of the career and
personality of Samudragupta.
o The surface of Prayagaprashasti also contains inscriptions of Ashoka and later, the Mughal
emperor Jahangir.
o Unlike the Ashokan inscription which stresses on peace and nonviolence, Samudragupta’s
inscription gives us information about his different conquests.
o It was composed in pure Sanskrit by Harisena, who was not only his court poet but was also a
kumaramatya, that is, a high ranking official who described himself by different titles such as
sandhivigrahika (minister for peace and war) and mahadandanayaka (judicial/military officer).
o According to the inscription, Samudragupta exerted direct or indirect control over much of the
Indian subcontinent, stretching from kingdoms in Nepal and the Punjab in the north to the Pallava
kingdom at Kanchipuram in the southeast.
o The last vestiges of Kushan rule, like the Shakas, the Murundas, and even the faraway
independent territory of Simhala (present day Sri lanka), accepted his suzerainty as well.
o Due to this policy of his, the historian V. A. Smith has called him the ‘Napoleon’ of India.
o The Prayag prashasti mentions the defeat of the twelve south Indian rulers (together) by
Samudragupta (including Vishnugopa of Kanchi). It is pertinent to note that Virasena was the
commander of Samudragupta during his southern campaign.
o Samudragupta proceeded for his south Indian campaign, through the eastern and southern parts
of Madhyadesha to Orissa and then advanced along the eastern coast and reached Kanchi and
beyond and returned to his capital by way of Maharashtra and Khandesh.
o However, instead of annexing the southern kingdoms, he adopted the policy of political
conciliation and reinstated the defeated kings on their thrones. It is generally presumed that this
policy was adopted since he knew the limitation of not being able to keep them under control
and subservience after returning to his capital in the north. Therefore, it was enough for him that
these states recognized his suzerainty and paid him tributes and presents.
o Samudragupta celebrated his conquests by performing an ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) and by
issuing ashvamedha coin (portraying the scene of the sacrifice) marking the occasion.
o He was called Anukampavan (full of compassion) as he granted permission to the Buddhist king
of Ceylon, Meghavarman, to build a monastery and rest house for pilgrims from Ceylon at Bodh
Gaya. The magnificence of this monastery was described in the 7th century works of Hieun
Tsang/Xuanzang.
o Samudragupta was a versatile genius. He was called as ‘Kaviraja’ i.e. the king of poets. He was
proficient in war and sastras as well.
o The Allahabad pillar inscription calls him a great musician. This is also confirmed by his lyricist type of
coins, which shows him playing veena (lute).
o Samudragupta died in about A.D. 380 and was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II.
o Though Hindu by practice, he extended his patronage to other religions, and one of his ministers
was the great Buddhist philosopher Vasubandhu. Samudragupta is remembered for his patronage of
art and literature.
Chandragupta II (c. 376 – 413/15 CE )
o According to some legends, Samudragupta was succeeded by his elder son Ramagupta, but
Chandragupta II killed him. It is also believed that during Ramagupta’s tenure, the Gupta empire was
invaded by a powerful Shaka king. Ramagupta lost the battle and signed a humiliating treaty that
allowed his wife to be sent to the enemy camp. It is said that Chandragupta II had to kill his brother
and marry his wife, Dhruvadevi, to safeguard the honour of the Gupta dynasty.
o Chandragupta II was the son of Samudragupta and Dattadevi and he was chosen by his father as
his successor.
o The Mehrauli iron pillar inscription records portray a king named Chandra. The king Chandra is
generally identified as Chandragupta-II.
o Kalidas, the great Sanskrit poet was a member of Chandragupta-II’s court.
o Fa-Hien, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim visited India between A.D. 405 and A.D. 411. He visited for
collecting Buddhist manuscripts and text and studying at Indian monasteries.
o The Gupta Empire reached its highest glory, both in terms of territorial expansion and cultural
excellence under Chandragupta II.
o He was the first ruler to issue silver coins. He also issued copper coins and is referred to as Chandra
on his coins. He also issued gold coins called dinara.
Chandragupta-ll, Vakatakas and Sakas
o He married Kuberanaga, the Naga princess, and had a daughter, Prabhavati, with her.
o Prabhavati was married to Rudrasena II of the ruling Vakataka dynasty in Deccan. After the death
of her husband, Prabhavati ruled the territory as regent to her minor sons with the help of her father.
o During this twenty year period, the Vakataka realm was practically a part of the Gupta empire.
o Chandragupta thus exercised indirect control over the Vakataka kingdom, which proved very
beneficial to him. With his great influence in this central Indian region, he was able to target his other
enemies better.
o Thus, he conquered western Malwa and Gujarat from the Shaka satraps (one of them was
Rudrasimha III) who had been in command in western India for about the past four centuries.
o After the victory over Sakas, Chandragupta-II adopted the title of ‘Vikramaditya.’ He was also given
the title of ‘Sakari’ or the conqueror of Sakas.
o Chandragupta-II issued dated silver coins to commemorate his victory over Saka kshatrapas.
o This conquest took the expanse of the Gupta empire to the western sea coast, which was an
important region for trade and commerce. This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa and its chief
city Ujjain, which was also Chandragupta II’s second capital.
o An iron pillar inscription at Mehrauli in Delhi indicates that his empire included even north-
western India and Bengal. He took the title of Vikramaditya, that is, the one who is as powerful as
the sun, and Simhavikrama.
o The Udaigiri cave inscriptions refer to his digvijaya, that is, his conquest of the whole world.
His court at Ujjain was adorned by nine famous scholars known as the Navaratnas (‘nine gems’):
o Kalidasa: Renowned classical Sanskrit poet and playwright of India and a peerless genius whose works
such as Abhijananashakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvasiyam became famous worldwide.
o Amarasimha: Sanskrit lexicographer and poet, and his ‘Amarakosha’ is a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots,
homonyms, and synonyms. It is also called Trikanda, as it has three parts containing around ten
thousand words.
o Varahamihira: Renowned mathematician and astrologer who wrote three important books, the
Panchasiddhantika (a treatise on mathematical astronomy which is a compendium of Vedanga Jyotisha
as well as Hellenistic astronomy and summarises five earlier astronomical treatises, namely the Surya
Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta, Vasishtha Siddhanta, and Paitamaha Siddhanta), the
Brihat Samhita (compilation of wide-ranging topics such as astrology, planetary movements, eclipses,
rainfall, clouds, architecture, growth of crops, manufacture of perfume, matrimony, domestic relations,
gems, pearls, and rituals, which also provides interesting details of the beliefs of those times), and the
Brihat Jataka (considered the standard textbook on Vedic astrology).
o Dhanvantri: Physician who is considered the father of Ayurveda (literally meaning ‘knowledge for
longevity’).
o Ghatakarapara : An expert in sculpture and architecture.
o Shanku: An architect who wrote the Shilpashastra.
o Kahapanaka: An astrologer who wrote the Jyothisyashastra.
o Vararuchi: Grammarian and Sanskrit scholar and the author of the Prakrit Prakasha, which is first
grammar of the Prakrit language.
o Vetala Bhatta: A magician who wrote the Mantrashastra.
Kumaragupta I (c.415 – 455 CE)
o Chandragupta-II died about A.D. 413. His son Kumaragupta became the next king.
o He had a long reign from 414 to 455 A.D.
o He performed the Asvamedha Yajna which was confirmed by Asvamedha coins. The discovery of his
1395 coins confirms his extension towards the South.
o His period is also regarded as forming part of the Golden Age of the Guptas.
o Towards the middle of the fifth century A.D. The reign of the Kumaragupta-I was disturbed by the
revolt of Pushyamitra tribe.
o His greatest achievement was his repulsing the attack of the Pushyamitra. Pushyamitras were living
on the banks of the Narmada.
o After the death of Kumaragupta-I Skandagupta succeeded in 455 A.D. and reigned from 455 to 467
A.D.
o Adopted the title of Shakraditya and Mahendraditya.
o Founded the Nalanda University.
o Worshipper of lord Karttikeya (son of Lord Shiva).
o During the last years of his reign, peace was disturbed on the north-west frontier due to the invasion of
the Huns of Central Asia.
o The Huns entered India by occupying Gandhara. Their first attack during his reign was repulsed by
prince Skandagupta. The Guptas however could not protect their empire for long and the successive
waves of Hun invasion made the Guptas very weak. This was one of the main factors which accelerated
the disintegration of the Gupta empire.
o The Bilsad inscription is the oldest record of his reign and dates to Gupta year 96, which corresponds to
415 CE. Other inscriptions of Kumaragupta’s reign are the Karandanda, Mandsor, and Damodar Copper
plate inscriptions (the latter mentions that trade guilds served as banks for advancing loans and
receiving deposits in Kumaragupta’s reign).
Skandagupta (c. 455 – 467 CE)
o Kumaragupta-I died in A.D. 455. His son Skandagupta became the next king.
o Skandagupta’s reign seems to have been full of wars. He struggled with his brother Purugupta.
o Hunas were the greatest enemies of Gupta’s empire during this period.
o Hunas were a ferocious barbarian horde. They lived in central Asia.
o Skandagupta successfully defeated the Hunas. So they did not dare to disturb the Gupta Empire for half
a century. Though they continue to disconcert Persia during this period.
o The important event of Skandagupta’s reign was the restoration and repair of the dam
on Sudarsana Lake after 8 hundred years of construction. It was built during Chandragupta Maurya’s
reign. Junagarh/Girnar inscription of his reign tells that his governor Parnadatta got the Sudarshan lake
repaired.
o Sudarsana Lake was also repaired previously during the reign of Saka kshatrapa Rudradaman I.
o Adopted the title Vikramaditya.
o The Gupta empire continued to exist but central control weakened and local governors became
feudatory kings with hereditary rights.
o *Later Gupta kings included Purugupta, Kumaragupta II, Budhagupta, Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta III,
and Vishnugupta.
Fahien’s Visit
o The famous Chinese pilgrim, Fahien (399-414AD) visited India during the reign of Chandragupta
II and wrote an elaborate account of the life of its people.
o He came to India by the land route through Khotan, Kashgar, Gandhara and Punjab.
o He visited Peshawar, Mathura, Kanauj, Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Kusinagara, Pataliputra, Kasi and
Bodh Gaya among other places.
o He returned by the sea route, visiting on the way Ceylon and Java.
o The main purpose of his visit was to see the land of the Buddha and to collect Buddhist manuscripts
from India.
o He stayed in Pataliputra years studying Sanskrit and copying Buddhist texts.
o Fahien provides valuable information on the religious, social and economic condition of the
Gupta empire.
o According to him, Buddhism was in a flourishing condition in the northwestern India but in the
Gangetic valley it was in a state of neglect.
o He refers to the Gangetic valley as the ‘land of Brahmanism’.
o Fahien mentions the unsatisfactory state of some of the Buddhist holy places like Kapilavastu
and Kusinagara.
o According to him, the economic condition of the empire was prosperous.
o Although his account is valuable in many respects, he did not mention the name of Chandragupta
II. It seems that he was not interested in political affairs and his interest was primarily religion.
o He assessed everything from the Buddhist angle and his observations on social conditions are
found to be exaggerated. Yet, his accounts are useful to know the general condition of the
country.
Social Conditions
o In the Gupta period, brahmanical reaction against Buddhism and Jainism became stronger. As a
result, varna- (i.e. caste-) based social stratification and the supremacy of the brahmans (the highest
caste) received much greater emphasis.
o It is difficult to ascertain the caste of the Guptas, but they were, in all probability, brahmans
themselves and strongly supported the brahmanical social order.
o The degeneration of the vaisyas (the third, or trader, caste), which had begun earlier, intensified
during this period. Because of advanced agricultural techniques and developments in handicrafts, the
condition of the sudras (the fourth, or menial, caste) improved and there was no great difference
between a poor vaisya and a prosperous sudra.
o The vaisyas, however, retained their supremacy in industry and commerce and held important
positions on the municipal boards.
o The smritis of the Gupta period make a clear distinction between the sudras and the slaves. This
period saw the emergence of the untouchables, who were beyond the pale of the caste structure and
lived outside the city boundaries.
o Although women were idealized in literature and art, in practice they had a distinctly subordinate
social position. Education of a limited kind was permitted to upper-class women but they were not
allowed to participate in public life.
o Early marriage was advocated and strict celibacy was recommended for widows.
Economic Condition
o The social supremacy of the brahmans is also reflected in the economy of the period, as attested by
the frequency of tax-free land-grants made to them. This was a period of partial decline in trade and
consequently a greater concentration on land.
o There were four categories of land – fallow and waste land, state-owned land and privately owned
land. Agriculture expanded with the reclamation of new land for cultivation. Contemporary texts
reveal a more liberal and practical attitude towards waste land, with the state encouraging the
peasantry to bring uncultivated and forest land under the plough. Those who reclaimed land on their
own initiative and made arrangements for its irrigation were exempted from paying taxes until they
started earning an income of twice their original investment.
o Agricultural implements remained much the same, although iron was more widely used for their
manufacture.
o Varhamihira, in his astrological work, the Brhat–samihita, refers to an instrument for measuring
rainfall. Crops were grown twice a year.
o According to Hsüantsang, sugar cane and wheat were grown in the north-west and rice in Magadha
and further east. Southern India was known for black pepper and spices.
o The manufacture of textiles of various kinds was one of the more important industries at this time.
o Silk, muslin, calico, linen, wool and cotton were produced in great quantity. The production of silk
decreased towards the end of the Gupta period due to the increasing use of the Silk Route and the
Sea Route to China, which brought a large amount of Chinese silk to India or, more generally, to the
decline in trade with the West.
o Metalwork, particularly in copper, iron and lead, continued as one of the essential industries. The use
of bronze increased and gold and silver ornaments were in constant demand.
o Pottery remained a basic part of industrial production, although the elegant black polished ware of
earlier times was now replaced by an ordinary red ware with a brownish slip.
o The export of spices, pepper, sandalwood, pearls, precious stones, perfumes, indigo and herbs
continued as before. Pepper was exported from the ports of the Malabar coast and sesame, copper
and cotton garments from Kalyana.
o The Pandya area had an important role to play in the pearl trade.
o Fa-hsien describes the people of Madhyadesha (the ‘middle country’) as prosperous and happy
towards the beginning of the fifth century.
o Evidence of material conditions obtained from excavations also points to a high standard of living.
Taxation System
The taxes on land were increased, whereas the taxes on trade and commerce were reduced. There were
several types of taxes in Gupta era as follows:
o Bali: Bali which was voluntary in Maurya era and was given to the king became compulsory in Gupta era.
o Bhaga: The share of king in the production of the cultivators. It was 1/6th part of production.
o Hiranya: This was the tax paid in cash (gold) (Hiranya means gold).
o Shulka: It was custom or toll tax very much similar to Chungi/Octroi in modern times.
o Klipta: It was tax on sale and purchase of lands.
Administration
o Great tact and foresight were shown in the governance of the vast empire.
o The large kingdom was divided into smaller Pradesha (provinces) and administrative heads were
appointed to take care of them.
o The kings maintained discipline and transparency in the bureaucratic process. Criminal law was mild,
capital punishment was unheard of and judicial torture was not practised.
o Fa Hien called the cities of Mathura and Pataliputra as picturesque with the latter being described as
a city of flowers.
o People could move around freely.
o Law and order reigned and, according to Fa Hien, incidents of theft and burglary were rare.
o The most noticeable feature of the post-Mauryan administrative development was the gradual
erosion of the government’s centralized power.
o The Guptas discarded the modest title of raja and adopted the high-sounding ones brought into
vogue by the Kushans. The most typical example is maharajadhiraja which, along with its several
variants, appears in Gupta inscriptions.
o The Gupta kings also claimed superhuman qualities for themselves. They continued the traditional
machinery of bureaucratic administration with nomenclature that was mostly borrowed or adopted
from earlier times.
o Thus the mantri (prime minister) stood at the head of the civil administration. Among other high
officers were the mahabaladhikrta (commander-in-chief), mahadandanayaka (general) and
mahapratihara (chief of the palace guards).
o A high ranking officer, encountered for the first time in the Gupta records but destined to have a long
career, was the sandhivigrahika (foreign minister).
o The bhuktis (provinces) were usually governed by princes of royal blood and sometimes by a class of
officers called uparikas.
o The link between the central and provincial administration was furnished by kumaramatyas and
ayuktas who ruled over visayas (districts). The district officers were nominated by the provincial
governors.
o For the first time, the inscriptions give us an idea of systematic local administration in the Gupta
period, which assumed many new dimensions.
o The series of northern Bengal epigraphs mentions the adhisthanadhikarana (municipal
board), visayadhikarana (district office) and astakuladhikarana (possibly, rural board).
o The precise significance of the astakuladhikarana is unknown, but in one example it is said to be
headed by the mahattaras (village elders) and also includes the gramika (village headman) and
the kutumbins (householders).
o The significant aspect of Gupta bureaucracy was that, since it was less organized and elaborate than
the Mauryan administration of the third century b.c. (seen in Kautilya’s Arthasastra), it allowed several
offices to be combined in the hands of the same person and posts tended to become hereditary.
Art, Architecture and Culture
o The finest examples of painting, sculpture and architecture of the period can be found in Ajanta,
Ellora, Sarnath, Mathura, Anuradhapura and Sigiriya.
o The basic tenets of Shilpa Shasrta (Treatise on Art) were followed everywhere including in town
planning. Stone studded golden stairways, iron pillars (The iron pillar of Dhar is twice the size of
Delhi’s Iron Pillar), intricately designed gold coins, jewellery and metal sculptures speak volumes
about the skills of the metalsmiths.
o Carved ivories, wood and lac-work, brocades and embroidered textile also thrived.
o Also, in classic Indian style, artists and litterateurs were encouraged to meditate on the imagery
within and capture its essence in their creations.
o Further, practicing vocal music, dance and seven types of musical instruments including veena (an
Indian musical stringed instrument), flute and mridangam (drum) were a norm rather than exception
o The art of casting metal images reached its climax during this period.
o The art of painting reached its height of glory and splendour. The fresco paintings noticed in the
caves at Bagh and the paintings found in the Ajanta caves are the products of the Gupta period.
Religion
o In the sphere of religion, Brahmanism reigned supreme during the Gupta period. It had two
branches - Vaishnavism and Saivism.
o The Gupta rulers gave patronage to Bhagvatism. But they were tolerant to other religions too.
o Most of the Gupta kings were Vaishnavaites.
o The worship of images and celebration of religious festivals with elaborate rituals made these
two religious sects popular.
o Religious literature like the Puranas was composed during this period.
o Bhagvatism centered on-the worship of Vishnu and his incarnations. It put emphasis on bhakti
(loving devotion) and ahimsa (non killing of animals) rather than Vedic rituals and sacrifices.
o The new religion was quite liberal, and assimilated the lower classes in its fold. According to
Bhagavadgita, the chief text of Bhagvatism, whenever there was a social crisis Vishnu would
appear in a human form and save the people. Thus ten incarnations of Vishnu were perceived.
o Puranas were written to popularize the virtues of each one of these incarnations.
o The progress of Brahmanism led to the neglect of Buddhism and Jainism. (Fahien clearly give the
impression that Buddhism was flourishing in India but was in a state of neglect in the Gangetic
valley.) But a few Buddhist scholars like Vasubandhu were patronized by Gupta kings.
o In western and southern India Jainism flourished. The great Jain Council was held at Valabhi
during this period and the Jain Canon of the Swetambars was written.
o Nalanda developed as a great center of education for Mahayana Buddhism.
o Tantrism spread in India in this period. From the fifth century the brahmanas had started receiving
land in the tribal areas of Nepal, Assam, Bengal, Orissa, central India and Deccan. As a
consequence, the tribal elements came to be assimilated in the brahmanical society.
o The brahmanas adopted their rituals, gods and goddesses. It is this assimilation of brahmanical
religion and tribal practices which resulted in the development of Tantrism. It did not believe in
any caste or gender bias and admitted both women and shudras in its ranks. It put emphasis on
‘female’ as a source of power and energy. The Tantrik concepts affected, Shaivism and
Vaishnavism as well as Buddhism and Jainism. It resulted in the introduction of the worship of
female deities in these religions.
Science and Technology
o The Gupta period witnessed a brilliant activity in the sphere of mathematics, astronomy,
astrology and medicine.
o Aryabhatta, a great mathematician and astronomer, wrote the book Aryabhatiyam in 499 A.D. It
deals with mathematics and astronomy. It explains scientifically the occurrence of solar and lunar
eclipses. Aryabhatta was the first to declare that the earth was spherical in shape and that it
rotates on its own axis.
o Aryabhatta was the first to invent “zero” and the use of the decimal system. (A Gupta inscription
from Allahabad district suggests that the decimal system was known in India at the beginning of
the fifth century A.D.)
o Varahamihira composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five astronomical systems. He was also a great
authority on astrology. His work Brihadsamhita is a great work in Sanskrit literature. It deals with a
variety of subjects like astronomy, astrology, geography, architecture, weather, animals,
marriage and omens. His Brihadjataka is considered to be a standard work on astrology.
o In the fields of astronomy a book called Romaka Sidhanta was compiled which was influenced by
Greek ideas.
o In the field of medicine, Vagbhata lived during this period. He was the last of the great medical trio of
ancient India. (The other two scholars Charaka and Susruta lived before the Gupta age. Charaka is
known for authoring the medical treatise, the Charaka Samhita.)
o Vagbhata was the author Ashtangasamgraha (Summary of the eight branches of medicine).
o Metallurgy saw technological advancement in Gupta times. The Gupta craftsmen distinguished
themselves by their work in iron and bronze.
o Several bronze images of the Buddha, began to be produced on a considerable scale because of the
knowledge of advanced iron technology.
o In the case of iron objects the best example is twenty-three feet high iron pillar at Mehrauli in
Delhi. Manufactured in the fourth century A.D., and standing in the open, the pillar has not
gathered any rust in the subsequent 16 centuries, which is a great tribute to the technological skill
of the craftsmen. (It was impossible, to produce such pillar in any iron foundry in the West until
about a century ago.)
Literature
Literature reached its pinnacle during the Gupta Dynasty. The primary themes of literature were poetry
and romantic comedies. The literature work of the Gupta period related to human behavior more than the
religious ideas.
o Sanskrit once again attained the status of a lingua franca and managed to scale even greater heights
than before.
o Poet and playwright Kalidasa created such epics as Abhijnanasakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram,
Raghuvansha and Kumarsambhaba.
o Harishena, a renowned poet, panegyrist and flutist, composed Allahabad Prasasti.
o Sudraka wrote Mricchakatika, Vishakhadatta created Mudrarakshasa and Vishnusharma penned
Panchatantra.
o Further, Vararuchi, Baudhayana, Ishwar Krishna and Bhartrihari contributed to both Sanskrit and
Prakrit linguistics, philosophy and science.
o Also, the Puranas in their present form were composed during this period. The epics Mahabharata
and Ramayana were given final touches.
o The Prakrit literature was also very popular during the Gupta rule. One of the best illustrations of
Prakrit literature was the Paumacariyam.
o The Markandeya purana was popular during the Gupta era as it was believed that goddess Durga was
worshiped during this period.
Education
o Education played an important role in the Gupta period. Primary education could be procured by the
people.
o Formal and higher education was procured by staying in agraharas or monasteries.
o Women could obtain education, unlike in other parts of the world.
o There were many educational institutions and universities set up in major cities.
o Nalanda University was established by Kumaragupta I in the 5th century. The university was an
important learning center and was one of the first universities which provided hostels for the students.
o Takshila University was one of the first centers in the world which offered higher education.
o The standard of education of both the universities was so high that it attracted students from as far as
China and Persia.
Decline of the Gupta Empire
o The decline of the Gupta Empire started during the reign of Skandagupta. Skandagupta was the
grandson of Chandragupta II. Skandagupta’s empire was drained of finances and resources because of
his retaliating behaviour.
o The last king of the Gupta Empire that was recognized was Vishnugupta. Vishnugupta reigned from
540 to 550 AD. There were a lot of Internal conflicts and dissensions among the royal family that led to
their weakening.
o During the reign of Budhagupta, the Vakataka ruler Narendra Cena attacked Malwa, Mekala, and
Kosala. Budhagupta was a Gupta king, and Vakataka ruler Narendrasena hailed from the Western
Deccan. Afterwards, Harishena, who was another Vakataka king conquered Malwa and Gujarat from
the Gupta king.
o During Skandagupta’s reign, the Huns tried to invade northwest India although they were restricted. In
the sixth century, the Huns occupied Malwa, Gujarat, Punjab, and Gandhara. This invasion weakened
the Gupta Empire substantially.
o Many independent rulers also emerged in the north (Yasodharman of Malwa, the Maukharis of U.P.,
the Maitrakas in Saurashtra, and others in Bengal). The Gupta Empire was restricted to Magadha only.
(Yasodharman joined forces with Narasimhagupta to successfully retaliate against the Hun chief
Mihirakula.)
o The Guptas started to follow Buddhism instead of Hinduism. This was unlike their ancestors and
considerably weakened the empire. Their focus shifted from empire-building and military conquests.
The Gupta Empire has been followed by weak rulers and because of incessant invasions from foreign
as well as native rulers, the Gupta Empire had seen its decline.
o By the beginning of the sixth century, the Gupta Empire had already been disintegrated and was ruled
by many regional chieftains.
 VAKATAKA DYNASTY
o It originated in the central Deccan in the mid-3rd century CE and its empire is believed to have
extended from Malwa and Gujarat in the North to the Tungabhadra in the South and from the
Arabian Sea in the West to the Bay of Bengal in the East. The Ajanta cave inscription states that
Vakataka kings were Brahmins by caste.
o The Vakataka rulers followed the Shaiva sect of Hinduism.
o The Vakatakas were believed to be the feudatories of the Satvahanas and came to prominence after
the fall of their overlords (Satvahanas). They were also contemporaries of the Guptas which is evident
from the copper-plate of Prabhavathi Gupta found at Poona.
o Animal rearing was one of the main occupations of the people. Remains of domestic
animals like cattle, goat, sheep, pig, cat, horse and fowl were traced in an earlier study.
o The Vakataka rulers forged several matrimonial alliances with other dynasties of their times. One of
the key alliances was with Prabhavatigupta of the Gupta dynasty (Vaishnavites), which was
then ruling north India.
o Prabhavatigupta was the chief queen of the Vakataka king Rudrasena II and took over as queen
after the sudden death of her husband. She ruled for about 10 years until her son Pravarasena
II succeeded.
Queen Prabhavatigupta and Vaishnavism
o The researchers believe that the practice of worshipping Narasimha in Maharashtra emerged from
Ramtek, and that Queen Prabhavatigupta had a pivotal role in propagation of Vaishnava practices in
the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra.
o Some of the temples identified as Keval Narasihma, Rudra Narasimha and the one dedicated to
Varaha could be traced to Ramtek, and showcase strong affinity to the incarnations of Lord Vishnu.
None of these religious structures was, however, present here until the Queen took the throne.
Vindhyashakti I (AD 250-270)
o He was the founder of the Vakataka dynasty, who probably ruled from Purika. He is mentioned in
the Puranas as the ruler of Vidisha. An inscription from the Ajanta caves mentions him as the
founder of the Vakataka dynasty and calls him a Dvija (Brahmin).
o He is credited to have performed a number of Vedic sacrifices and thus revived Brahminical rituals,
which were in abeyance during the rule of the later Satavahanas.
o The Ajanta Inscriptions of the time of Harisena describes him as a dvija and praises him for his
military achievements. It is claimed that the sun was obscured by the masses of dust raised by his
horses’ hooves, and he is compared with the gods Puramdara (Indra) and Upendra (Vishnu).
Pravarasena I (AD 270-330)
o He was the son and successor of Vindhyashakti I. The territorial expansion of this dynasty began
during his reign. His empire extended from Bundelkhand in the North to Hyderabad in the South,
with his capital at Kanchanaka (modern Nachna). He performed many Vedic rituals which included
Vajapeya and Ashwamedha Yajna.
o He was the only Vakataka king who took the title of samrat, while all other kings took the modest
title of maharaja.
o His son Gautamiputra married the daughter of the Naga king Bhavanaga, which cemented an
important political alliance.
o By military exploits and matrimonial alliances, he extended his kingdom from Bundelkhand in the
north to Hyderabad in the south, and to commemorate his victories, he performed an asvamedha
sacrifice and a vajapeya sacrifice.
o According to the Puranas, he had four sons and the whole empire was divided among his sons.
Gautamiputra, son of Pravarasena, died during his reign and thus Rudrasena I, the grandson of
Pravarasena I (son of Gautamiputra), succeeded him to the throne.
o Vakataka dynasty was divided into four branches after the death of Pravarasena I. Two of the known
branches are:
1. Pravarapura-Nandivardhana branch
2. Vatsagulma branch
(a) Pravarapura-Nandivardhana Branch
o It was spread over the Pravarapura (in present Wardha, Maharashtra) and Nandivardhan in the present
Nagpur district.
Rudrasena I (AD 330-355)
o He was the grandson of Pravarasena I. He was probably the contemporary of the Gupta King
Samudragupta.
o Founder of the Vakataka Nandivardhana branch, which ruled from Nandivardhana (near Nagpur).
o Since no inscription belonging to his reign is available, not much is known about the events that took
place during his reign. He is known to have been a worshipper of Lord Mahabhairava, the fierce form
of Shiva.
Prithvisena I (AD 355-380)
o He was the son and successor of Rudrasena I. He followed the policy of peace and prosperity and like
his father was a devotee of lord Shiva.
o Described in later Vakataka inscriptions as a righteous conqueror, he was compared to the epic
hero Yudhishthira due to his comparable qualities of truthfulness, transparency, compassion, and
humility.
o Padmapura seems to have been an important administrative centre during his time.
o Spent most his time in consolidating his kingdom. The chief feature of his reign is a political alliance
between Chandragupta II and himself, and together they defeated the Shaka satraps of Malwa and
Kathiawar.
o During the later parts of his reign, the Guptas and the Vakatakas entered into a matrimonial alliance
since Prithvisena’s son Rudrasena II, the crown prince, was married to Prabhavatigupta, the daughter
of Chandragupta II.
Rudrasena II (AD 380-385)
o Rudrasena II was the son and successor of Prithvisena I. Unlike his ancestor, he was a devotee of Lord
Vishnu. Ruled only for a period of five years as he died prematurely, leaving behind three minor sons.
o He married Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of Chandragupta II. Further, after the death of Rudrasena II,
Prabhavati Gupta (wife of Rudrasena II) ruled (ruled as the regent until 410 CE) Vakataka Empire
on behalf of her three minor sons Divakarasena, Damodarasena, and Pravarasena. During her reign,
the Vakataka Empire virtually came under the rule of Gupta Empire.
o Unfortunately, Divakarasena also died prematurely and did not live long enough to ascend the throne
but his younger brothers Damodarasena and Pravavarasena II did. In fact, the seal of
Prabhavatigupta’s Maregaon plates describes her as the ‘mother of two kings’.
Pravarasena II (AD 400-440)
o Pravarasena was the second son of Rudrasena II. His real name was Damodarasena and he succeeded
his elder brother, Diwakarasena.
o He founded the city Pravarapura (present Wardha, Maharashtra). He authored many verses of the
Gatha Sattasai and the kavyas Sethubandha. It is also suggested that Kalidasa helped the king in the
composition of his kavya. Kalidasa probably composed Meghadoota during his stay at the court of
Pravarasena II.
o Largest number of Vakataka inscriptions belong to his reign. A dozen copper-plate grants of his
were discovered in different parts of Vidarbha, though Prabhavatigupta continued to issue
inscriptions in her own right and died during the later part of her son’s reign.
o He is credited with the founding of a new capital at Pravarapura, which is identified as Paunar in the
presentday Wardha district.
o Even though he was a devotee of Shiva, he composed a Prakrit kavya glorifying Rama, the
Setubandha/Ravanavaha, which is about Rama’s journey to Lanka and his victory over Ravana.
o He entered into a matrimonial alliance with the contemporary Kadambas (near Mysore). His son
Narendrasena was married to a princess of Kuntala, Ajihata Bhattarika, the daughter of
Kakutsavarman of the Kadamba dynasty.
Narendrasena (c. 440 – 460 CE)
o It is believed that after the death of Pravarsena II, a struggle for succession happened in which
Narendrasena emerged successful.
o He had to face the invasion of the Nala king, Bhavadottavarman, both in the beginning and at the end of
his reign. In between, he made some conquests, & had to face the stiff opposition of the Nalas all along.
Prithivisena II (c. 460 – 480 CE)
o Last known ruler of Nandivardhana branch of the Vakataka dynasty, who is credited with the revival
the fallen fortunes of the Vakatakas. His inscriptions refer to his having twice rescued the sunken
fortunes of Vakatakas.
o He had to face the invasion of Harisena of Vatsagulma line thrice, and the invasion of Bhavadottavarman
of the Nala dynasty. He also appears to have fought with the Traikutaka king, Dahrasena of southern
Gujarat.
o After Prithivisena II’s death, it is presumed that Harisena of the Vatsagulma line of the Vakatakas
conquered his successors and united the Nandivardhana line with his own.
(b) Vatsagulma Branch
o This branch ruled over the region between the Sahyadri and the Godavari range.
o The second major Vakataka line was the Vatsagulma branch, which had its capital at Vatsagulma
(modern Washim in Akola district, Maharashtra).
Sarvasena (AD 330-355)
o He was the son of Pravarasena I and was the founder of the Vatsagulma branch.
o Adopted the title dharma-maharaja.
o He wrote a book Harivijaya in Prakrit language which was praised by Dandin, the Sanskrit Gramarian
(7th century AD). He also composed Prakrit Gathas which later became a part of Sattasai.
Vindhyasena (AD 355-400)
o He was the son of Sarvasena and was also known as Vindhyashakti II (Basim copper-plate
inscription). He, like his father, took the title of Dharamamaharaja.
o He ruled for almost four decades and his kingdom seems to have included the Marathwada region
comprising of the southern part of Vidarbha, the northern part of Hyderabad state, and some
other adjoining territories.
o He is believed to have defeated the Kadambas of Banavasi, who ruled over Kuntala (north
Karnataka).
o His son and successor Pravarasena II appears to have ruled for a period of fifteen years.
o His successor Harisena was the ablest and the greatest ruler of this line.
Devasena
o He was a pleasure loving king, but his empire was entrusted to his wise minister Hastibhoja.
o Pravarasena II was followed by Devasena, who was a pleasure-seeking ruler, but luckily had the
services of a very capable minister, Hasthibhoja.
Harisena (AD 475-500)
o He was the son and successor of Devasena. Buddhist art and architecture flourished during his reign.
The constructions of many Chaityas and Viharas were executed under his reign. His minister
Varahadeva also excavated the cave XVI of Ajanta.
o The Thalner copper plates (which record the gifts of villages of bronze workers and goldsmiths)
belong to his rein and many of the Ajanta caves were executed during his reign.
o He was the greatest ruler of the Vatsagulma branch and his empire extended from Malwa in the
North to Kuntala in the South from Arabian Sea in the West to Bay of Bengal in the East. Instead
of conquering these areas, he let these areas retain complete autonomy subject to the payment of a
regular tribute.
o Harishena was succeeded by a weak and incompetent ruler. He was probably killed by his own
feudatories in a battle that took place at the banks of river Wardha. The Vakatakas were overthrown
by Kalachuris in around 550 CE.
o Dandin, a poet of the 6th century CE, described Harisena as “powerful, truthful and bountiful,
glorious, lofty, and a penetrating critic of ethical and economic compendia”.
 PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS/MODEL QUESTIONS
1. With reference to forced labour (Vishti) in India during the Gupta period, which one of the
following statements is correct?
(a) It was considered a source of income for the State, a sort of tax paid by the people. [A]
(b) It was totally absent in the Madhya Pradesh and Kathiawar regions of the Gupta Empire.
(c) The forced labourer was entitled to weekly wages.
(d) The eldest son of the labourer was sent as the forced labourer. [UPSC– 2020]

2. Consider the following statements in the context of Samudragupta's reign: [D]

1. Vishnusena eulogised the military expeditions of Samudragupta on a pillar at Allahabad.
2. Chinese traveller Fa-hein visited the court of Samudragupta
3. Samudragupta adopted the famous title 'Vikramaditya'.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 2 only (d) None