Republic of the Philippines

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY ROSARIO

Brgy. Namunga, Rosario,Batangas

COLLEGE OF ACCOUNTANCY, BUSINESS, ECONOMICS AND

INTERNATIONAL HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT
Bachelor of Science in Business Administration

LECTURE 1 – RESEARCH DESIGN

1. HISTORICAL RESEARCH DESIGN
Historical methods of research Introduction
The process of learning and understanding the background and growth of a chosen field of study
or profession can offer insight into organizational culture, current trends, and future possibilities.
The historical method of research applies to all fields of study because it encompasses there:
origins, growth, theories, personalities, crisis, etc. Both quantitative and qualitative variables can
be used in the collection of historical information. Once the decision is made to conduct
historical research, there are steps that should be followed to achieve a reliable result.
Definition of Research
Research is the continual search for truth using the scientific method. It is the pursuit of the truth
with the help of the study, investigation, observation, comparison. Research is a quest for
knowledge through diligent search or investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery
and interpretation of new knowledge. Scientific method is a systematic body of procedures and
techniques applied in carrying out investigation or experimentation targeted at obtaining new
knowledge. Here research and scientific methods may be considered a course of critical enquiry
leading to discovery of facts or information.

What is a research design?

A research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation so conceived as to obtain
answers to research questions or problems. The plan is the complete scheme or program of the
research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the hypotheses and
their operational implications to the final analysis of data.
A traditional research design is a blueprint or detailed plan for how a research study is to be
completed—operationalizing variables so they can be measured, selecting a sample of interest to
study, collecting data to be used as a basis for testing hypotheses, and analyzing the results.
The essence of research design
Research designs are about organizing research activity, including the collection of data, in ways
that are most likely to achieve the research aims. Let us start with an example.
In 1985, the US businessman Kenneth Lay (see Figure 4.1, for a police mugshot of Lay in 2004)
founded Enron after merging Houston Natural Gas and Inter North. The company expanded very
rapidly, first as an energy company and then through diversification, so that by mid-2000 its
stock was valued at over $60 billion. But on 2 December 2001, it filed for bankruptcy following
the failure of a rescue bid from a rival company. It quickly emerged that the company had
systematically developed accounting practices that had inflated revenue while keeping debts and
liabilities off the books. Not only had these practices been fostered by Lay and his colleagues at
the top, but also the global consultancy firm Arthur Anderson, which had regularly audited
Enron, had failed to report any problems.
This raised major implications about the efficacy of accepted practices for auditing corporate
accounts. Imagine that you wish to conduct empirical research into the changes in corporate
accounting practices following this scandal. Following each of these positions in order, your
research design might involve: (1) conducting a review of new legislation and accountancy
practices published over the period 2002–2005; (2) sending out a postal questionnaire to 200
members of the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants; (3) arranging to interview one
accountant from each of 20 different organizations including companies and consultancies; or (4)
getting a job for a year in the accounting department of a US energy company.
Each of these brief statements includes at least three decisions about research designs. In (1)
there is a decision to focus on two categories of written documents published over a specific
period of time; in (2) the decision is to design a questionnaire, which will be mailed to a specific
number of people who belong to one professional association; in (3) the aim is to gather views
from a medium sample of people likely to have different perspectives and experiences; and in (4)
the decision is to invest personal time in observing accountancy practices in a US company
within a specific industry. Each of these decisions specifies courses of action in preference to
other options. For example, the focus on published sources precludes internal corporate
documents; the decision to mail the questionnaire precludes face-to-face interviews; the decision
to interview only one person from each company precludes multiple perspectives from any
company; and the decision to work in one company precludes obtaining direct data from other
companies.
This is the essence of research design: it is about making choices about what will be observed,
and how. But each of these designs is incomplete, and there are many other choices to be made,
and features to be specified. A research design is a statement written, often before any data is
collected, which explains and justifies what data is to be gathered, how and where from. It also
needs to explain how the data will be analyzed and how this will provide answers to the central
questions of the research.
In this chapter we explain: what a research design is; the main choices that need to be made; how
research designs vary according to the underlying philosophical position; and how the quality of
research designs can be judged. In the later chapters of the book we will be looking in detail at
techniques and methods for gathering and analyzing qualitative and quantitative data, though
questions of research design need to be resolved before gathering (much) data.
What Is a Historical Method of Research?
Historical methods of research are the process of systematically examining an account of what
has happened in the past. It is not facts and dates or even a description of past events. The
dynamic account of past events that involves an interpretation attempts to recapture the nuances,
personalities, and ideas that events. One of the goals of historical research is to communicate
past events. In the field of library and information science, there are vast arrays of topics that
may be considered for conducting historical research. For example, a researcher may choose to
answer questions about the development of school, academic or public libraries, the rise of
technology and the benefits/ problems it brings, the development of preservation methods,
famous personalities in the field, library statistics, or geographical demographics and how they
affect library distribution.
Historical method of research is a scientific method in which comparison is used to reveal the
general and the particular in historical phenomena and to gain an understanding of the various
historical stages of development of one and the same phenomenon or of two different but
contemporaneous phenomena.
The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary
sources and other evidence, such as secondary sources and tertiary sources, to research and then
to write history. The question of the nature, and indeed the possibility, of sound historical
method is raised in the philosophy of history, as a question of epistemology. The following
summarizes the history guidelines commonly used by historians in their work, under the
headings of external criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis.
The historical method is employed by researchers who are interested in reporting events and/or
conditions that occurred in the past. An attempt is made to establish facts in order to arrive at
conclusions concerning past events or predict future events. Harter and Busha define library
history as “the systematic recounting of past events pertaining to the establishment, maintenance,
and utilization of systematically arranged collections of recorded information or knowledge…. A
biography of a person who has in some way affected the development of libraries, library
science, or librarianship is also considered to be library history.
Stages of historical methods of research conducting:
1. Identify an idea, topic or research question
2. Conduct a background literature review
3. Refine the research idea and questions
4. Determine that historical methods will be the method used
5. Identify and locate primary and secondary data sources
6. Evaluate the authenticity and accuracy of source materials
7. Analyze the date and develop a narrative exposition of the findings.
Sources of historical methods of research
1. Primary Sources of Information - Direct outcomes of events or the records of
eyewitnesses a) Original documents
b) Relics
c) Remains
2. Artifacts Secondary Sources of Information - Information provided by a person who did not
directly observe the event, object, or condition
a) Textbooks
b) Encyclopedias
c) Newspapers
d) Periodicals
Review of research and other references
External Criticism - Asks if the evidence under consideration is authentic. The researcher checks
the genuineness or validity of the source. Is it what it appears or claims to be? Is it admissible as
evidence?
Internal Criticism - After the source is authenticated, it asks if the source is accurate, was the
writer or creator competent, honest, and unbiased? How long after the event happened until it
was reported? Does the witness agree with other witnesses?
Research plan of historical methods of research
1. Choose a subject Choose a subject (usually it will be relevant to you class, or limited by
your instructor). Probably, you will then need to narrow your topic down, and often
define your research paper by gaining a working hypothesis and a thesis.
2. Find sources. You should use both internet and libraries to find your sources. The best
sources are still those that are found in libraries or archives, so do NOT limit your
searches to the web, even if it is easier. In libraries you can find sources through:- Library
Catalogue and library database and other links of database On the internet you can find
sources through subject directories, hierarchical indexes, etc., such as yahoo, or even set
library pages.
3. Learn from your sources. Historians usually distinguish between three kinds of sources,
tertiary, primary, secondary. You can use sources to find more sources. Reading tertiary
sources like encyclopedias, dictionaries, and handbooks can give you the general outline
of subjects and their problems. They often have useful bibliographies (lists of books
used), that are sources you can use. Secondary sources (professional historical books,
scholarly articles) also have bibliographies that should lead you to more information.
Primary sources, the immediate records of the past, should be used whenever possible.
4. Evaluate your sources. While you are researching, you should be carefully judging each
source. Take careful notes from your sources, always recording carefully from where you
got what information.
5. Start writing, while you research. You can, and should, begin writing as soon as
possible. Do not wait until you have collected all your information. Prewriting can be
based on good notes. You should be shaping your thesis in writing. To get there, if you
started with a broad subject, along the way you should have been refining your subject
into a narrow topic or a hypothesis. Writing as you go helps you to clarify your ideas,
measure the length of parts of your argument, and finish the paper sooner.
6. Write a rough draft. Write your rough draft as if it were your finished paper. Put it aside,
and go over it again carefully. You might use the checklist provided by the instructor.
7. Have other people critique your draft. It is best to talk to the person, but written
comments, perhaps according to a checklist, are also good. Rewrite until you have a
polished draft. The more you rewrite, the better it will be.
8. Submit your final draft. Notice that the end product is called a draft. Do the best you can,
but every piece of writing has room for improvement. Try to get it done well in advance
of the deadline, in case you have problems with printing out the paper.
Characteristics of Historical Methods of Research:
Historical methods of research are a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting
information to answer questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain
characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and
verifiable, empirical and critical.
Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of control
implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set up your
study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This can
be achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the
research is done in a laboratory.
Rigorous-you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies markedly
between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.
Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a
certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some
procedures must follow others.
Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your
findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.
Empirical-this means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered
from information collected from real life experiences or observations.
Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a
research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks.
 Methods of using in historical methods of research
There are four major methods that researchers use to collect historical data. These are
1. Archival data,
2. Secondary sources,
3. Running records, and
4. Recollections.
The archival data, or primary sources, are typically the resources that researchers rely most
heavily on. Archival data includes official documents and other items that would be found in
archives, museums, etc. Secondary sources are the works of other historians who have written
history. Running records are “documentaries maintained by private or nonprofit organizations.”
Finally, recollections include sources such as autobiographies, memoirs or diaries.
Values of historical methods of research
The values of historical research have been categorized by Hill and Kerber as follows:
1. It enables solutions to contemporary problems to be sought in the past.
2. It throws light on present and future trends
3. It stresses the relative importance and the effects of the various interactions that are to be
found within all cultures
4. It allows for the revaluation of data in relation to selected hypotheses, theories and
generalizations that are presently held about the past.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HISTORICAL METHODS
RESEARCH
Disadvantages
1. Cannot control for threats to internal validity
2. Limitations are imposed due to the content analysis
3. Researchers cannot ensure representation of the sample.
4. Bias in interpreting historical sources.
5. Interpreting sources is very time consuming.
6. Sources of historical materials may be problematic
7. Lack of control over external variables
Advantages
1. Throws light on present and future trends.
2. It enables understanding of and solutions to contemporary problems to be sought in the
past.
3. It can illuminate the effects of key interactions within a culture or sub-culture.
4. It allows for the revaluation of data in relation to selected hypotheses, theories and
generalizations that are presently held about the past and the present.
5. Permits investigation of topics and questions that can be studied in no other fashion
 6. Can make use of more categories of evidence than most other methods (with the
exception of case studies and ethnographic studies)
Conclusions
Historical methods of research can also mean gathering data from situations that have already
occurred and performing statistical analysis on this data just as we would in a traditional
experiment. The one key difference between this type of research and the type described in the
first paragraph concerns the manipulation of data. Since historical research relies on data from
the past, there is no way to manipulate it. Studying the grades of older students, for example,
and younger students may provide some insight into the differences between these two groups,
but manipulating the work experience is impossible. Therefore, historical research can often
lead to present day experiments that attempt to further explore what has occurred in the past.

2. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

One of the components of research is getting enough information about the research problem—
the what, how, when and where answers, which is why descriptive research is an important type
of research. It is very useful when conducting research whose aim is to identify characteristics,
frequencies, trends, correlations, and categories.
This research method takes a problem with little to no relevant information and gives it a
befitting description using qualitative and quantitative research methods. Descriptive research
aims to accurately describe a research problem.
In the subsequent sections, we will be explaining what descriptive research means, its types,
examples, and data collection methods.
What is Descriptive Research?
Descriptive research is a type of research that describes a population, situation, or phenomenon
that is being studied. It focuses on answering the how, what, when, and where questions If a This
is mainly because it is important to have a proper understanding of what a research problem is
about before investigating why it exists in the first place. 
For example, an investor considering an investment in the ever-changing Amsterdam housing
market needs to understand what the current state of the market is, how it changes (increasing or
decreasing), and when it changes (time of the year) before asking for the why. This is where
descriptive research comes in research problem, rather than the why.
What Are the Types of Descriptive Research?
Descriptive research is classified into different types according to the kind of approach that is
used in conducting descriptive research. The different types of descriptive research are
highlighted below:
● Descriptive-survey
Descriptive-survey research uses surveys to gather data about varying subjects. This data aims to
know the extent to which different conditions can be obtained among these subjects. 
For example, a researcher wants to determine the qualification of employed professionals in
Maryland. He uses a survey as his research instrument, and each item on the survey related to
qualifications is subjected to a Yes/No answer. 
This way, the researcher can describe the qualifications possessed by the employed
demographics of this community. 
● Descriptive-normative survey
This is an extension of the descriptive-survey, with the addition being the normative element. In
the descriptive-normative survey, the results of the study should be compared with the norm.
For example, an organization that wishes to test the skills of its employees by a team may have
them take a skills test. The skills tests are the evaluation tool in this case, and the result of this
test is compared with the norm of each role.
If the score of the team is one standard deviation above the mean, it is very satisfactory, if within
the mean, satisfactory, and one standard deviation below the mean is unsatisfactory.
● Descriptive-status
This is a quantitative description technique that seeks to answer questions about real-life
situations. For example, a researcher researching the income of the employees in a company, and
the relationship with their performance.
A survey will be carried out to gather enough data about the income of the employees, then their
performance will be evaluated and compared to their income. This will help determine whether a
higher income means better performance and low income means lower performance or vice
versa.
● Descriptive-analysis
Descriptive-analysis method of research describes a subject by further analyzing it, which in this
case involves dividing it into 2 parts. For example, the HR personnel of a company that wishes to
analyze the job role of each employee of the company may divide the employees into the people
that work at the Headquarters in the US and those that work from Oslo, Norway office.
A questionnaire is devised to analyze the job role of employees with similar salaries and work in
similar positions.
● Descriptive classification
This method is employed in biological sciences for the classification of plants and animals. A
researcher who wishes to classify the sea animals into different species will collect samples from
various search stations, then classify them accordingly.
● Descriptive-comparative
In descriptive-comparative research, the researcher considers 2 variables which are not
manipulated, and establishes a formal procedure to conclude that one is better than the other. For
example, an examination body wants to determine the better method of conducting tests between
paper-based and computer-based tests.
A random sample of potential participants of the test may be asked to use the 2 different
methods, and factors like failure rates, time factors, and others will be evaluated to arrive at the
best method.
● Correlative Survey
Correlative used to determine whether the relationship between 2 variables is positive, negative,
or neutral. That is, if 2 variables, say X and Y are directly proportional, inversely proportional or
are not related to each other.
Examples of Descriptive Research
There are different examples of descriptive research, that may be highlighted from its types,
uses, and applications. However, we will be restricting ourselves to only 3 distinct examples in
this article.
● Comparing Student Performance:
An academic institution may wish 2 compare the performance of its junior high school students
in English language and Mathematics. This may be used to classify students based on 2 major
groups, with one group going ahead to study while courses, while the other study courses in the
Arts & Humanities field.
Students who are more proficient in mathematics will be encouraged to go into STEM and vice
versa. Institutions may also use this data to identify student's weak points and work on ways to
assist them.
● Scientific Classification
During major scientific classification of plants, animals, and periodic table elements, the
characteristics and components of each subject are evaluated and used to determine how they are
classified.
For example, living things may be classified into kingdom Plantae or kingdom animal is
depending on their nature. Further classification may group animals into mammals, pieces,
vertebrae, invertebrate, etc. 
All these classifications are made a result of descriptive research which describes what they are.
● Human Behavior
When studying human behavior based on a factor or event, the researcher observes the
characteristics, behavior, and reaction, then uses if to conclude. A company willing to sell to its
target market needs to first study the behavior of the market.
This may be done by observing how its target reacts to a competitor's product, then use it to
determine their behavior.
What are the Characteristics of Descriptive Research? 
The characteristics of descriptive research can be highlighted from its definition, applications,
data collection methods, and examples. Some characteristics of descriptive research are:
● Quantitativeness
Descriptive research uses a quantitative research method by collecting quantifiable information
to be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. This is very common when dealing
with research in the physical sciences.
● Qualitativeness
It can also be carried out using the qualitative research method, to properly describe the research
problem. This is because descriptive research is more explanatory than exploratory or
experimental.
● Uncontrolled variables
In descriptive research, researchers cannot control the variables like they do in experimental
research. 
● The basis for further research
The results of descriptive research can be further analyzed and used in other research methods. It
can also inform the next line of research, including the research method that should be used.
This is because it provides basic information about the research problem, which may give birth
to other questions like why a particular thing is the way it is.
Why Use Descriptive Research Design? 
Descriptive research can be used to investigate the background of a research problem and get the
required information needed to carry out further research. It is used in multiple ways by different
organizations, and especially when getting the required information about their target audience.
● Define subject characteristics:
It is used to determine the characteristics of the subjects, including their traits, behavior, opinion,
etc. This information may be gathered with the use of surveys, which are shared with the
respondents who in this case, are the research subjects.
For example, a survey evaluating the number of hours’ millennials in a community spends on the
internet weekly, will help a service provider make informed business decisions regarding the
market potential of the community.
● Measure Data Trends
It helps to measure the changes in data over some time through statistical methods. Consider the
case of individuals who want to invest in stock markets, so they evaluate the changes in prices of
the available stocks to make a decision investment decision.
Brokerage companies are however the ones who carry out the descriptive research process, while
individuals can view the data trends and make decisions.
● Comparison
Descriptive research is also used to compare how different demographics respond to certain
variables. For example, an organization may study how people with different income levels react
to the launch of a new Apple phone.
This kind of research may take a survey that will help determine which group of individuals are
purchasing the new Apple phone. Do the low-income earners also purchase the phone, or only
the high-income earners do?
Further research using another technique will explain why low-income earners are purchasing
the phone even though they can barely afford it. This will help inform strategies that will lure
other low-income earners and increase company sales.
● Validate existing conditions
When you are not sure about the validity of an existing condition, you can use descriptive
research to ascertain the underlying patterns of the research object. This is because descriptive
research methods make an in-depth analysis of each variable before making conclusions.
● Conducted Overtime
Descriptive research is conducted over some time to ascertain the changes observed at each point
in time. The higher the number of times it is conducted, the more authentic the conclusion will
be. 
What are the Disadvantages of Descriptive Research? 
● Response and Non-response Bias
Respondents may either decide not to respond to questions or give incorrect responses if they
feel the questions are too confidential. When researchers use observational methods, respondents
may also decide to behave in a particular manner because they feel they are being watched.
● The researcher may decide to influence the result of the research due to personal opinion
or bias towards a particular subject. For example, a stockbroker who also has a business
of his own may try to lure investors into investing in his own company by manipulating
results.
● A case-study or sample taken from a large population is not representative of the whole
population.
● Limited scope: The scope of descriptive research is limited to the what of research, with
no information on why  thereby limiting the scope of the research.
What are the Data Collection Methods in Descriptive Research? 
There are 3 main data collection methods in descriptive research, namely; observational method,
case study method, and survey research.
● Observational Method
The observational method allows researchers to collect data based on their view of the behaviour
and characteristics of the respondent, with the respondents themselves not directly having an
input. It is often used in market research, psychology, and some other social science research to
understand human behaviour.
It is also an important aspect of physical scientific research, with it being one of the most
effective methods of conducting descriptive research. This process can be said to be either
quantitative or qualitative.
Quantitative observation involved the objective collection of numerical data, whose results can
be analyzed using numerical and statistical methods. 
Qualitative observation, on the other hand, involves the monitoring of characteristics and not the
measurement of numbers. The researcher makes his observation from a distance, records it, and
is used to inform conclusions.
● Case Study Method
A case study is a sample group (an individual, a group of people, organizations, events, etc.)
whose characteristics are used to describe the characteristics of a larger group in which the case
study is a subgroup. The information gathered from investigating a case study may be
generalized to serve the larger group.
This generalization, may, however, be risky because case studies are not sufficient to make
accurate predictions about larger groups. Case studies are a poor case of generalization.
● Survey Research
This is a very popular data collection method in research designs. In survey research, researchers
create a survey or questionnaire and distribute it to respondents who give answers. 
Generally, it is used to obtain quick information directly from the primary source and also
conducting rigorous quantitative and qualitative research. In some cases, survey research uses a
blend of both qualitative and quantitative strategies.
Survey research can be carried out both online and offline using the following methods
● Online Surveys: This is a cheap method of carrying out surveys and getting enough
responses. It can be carried out using Formplus, an online survey builder.
Formplus has amazing tools and features that will help increase response rates.
● Offline Surveys: This includes paper forms, mobile offline forms, and SMS-based forms.
What Are the Differences Between Descriptive and Correlational Research?
Before going into the differences between descriptive and correlation research, we need to have a
proper understanding of what correlation research is about. Therefore, we will be giving a
summary of the correlation research below.
Correlational research is a type of descriptive research, which is used to measure the relationship
between 2 variables, with the researcher having no control over them. It aims to find whether
there is; positive correlation (both variables change in the same direction), negative correlation
(the variables change in the opposite direction), or zero correlation (there is no relationship
between the variables).
Correlational research may be used in 2 situations;
(i) when trying to find out if there is a relationship between two variables, and
(ii) when a causal relationship is suspected between two variables, but it is impractical or
unethical to conduct experimental research that manipulates one of the variables.
Below are some of the differences between correlational and descriptive research:
● Definitions:
 Descriptive research aims is a type of research that provides an in-depth understanding of the
study population, while correlational research is the type of research that measures the
relationship between 2 variables. 
● Characteristics:
Descriptive research provides descriptive data explaining what the research subject is about,
while correlation research explores the relationship between data and not their description.
Predictions:
Predictions cannot be made in descriptive research while correlation research accommodates
the possibility of making predictions.
Conclusion 
The uniqueness of descriptive research partly lies in its ability to explore both quantitative
and qualitative research methods. Therefore, when conducting descriptive research,
researchers have the opportunity to use a wide variety of techniques that aids the research
process.
Descriptive research explores research problems in-depth, beyond the surface level thereby
giving a detailed description of the research subject. That way, it can aid further research in
the field, including other research methods.
It is also very useful in solving real-life problems in various fields of social science, physical
science, and education. 

3. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

Experimental research is the most familiar type of research design for individuals in the physical
sciences and a host of other fields. This is mainly because experimental research is a classical
scientific experiment, similar to those performed in high school science classes.

Imagine taking 2 samples of the same plant and exposing one of them to sunlight, while the other
is kept away from sunlight. Let the plant exposed to sunlight be called sample A, while the latter
is called sample B.

If after the duration of the research, we find out that sample A grows and sample B dies, even
though they are both regularly wetted and given the same treatment. Therefore, we can conclude
that sunlight will aid growth in all similar plants.

What is Experimental Research?

Experimental research is a scientific approach to research, where one or more independent

variables are manipulated and applied to one or more dependent variables to measure their effect
on the latter. The effect of the independent variables on the dependent variables is usually
observed and recorded over some time, to aid researchers in drawing a reasonable conclusion
regarding the relationship between these 2 variable types.

The experimental research method is widely used in physical and social sciences, psychology,
and education. It is based on the comparison between two or more groups with a straightforward
logic, which may, however, be difficult to execute.

Mostly related to a laboratory test procedure, experimental research designs involve

collecting quantitative data and performing statistical analysis on them during research.
Therefore, making it an example of quantitative research method.

What are The Types of Experimental Research Design?

The types of experimental research design are determined by the way the researcher assigns
subjects to different conditions and groups. They are of 3 types, namely; pre-experimental, quasi-
experimental, and true experimental research.

Pre-experimental Research Design

In pre-experimental research design, either a group or various dependent groups are observed for
the effect of the application of an independent variable which is presumed to cause change. It is
the simplest form of experimental research design and is treated with no control group.

Although very practical, experimental research is lacking in several areas of the true-
experimental criteria. The pre-experimental research design is further divided into three types

● One-shot Case Study Research Design

In this type of experimental study, only one dependent group or variable is considered. The study
is carried out after some treatment which was presumed to cause change, making it a posttest
study.

● One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design: 

This research design combines both posttest and pretest study by carrying out a test on a single
group before the treatment is administered and after the treatment is administered. With the
former being administered at the beginning of treatment and later at the end.

● Static-group Comparison: 

In a static-group comparison study, 2 or more groups are placed under observation, where only
one of the groups is subjected to some treatment while the other groups are held static. All the
groups are post-tested, and the observed differences between the groups are assumed to be a
result of the treatment.

Quasi-experimental Research Design

 The word "quasi" means partial, half, or pseudo. Therefore, the quasi-experimental research
bearing a resemblance to the true experimental research, but not the same.  In quasi-experiments,
the participants are not randomly assigned, and as such, they are used in settings where
randomization is difficult or impossible.

 This is very common in educational research, where administrators are unwilling to allow the
random selection of students for experimental samples.

Some examples of quasi-experimental research design include; the time series, no equivalent
control group design, and the counterbalanced design.

True Experimental Research Design

The true experimental research design relies on statistical analysis to approve or disprove a
hypothesis. It is the most accurate type of experimental design and may be carried out with or
without a pretest on at least 2 randomly assigned dependent subjects.

The true experimental research design must contain a control group, a variable that can be
manipulated by the researcher, and the distribution must be random. The classification of true
experimental design includes:

● The posttest-only Control Group Design: In this design, subjects are randomly selected
and assigned to the 2 groups (control and experimental), and only the experimental group
is treated. After close observation, both groups are post-tested, and a conclusion is drawn
from the difference between these groups.
● The pretest-posttest Control Group Design: For this control group design, subjects are
randomly assigned to the 2 groups, both are presented, but only the experimental group is
treated. After close observation, both groups are post-tested to measure the degree of
change in each group.
● Solomon four-group Design: This is the combination of the pretest-only and the pretest-
posttest control groups. In this case, the randomly selected subjects are placed into 4
groups.
The first two of these groups are tested using the posttest-only method, while the other
two are tested using the pretest-posttest method.

Examples of Experimental Research

Experimental research examples are different, depending on the type of experimental research
design that is being considered. The most basic example of experimental research is laboratory
experiments, which may differ in nature depending on the subject of research.

Administering Exams After the End of Semester

During the semester, students in a class are lectured on particular courses and an exam is
administered at the end of the semester. In this case, the students are the subjects or dependent
variables while the lectures are the independent variables treated on the subjects.
Only one group of carefully selected subjects are considered in this research, making it a pre-
experimental research design example. We will also notice that tests are only carried out at the
end of the semester, and not at the beginning. Further making it easy for us to conclude that it is
a one-shot case study research. 

Employee Skill Evaluation

Before employing a job seeker, organizations conduct tests that are used to screen out less
qualified candidates from the pool of qualified applicants. This way, organizations can determine
an employee's skill set at the point of employment.

In the course of employment, organizations also carry out employee training to improve
employee productivity and generally grow the organization. Further evaluation is carried out at
the end of each training to test the impact of the training on employee skills, and test for
improvement.

Here, the subject is the employee, while the treatment is the training conducted. This is a pretest-
posttest control group experimental research example.

Evaluation of Teaching Method

Let us consider an academic institution that wants to evaluate the teaching method of 2 teachers
to determine which is best. Imagine a case whereby the students assigned to each teacher is
carefully selected probably due to personal request by parents or due to stubbornness and
smartness.

This is a no equivalent group design example because the samples are not equal. By evaluating
the effectiveness of each teacher's teaching method this way, we may conclude after a post-test
has been carried out.

However, this may be influenced by factors like the natural sweetness of a student. For example,
a very smart student will grab more easily than his or her peers irrespective of the method of
teaching.

What are the Characteristics of Experimental Research? 

● Variables

Experimental research contains dependent, independent and extraneous variables. The dependent
variables are the variables being treated or manipulated and are sometimes called the subject of
the research.

The independent variables are the experimental treatment being exerted on the dependent
variables. Extraneous variables, on the other hand, are other factors affecting the experiment that
may also contribute to the change.
 ● Setting

The setting is where the experiment is carried out. Many experiments are carried out in the
laboratory, where control can be exerted on the extraneous variables, thereby eliminating them. 

Other experiments are carried out in a less controllable setting. The choice of setting used in
research depends on the nature of the experiment being carried out.

● Multivariable

Experimental research may include multiple independent variables, e.g. time, skills, test scores,
etc.

Why Use Experimental Research Design? 

Experimental research design can be majorly used in physical sciences, social sciences,
education, and psychology. It is used to make predictions and draw conclusions on a subject
matter. 

Some uses of experimental research design are highlighted below.

● Medicine: Experimental research is used to provide the proper treatment for diseases. In

most cases, rather than directly using patients as the research subject, researchers take a
sample of the bacteria from the patient's body and are treated with the developed
antibacterial

The changes observed during this period are recorded and evaluated to determine its
effectiveness. This process can be carried out using different experimental research methods.

● Education: Asides from science subjects like Chemistry and Physics which involves
teaching students how to perform experimental research, it can also be used in improving
the standard of an academic institution. This includes testing students' knowledge on
different topics, coming up with better teaching methods, and the implementation of other
programs that will aid student learning.
● Human Behavior: Social scientists are the ones who mostly use experimental research to
test human behavior. For example, consider 2 people randomly chosen to be the subject
of the social interaction research where one person is placed in a room without human
interaction for 1 year.

The other person is placed in a room with a few other people, enjoying human interaction.
There will be a difference in their behavior at the end of the experiment.

● During the product development phase, one of the major aims of the product team is to
create a great user experience with the product. Therefore, before launching the final
product design, potential are brought in to interact with the product.
For example, when finding it difficult to choose how to position a button or feature on the
app interface, a random sample of product testers are allowed to test the 2 samples and how
the button positioning influences the user interaction is recorded.

What are the Disadvantages of Experimental Research? 

● It is highly prone to human error due to its dependency on variable control which may not
be properly implemented. These errors could eliminate the validity of the experiment and
the research being conducted.
● Exerting control of extraneous variables may create unrealistic situations. Eliminating
real-life variables will result in inaccurate conclusions. This may also result in
researchers controlling the variables to suit his or her personal preferences.
● It is a time-consuming process. So much time is spent on testing dependent variables and
waiting for the effect of the manipulation of dependent variables to manifest.
● It is expensive.
● It is very risky and may have ethical complications that cannot be ignored. This is
common in medical research, where failed trials may lead to a patient's death or a
deteriorating health condition.
● Response bias can also be supplied by the subject of the conversation.
● Human responses in experimental research can be difficult to measure. 

What are the Data Collection Methods in Experimental Research?

Data collection methods in experimental research are the different ways in which data can be
collected for experimental research. They are used in different cases, depending on the type
of research being carried out.

● Observational Study: This type of study is carried out over a long period. It measures
and observes the variables of interest without changing existing conditions.

When researching the effect of social interaction on human behavior, the subjects who are
placed in 2 different environments are observed throughout the research. No matter the kind
of absurd behavior that is exhibited by the subject during this period, it's condition will not be
changed.

This may be a very risky thing to do in medical cases because it may lead to death or worse
medical conditions.

● Simulations: This procedure uses a mathematical, physical, or computer models to

replicate a real-life process or situation. It is frequently used when the actual situation is
too expensive, dangerous, or impractical to replicate in real life.

This method is commonly used in engineering and operational research for learning purposes
and sometimes as a tool to estimate possible outcomes of real research. Some common
situation software is Simulink, MATLAB, and Simul8.
 Not all kinds of experimental research can be carried out using simulation as a data collection
tool. It is very impractical for a lot of laboratory-based research that involves chemical
processes.

● Surveys: A survey is a tool used to gather relevant data about the characteristics of a
population, and is one of the most common data collection tools. A survey consists of a
group of questions prepared by the researcher, to be answered by the research subject.

Surveys can be shared with the respondents both physically and electronically. When
collecting data through surveys, the kind of data collected depends on the respondent, and
researchers have limited control over it.

Differences between Experimental and Non-Experimental Research 

● In experimental research, the researcher can control and manipulate the environment of
the research, including the predictor variable which can be changed. On the other hand,
non-experimental research cannot be controlled or manipulated by the researcher at will.

This is because it takes place in a real-life setting, where extraneous variables cannot be
eliminated. Therefore, it is more difficult to conclude non-experimental studies, even though
they are much more flexible and allow for a greater range of study fields.

● The relationship between cause and effect cannot be established in non-experimental

research, while it can be established in experimental research. This may be because many
extraneous variables also influence the changes in the research subject, making it difficult
to point at a particular variable as the cause of a particular change.
● Independent variables are not introduced, withdrawn or manipulated in non-experimental
designs, but the same may not be said about experimental research.

Conclusion

Experimental research designs are often considered to be the standard in research designs. This is
partly due to the common misconception that research is equivalent to scientific experiments—a
component of experimental research design.

In this research design, one or more subjects or dependent variables are randomly assigned to
different treatments (i.e. independent variables manipulated by the researcher) and the results are
observed to conclude. One of the uniqueness of experimental research is in its ability to control
the effect of extraneous variables.

Experimental research is suitable for research whose goal is to examine cause-effect

relationships, e.g. explanatory research. It can be conducted in the laboratory or field settings,
depending on the aim of the research that is being carried out.

4. CASE STUDY DESIGN

Case studies are a popular research method in business area. Case studies aim to analyze specific
issues within the boundaries of a specific environment, situation or organization.
According to its design, case studies in business research can be divided into three categories:
explanatory, descriptive and exploratory.
Explanatory case studies aim to answer ‘how’ or ’why’ questions with little control on behalf
of researcher over occurrence of events. This type of case studies focus on phenomena within the
contexts of real-life situations. Example: “An investigation into the reasons of the global
financial and economic crisis of 2008 – 2010.”
Descriptive case studies aim to analyze the sequence of interpersonal events after a certain
amount of time has passed. Studies in business research belonging to this category usually
describe culture or sub-culture, and they attempt to discover the key phenomena. Example:
“Impact of increasing levels of multiculturalism on marketing practices: A case study of
McDonald’s Indonesia.”
Exploratory case studies aim to find answers to the questions of ‘what’ or ‘who’. Exploratory
case study data collection method is often accompanied by additional data collection method(s)
such as interviews, questionnaires, experiments etc. Example: “A study into differences of
leadership practices between private and public sector organizations in Atlanta, USA.”
Advantages of case study method include data collection and analysis within the context of
phenomenon, integration of qualitative and quantitative data in data analysis, and the ability to
capture complexities of real-life situations so that the phenomenon can be studied in greater
levels of depth. Case studies do have certain disadvantages that may include lack of rigor,
challenges associated with data analysis and very little basis for generalizations of findings and
conclusions.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Classic experimental method involves random assignment of study participants to either an
experimental or a control group. Conditions for the experimental group are then manipulated by
the experimenter/researcher in order to assess their effect in comparison with members of the
control group who are receiving no unusual conditions.
The main advantages of experimental research designs are that they encourage clarity about what
is to be investigated, and should eliminate many alternative explanations because the random
assignment ensures that the experimental and control groups are identical in all respects, except
for the focal variable. It is also easier for another researcher to replicate the study, and hence any
claims arising from the research can be subjected to public scrutiny. The disadvantages are
practical and ethical. with medical research there is always the danger that volunteers will be
harmed by drug tests; hence stringent ethical guidelines have been developed, which are now
filtering into social science and management research. Also, when dealing with people and
business situations it is rarely possible to conduct true experiments with randomization. For
example, if a company wants to assess the value of an elite highflier career development scheme,
it cannot simply assign managers at random to the scheme because the managers themselves will
be aware of what is happening, and there will also be strong ethical, performance-related and
employment law objections to this arbitrary assignment. For this reason, quasi-experimental
methods have been developed in order to circumvent the problem of random assignment.
Quasi-experimental designs
A key feature of quasi-experimental design is the use of multiple measures over time in order to
reduce the effects of control and experimental groups not being fully matched (Shadish et al.,
2002). Individuals are not allocated randomly to the treatment group and the control group, but
rather allocation takes place on some other criterion, usually by using intact groups. As a result,
the validity of inferences from this type of design depends critically on how equivalent the two
groups actually are. Since equivalence cannot be guaranteed in this type of design, some purists
insist that they be called non-experimental designs; although in practice many forms of quasi-
experimental design can allow relatively strong inferences in settings where true experiments
would be impossible to achieve.
Quasi-experimental methods share some of the advantages of full experimental methods such as
clarity, transparency and repeatability. However, as we have indicated, they have problems
accommodating the politics and agency of human beings in work settings. And there are also
other subtle problems with pre-test and post-test designs because changes over time may be a
consequence of measurement itself (a testing effect). The first measurement may get respondents
to reflect on their initial answers, and this can lead to them answering differently the next time –
not because of the intervention itself, but because they have been measured before. Thus, the
process of measurement itself becomes a kind of intervention, but one that cannot easily be
directly assessed. Returning to Figure 4.2, the aspiration of quasi-experimental methods is to
conduct research without affecting the people under study, which would locate it in quadrant A.
But as we have seen, the necessary level of detachment is often difficult to sustain.
The cross-sectional comparison
The first form of design (Figure 4.3a) is the commonest in business and management research,
but also the weakest. It involves selecting a group of people who have experienced something
that you are interested in (attended a training course, graduated from a prestigious university,
worked with a charismatic mentor etc.), and then comparing that group with others who have not
had the same experience. If we find a difference between the two groups on some variable that is
theoretically interesting, it is tempting to jump to conclusions about causality. Although a great
deal of the empirical literature relies on cross-sectional comparisons of this kind, it is obvious
that no firm conclusion can be reached about cause-and-effect relationships unless groups being
compared differ only on those variables (such that no other factor could be responsible for the
observed difference in group means). Since this can never be guaranteed outside of the research
laboratory, cross-sectional studies have only limited potential for advancing knowledge in a
convincing way.
The pre-test/post-test design It is a commonplace principle that when something changes, you
have to measure before and after the change. Figure 4.3b shows a simple form of design with a
single group measured twice, with an intervention of some kind taking place between the two
measurements. The intervention might be the introduction of group exercises in a classroom, or a
new form of recording product defects on an assembly line. In another example, the effects of a
leadership course on a group of managers might be evaluated by measuring the managers’
attitudes and behavior before and after the course.
what interpretation could be placed on a change in means from pre- to post-test? The most
obvious question to ask is whether the same change would have been observed if the intervention
had never taken place. Change could reflect the influence of some other event that took place
between pre- and post-test (this is called a history effect); or maturation in respondents (due to
them growing older, wiser, stronger or more disillusioned) in ways that have nothing to do with
the intervention. Both history and maturation effects are those that would have happened
anyway, with or without the researcher’s presence.
More subtly, changes over time may be a consequence of measurement itself (a testing effect),
arising from effects of the first measurement in leading to respondents reflecting on their answers
for the first time. This may then lead to them answering differently the second time, not because
of the intervention itself, but because they have been measured before. Thus, the process of
measurement itself becomes a kind of intervention, but one which cannot easily be directly
assessed. If there is a danger that the properties of a measuring instrument change if it has been
answered before, it may make sense to change the instrument from pre- to post-test. However,
this brings new problems unless it can be guaranteed that the instrument, though different,
measures the same thing in the same way (the instrumentation effect).
The randomized control group design
The classical way to deal with history and maturation as threats to the internal validity of a
design is by using a control group of individuals who are the same as the treatment group in
every way except that they do not receive the intervention (Figure 4.3c). The way in which this is
achieved is by randomization in allocation to groups. The consequence of randomization is that
the whole of the prior history of individuals is detached from the intervention itself: individuals
either receive the intervention or not based on a criterion (tossing a coin, or the equivalent)
which is quite separate from any characteristics on which they differ. Any change in the
treatment group which is not paralleled by an equivalent change in the control group is thus
attributed to the intervention, on the basis that the control group shows what the treatment group
would have been like but for the intervention. History effects and maturation effects will show in
changes in the control group, and the effect of the intervention can be seen by comparing
changes in the two groups.
The non-equivalent control group design
A weaker form of research design, which captures some of the strength of the randomized
control group design, is the non-equivalent control group design. Although the formal
specification of this design looks similar to design (c), the crucial difference is that individuals
are not allocated randomly to the treatment group and the control group, but rather allocation
takes place on some other criterion, usually by working with intact groups. As a result, the
validity of inferences from this type of design depends critically on how equivalent the two
groups actually are. The non-equivalent control group design is the simplest of a family of
research designs, which are termed ‘quasi-experimental designs’. Since equivalence cannot be
guaranteed in this type of design, some statisticians insist that they be called non-experimental
designs; though the reality is that many forms of quasi experimental design can allow relatively
strong inference in settings where true experiments would be impossible to achieve. (It is also the
case that even where a true experiment is possible, the phenomenon being tested is not of interest
because its generalizability to the real world is questionable.)
There are substantial problems when using this form of design in real organizations. For
example, the design assumes that ‘nothing’ happens to the control group during the period that
the treatment (for example, course attendance) is being given to the experimental group.

End of Lecture-Research Design

Prepared by:

DR. LUZVIMINDA AN ABACAN

Faculty

Reviewed by:

DR. AQUINO M. DELA PANA

Department Chair, CABEIHM

Approved:

DR. ROSALINDA M. COMIA

Head, Academic Affairs & Campus Director