Unit I : “D.

C Circuits”
(Fundamental of Electrical
Engineering)

Presented By
Vishal Chaudhary
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering,
M.I.T.S Gwalior
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 UNIT-I
D.C Circuits
• Voltage & current sources.
• Dependent & independent source.
• Source conversion.
• Analysis of D.C circuits.
• Mesh & loop analysis.
• Network Theorems
• Thevnin’s , Norton’s & Superposition theorem.

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 Lecture Plan for Unit I
S.No. Topics to be covered No. of lectures
1 Introduction to Electrical Circuit Analysis. 2
2 Voltage & current sources. 1
3 Dependent & independent source. 1
4 Source conversion. 1
5 Analysis of D.C. Circuits. 2
6 Mesh analysis. 1
7 Loop analysis 1
8 Thevnin’s theorem. 2
9 Norton’s theorem 2
10 Superposition theorem 2
11 Queries Related to Unit-I. 1
12 Numerical Practice. 1
Total 17
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 The International System of Units (SI)
Defined quantities are combines to form derived units:

Quantity Unit Name (Symbol) Formula

Frequency hertz (Hz) s-1
Force newton (N) kg.m/ s2
Energy of work joule (J) n.m
Power watt (W) J/s
Electric charge coulomb (C) A.s
Electric potential volt (V) J/C
Electric resistance ohm ( W) V/A
Electric conductance siemen (S) A/V
Electric capacitance farad (F) C/V
Magnetic flux weber (Wb) V.s
Inductance henry (H) Wb/A

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 Introduction to Electrical Circuit Analysis

An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements

linked together in a closed path so that electric current may
flow continuously

Circuit diagrams are the standard for electrical engineers

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 Rate of flow of charge form node a to node b

Rate of flow of charge form node b to node a

(i = current)

A direct current (dc) is a current of constant magnitude

An alternating current (ac) is a current of varying

magnitude and direction.

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Electrical Network:
A combination of various electric elements (Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor, Voltage source,
Current source) connected in any manner what so ever is called an electrical network. We may
classify circuit elements in two categories, passive and active elements.

Passive Element:
The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and then either converts it into heat (R)
or stored it in an electric (C) or magnetic (L ) field is called passive element.

Active Element:
The elements that supply energy to the circuit is called active element. Examples of active
elements include voltage and current sources, generators, and electronic devices that require
power supplies. A transistor is an active circuit element, meaning that it can amplify power of a
signal. On the other hand, transformer is not an active element because it does not amplify the
power level and power remains same both in primary and secondary sides. Transformer is an
example of passive element.

Bilateral Element:
Conduction of current in both directions in an element (example: Resistance; Inductance;
Capacitance) with same magnitude is termed as bilateral element.

Unilateral Element:
Conduction of current in one direction is termed as unilateral (example: Diode, Transistor)
element.
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 Various representations of an
electrical system
i i

+
Source

+
Load

v _
VS + v R
–
– + –
Car Headlight
i battery

Power flow
(a) Conceptual (b) Symbolic (circuit) (c) Physical
representation representation representation
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 Definition of a branch
a

+ i
A
Branch v Branch R
voltage current
rm
–
A branch

b
Ideal A battery Practical
resistor ammeter

Examples of circuit branches

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Definition of a node
Node a
Node c Node a

vS iS
Node

Node b
Node b

Examples of nodes in practical circuits

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 Definition of a loop
Note how two different loops
in the same circuit may
include some of the same ele-
ments or branches.
R

vS iS R1 R2
Loop 1 Loop 2

1-loop circuit 3-loop circuit

(How many nodes in
Loop 3 this circuit?)

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Nodes, Branches, and Loops:

·
The relationship between nodes, branches and loops can be expressed as
follows:

branches = loops + nodes - 1

or

B=L + N - 1

· In using the above equation, the number of loops are restricted to be those that
are independent.

·
In solving most of the circuits in this course, we will not need to resort to Eq.
However, there are times when it is helpful to use this equation to check our
analysis.

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 Definition of a mesh
R3 R4

Mesh 3

R1 Mesh
4
+ Mesh Mesh R5
vS 1 R2 2
_ iS

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 Voltage
• Voltage is a measure of the potential energy
that causes a current to flow through a
transducer in a circuit
• Voltage is always measured as a difference
with respect to an arbitrary common point
called ground
• Voltage is also known as electromotive force
or EMF outside engineering

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 Current (I)
• Current = (Number of electrons that pass in one
second) ∙ (charge/electron)
Ø -1 ampere = (6.242∙1018 e/sec) ∙(-1.602 10-19Coulomb/e)
Ø Notice that an ampere = Coulomb/second
• The negative sign indicates that the current inside is
actually flowing in the opposite direction of the
electron flow.
• The rate of flow of charged particles is called current.
Electrons

Current

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 Power
• The rate at which energy is transferred from an active source
or used by a passive device
• P in watts = dW/ dt = joules/second
• P= V∙I = dW/dQ ∙ dQ/ dt = volts ∙ amps = watts
• W = ∫ P ∙ dt – so the energy (work in joules) is equal to the area
under the power in watts plotted against time in seconds.
• The other common unit of power often seen on electric motors
is the horsepower.
• One horsepower is 746 watts.

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 Electric Power, AC, and DC
• The watt (W) is a unit of power.
• Power is the rate at which energy
moves or is used.
• Since energy is measured in joules,
power is measured in joules per
second.
• One joule per second is equal to one
watt.

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Reviewing terms

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 Charge and Current
• The basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge.

Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists,

measured in coulombs (C).

• The charge on an electron is negative and equal in magnitude to 1.602 x 10-19

Note:
1. The Coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1 C of charge, there are 1/(1.602 x
10-19) = 6.24 x 1018 electrons.
2. The law of conservation charge states that charge can be neither be created
nor destroyed, only transferred.

• Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in ampere (A).
dq
i= Where, current is measured in amperes (A),
dt 1 ampere= 1 coulomb/ second

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 Charge and Current
• The charge transferred between time to time is obtained by integrating both side.
t
q = ò idt
t0

• Two types of current:

1. A direct current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time (I)
2. An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time (i).

• A current source is a circuit element that provides a specified

current.

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 Voltage
• To move the electron in a conductor in a particular direction requires some work or
energy transfer.
• Performed by an external electromotive force (emf).
• Also known as voltage or potential difference.
• The voltage between two point a and b in electric circuit is the energy (work) needed to
move 1 C of charge from a to b :

w =energy (J), q = charge (C)

dw
vab =
dq 1 volt= 1 joule/coulomb= 1 newton-meter/ coulomb

Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit charge
through an element , measured in volts (V).

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 Voltage
• Two ways in interpreting polarity:
1) Point a is at a potential of vab volts higher than point b , +a
2) The potential at point a with respect to point b is vab vab

vab = -vba
-b

• Two common types of voltage:

1) Direct voltage (dc voltage): a constant voltage (V); commonly produced
by a battery.
2) Alternating voltage (ac voltage): a sinusoidally time-varying voltage (v);
produced by an electric generator.

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 Power and Energy
Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).

dw w =energy (J), t = time (s)

p=
dt
dw dw dq
p= = ×
dt dq dt
= vi or p = vi (instantaneous power)

• + sign power àpower is being delivered to/ absorbed by the element

• - sign power àpower is being supplied by the element.
• To determine polarity, use passive sign convention.

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 Power
Voltage (volts)
Power (watts) P = VI Current (amps)

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 Circuit Elements
• An electric circuit is simply an interconnection of the elements .
• There are two types of elements:
• Passive elements – not capable of generating energy (resistors, capacitors,
inductors.)
• Active elements – capable of generating energy(generators, batteries,
operational amplifiers)
• The most important active elements are voltage or current sources
• Two kinds of sources: independent and dependent sources

An ideal independent sources is an active element that provides a specified

voltage or current that is completely independent of other circuit elements

An ideal dependent (controlled) sources is an active element in which the source

quantity is controlled by another voltage or current.

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 Series Circuits
• In series circuits, current can only take one
path.
• The amount of current is the same at all
points in a series circuit.

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 Adding resistances in series
• Each resistance in a series
circuit adds to the total
resistance of the circuit.

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3...
Total resistance
(ohms)
Individual resistances (W)

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Vishal Chaudhary 29
Voltage in a series circuit
• Each separate resistance creates a
voltage drop as the current passes
through.
• As current flows along a series
circuit, each type of resistor
transforms some of the electrical
energy into another form of energy
• Ohm’s law is used to calculate the
voltage drop across each resistor.

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 Parallel Circuits
• In parallel circuits the current can take more than one path.
• Because there are multiple branches, the current is not the same
at all points in a parallel circuit.

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Vishal Chaudhary 32
 Parallel Circuits
• Sometimes these paths are called branches.
• The current through a branch is also called the branch current.
• When analyzing a parallel circuit, remember that the current
always has to go somewhere.
• The total current in the circuit is the sum of the currents in all the
branches.
• At every branch point the current flowing out must equal the
current flowing in.
• This rule is known as Kirchhoff’s current law.

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 Voltage and current in a parallel
circuit
• In a parallel circuit the voltage is the same
across each branch because each branch has a
low resistance path back to the battery.
• The amount of current in each branch in a
parallel circuit is not necessarily the same.
• The resistance in each branch determines the
current in that branch.

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Vishal Chaudhary 35
Capacitors

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Capacitors
A capacitor consists of a pair of
conductors separated by a
dielectric (insulator).

(ε indicates how penetrable a substance is to an

electric field)

Electric charge is stored in the plates

– a capacitor can become “charged”

When a voltage exists across the conductors,

it provides the energy to move the charge
Vishalfrom the positive plate to the other plate.37
Chaudhary
 Capacitors
Capacitance (C) is the ability of a material to store charge in the
form of separated charge or an electric field. It is the ratio of
charge stored to voltage difference between two plates.
Capacitance is measured in Farads (F)

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 Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence (e.g. a battery) to separate
charge between the plates in a capacitor. The charge is stored in the
capacitor until the external influence is removed and the separated charge
is given a path to travel and dissipate.

Work exerted to charge a capacitor is given by the equation:

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Inductors

An inductor is a two terminal element

consisting of a winding of N turns capable
of storing energy in the form of a magnetic
field

Inductance (L) is a measure of the ability of

a device to store energy in the form of a
magnetic field. It is measured in Henries (H)

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 Inductors

Inductance in a cylindrical coil

μ0 = permeability of free space = 4π × 10−7 H/m

K = Nagaoka coefficient
N = number of turns
A = area of cross-section of the coil in m2
l = length of coil in m

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 Energy storage
Inductors can store energy in the form of a magnetic
field when a current is passed through them.

The work required to establish current through the

coil, and therefore the magnetic field, is given by

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 Transformers and alternators
Inductors are located in both transformers and alternators,
allowing voltage conversion and current generation,
respectively

Transformer converts from

one voltage to another Alternator produces AC current
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Multiple elements in a series
circuit

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Multiple elements in a parallel
circuit

For parallel voltage sources, the voltage is

the same across all batteries, but the current
supplied by each element is
a fraction of the total current
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Voltage & current sources.
An electrical source is a voltage or
current generator capable of
supplying energy to a circuit

Examples:

-AA batteries
-12-Volt car battery
-Wall plug

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 Ideal voltage source
An ideal voltage source is a circuit element where the voltage across
the source is independent of the current through it.

Recall Ohm’s Law: V=IR

The internal resistance of an ideal voltage source is zero.

If the current through an ideal voltage source is

completely determined by the external circuit,
it is considered an independent voltage source

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 Ideal Voltage Source
• The ideal voltage source explicitly defines +
Vs
the voltage between its terminals. -
– Constant (DC) voltage source: Vs = 5 V
– Time-Varying voltage source: Vs = 10 sin(t) V
– Examples: batteries, wall outlet, function generator…
• The ideal voltage source does not provide any information about
the current flowing through it.
• The current through the voltage source is defined by the rest of the
circuit to which the source is attached. Current cannot be
determined by the value of the voltage.
• Do not assume that the current is zero!
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 Wire
• Wire has a very small resistance.
• For simplicity, we will idealize wire in the
following way: the potential at all points on a
piece of wire is the same, regardless of the
current going through it.
– Wire is a 0 V voltage source
– Wire is a 0 Ω resistor
• This idealization (and others) can lead to
contradictions on paper—and smoke in lab.
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 Ideal current source
An ideal current source is a circuit element where the current
through the source is independent of the voltage across it.

Recall Ohm’s Law: I = V/R

The internal resistance of an ideal current source is infinite.

If the voltage across an ideal current source is

completely determined by the external circuit, it is
considered an independent current source

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 Ideal Current Source
• The ideal current source sets the
value of the current running through it. Is
– Constant (DC) current source: Is = 2 A
– Time-Varying current source: Is = -3 sin(t) A
– Examples: few in real life!
• The ideal current source has known current, but unknown voltage.
• The voltage across the voltage source is defined by the rest of the
circuit to which the source is attached.
• Voltage cannot be determined by the value of the current.
• Do not assume that the voltage is zero!

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 Air
• Many of us at one time, after walking on a carpet in winter, have
touched a piece of metal and seen a blue arc of light.
• That arc is current going through the air. So is a bolt of lightning
during a thunderstorm.
• However, these events are unusual. Air is usually a good insulator and
does not allow current to flow.
• For simplicity, we will idealize air in the following way: current
never flows through air (or a hole in a circuit), regardless of the
potential difference (voltage) present.
– Air is a 0 A current source
– Air is a very big (infinite) resistor
• There can be nonzero voltage over air or a hole in a circuit!
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 I-V Relationships Graphically
i i i

v v v

Resistor: Line Ideal Voltage Ideal Current

through origin with Source: Vertical Source:
slope 1/R line Horizontal line

Wire: Vertical line Air: Horizontal line

through origin through origin
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 Dependent & independent source.
A dependent or controlled source depends upon a different voltage or current in the circuit

+ + v +
v V- i - i
-

Symbol for independent sources Symbol for dependent sources

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Dependent Sources Independent Sources

So far the voltage and current

sources (whether ideal or
practical) that have been
discussed are known as
independent sources and these
sources play an important role to
drive the circuit in order to
perform a specific job. The
internal values of these sources
(either voltage source or current
source) – that is, the generated
voltage V or the generated
(i) Voltage-controlled voltage source current I are not affected by the
(VCVS) load connected across the source
(ii) Current-controlled voltage source terminals or across any other
(ICVS) element that exists elsewhere in
(iii) Voltage-controlled current source(VCIS) the circuit or external to the
(iv) Current-controlled current source(ICIS) source.

Vishal Chaudhary 55
 Practical voltage source
rS iS

+
Practical
vS + vL
voltage _ RL

source –

vS
iS =
rS + R L
v
lim i S = S
R
L 0 rS

rS iS max

vS +
_ vL
The maximum (short circuit)
–
current which can be supplied
by a practical voltage source is
iS max = vS
rS

Vishal Chaudhary 56
 Practical current source
A model for practical current +
sources consists of an ideal source
in parallel with an internal iS rS vS RL
resistance. –

Maximum output +
voltage for practical iS r v
current source with S S

open-circuit load: –

vS max = i S rS

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 Measurement of current
R1 R1

A
A vS +
_ R2 vS +_
i i R2

Symbol for A series Circuit for the measurement

ideal ammeter circuit of the current i

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 Measurement of voltage
R1 R1

+ + +
vS +
_ v2 R2 V vS +
_ v2 R2 V v2
–
i – i –

A series Ideal Circuit for the measurement

circuit voltmeter of the voltage v 2

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 Measurement of power
i i
R1 R1
W A

+ +
vS _+ v2 R2 vS +_ V v 2 R2
– –

Measurement of the power Internal wattmeter connections

dissipated in the resistorR2:
P2 = v2 i

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Voltage Divider

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Current Divider

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Source conversion.

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws
• The I-V relationship for a device tells us how
current and voltage are related within that
device.
• Kirchhoff’s laws tell us how voltages relate to
other voltages in a circuit, and how currents
relate to other currents in a circuit.
• KVL: The sum of voltage drops around a
closed path must equal zero.
• KCL: The sum of currents leaving a closed
surface or point must equal zero.
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 Kirchhoff’s Laws
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
(KCL):
• KCL states that at any node
(junction) in a circuit the algebraic
sum of currents entering and
leaving a node at any instant of
time must be equal to zero. Here
currents entering(+ve sign) and
currents leaving (-ve sign) the node
must be assigned opposite algebraic
signs.
Vishal Chaudhary
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
(KVL):
• It states that in a closed circuit, the
algebraic sum of all source voltages
must be equal to the algebraic sum
of all the voltage drops. Voltage
drop is encountered when current
flows in an element (resistance or
load) from the higher-potential
terminal toward the lower potential
terminal. Voltage rise is
encountered when current flows in
an element (voltage source) from
lower potential terminal (or
negative terminal of voltage source)
toward the higher potential
terminal (or positive terminal of
voltage source).
65
 KVL Tricks
• A voltage rise is a negative voltage drop.
Along a path, I might encounter a voltage
which is labeled as a voltage drop (in the Path +
direction I’m going). The sum of these
V1
voltage drops must equal zero.
-
I might encounter a voltage which is labeled
as a voltage rise (in the direction I’m going). Path -
This rise can be viewed as a “negative drop”.
V2
Rewrite:
+
• Look at the first sign you encounter on
Path +
each element when tracing the closed path.
If it is a “-”, it is a voltage rise and you will -V2
-
insert a “-” to rewrite as a drop.
Vishal Chaudhary 66
 Writing KVL Equations
+ v2 - v3
b - +
a c
What does KVL
1 2
say about the + + +
va vb vc
voltages along - - -
these 3 paths?
3
Path 1:
- va + v2 + vb = 0
Path 2:
- vb - v3 + vc = 0
Path 3:
- va + v2 - v3 + vc = 0
Vishal Chaudhary 67
Vishal Chaudhary 68
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
• Electrons don’t just disappear or get trapped (in
our analysis).
• Therefore, the sum of all current entering a
closed surface or point must equal zero—
whatever goes in must come out.
• Remember that current leaving a closed surface
can be interpreted as a negative current entering:

i1 is the same -i1

statement as

Vishal Chaudhary 69
 KCL Equations
In order to satisfy KCL, what is the value of i?

KCL says:
24 μA + -10 μA + (-)-4 μA + -i =0
24 mA -4 mA

18 μA – i = 0
10 mA i

i = 18 μA
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Vishal Chaudhary 71
Three circuit laws

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 Mesh & loop analysis
Let us consider a simple dc network as shown in to find the currents through
different branches using Mesh (Loop) current method.
Applying KVL around mesh (loop)-1:(note in
mesh-1, I1 is known as local current and other
mesh currents I2&I3 are known as foreign
currents.)

Applying KVL around mesh

(loop)-2:(similarly in mesh-2, I2 Applying KVL around mesh (loop)-3:
is local current and I1 &I3 are
known as foreign currents)

Vishal Chaudhary 73
 Node voltage analysis
KCL equation at “Node-1”:

KCL equation at “Node-2”: KCL equation at “Node-3”:

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 Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can
be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage
source VTh in series with a resistor RTh where VTh is the open
circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent
source are turn off.

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 How to Find Thevenin’s Voltage
• Equivalent circuit: same voltage-current
relation at the terminals.
•V =v :
Th oc open circuit voltage at a - b

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 How to Find Thevenin’s Resistance
•R =R :
Th in

input - resistance of the dead circuit at a - b.

· a - b open circuited
· Turn off all independen t sources

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• Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of the
circuit shown in Fig., to the left of the
terminals a-b. Then find the current through RL
= 6,16,and 36 W.

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 Find Rth
RTh : 32V voltage source ® short
2A current source ® open
4 ´ 12
RTh = 4 || 12 + 1 = + 1 = 4W
16

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 Find Vth
VTh :
(1) Mesh analysis
- 32 + 4i1 + 12(i1 - i2 ) = 0 , i2 = -2A
\i1 = 0.5A
VTh = 12(i1 - i2 ) = 12(0.5 + 2.0) = 30V
(2) Alternatively, Nodal Analysis
(32 - VTh ) / 4 + 2 = VTh / 12
\VTh = 30V

Vishal Chaudhary 80
To get iL :
VTh 30
iL = =
RTh + RL 4 + RL
RL = 6 ® I L = 30 / 10 = 3A
RL = 16 ® I L = 30 / 20 = 1.5A
RL = 36 ®I L = 30 / 40 = 0.75A

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 Norton’s Theorem
• Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can
be replaced by equivalent circuit consisting of a current source
IN in parallel with a resistor RN where IN is the short-circuit
current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent
resistance at the terminals when the independent source are
turn off.

Vishal Chaudhary 82
 How to Find Norton Current
• Thevenin and Norton
resistances are equal:
RN = RTh
• Short circuit current
from a to b :
VTh
I N = isc =
RTh

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• Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit
in Fig.

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To find RN
RN = 5 || (8 + 4 + 8)
20 ´ 5
= 5 || 20 = = 4W
25

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To find iN
short - circuit terminals a and b .
Mesh : i1 = 2A, 20i2 - 4i1 - i2 = 0
i2 = 1A = isc = IN

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 Superposition Theorem
• The superposition principle states that the
voltage across (or current through) an element
in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the
voltages across (or currents through) that
element due to each independent source acting
alone.
• Turn off, killed, inactive source:
– independent voltage source: 0 V (short circuit)
– independent current source: 0 A (open circuit)
• Dependent sources are left intact.

Vishal Chaudhary 87
• Use the superposition theorem to find voltage
in the circuit

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Since there are two sources,
let V = V1 + V2
Voltage division to get
4
V1 = (6) = 2V
4+8
Current division, to get
8
i3 = (3) = 2A
Hence 4+8
v2 = 4i3 = 8V
And we find
v = v1 + v2 = 2 + 8 = 10V
Vishal Chaudhary 89
 References
Reference Books:
• Principles of Electrical Engineering- Vincdent Del Toro- Prentice Hall.1987
• Basic Electrical Engineering- I.J. Nagrath - TMH, 1991
• Basic Electrical Engineering- V.N. Mittal
• Basic Electrical Engineering- J.B.Gupta
• Basic Electrical Engineering- Sahdev and Chaturvedi

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• http://nptel.iitm.ac.in
• http://ieeexplore.ieee.org
• http://www.sciencedirect.com
• http://www.youtube.com
• http://en.bookfi.org
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
Vishal Chaudhary 90