Unit VII.

Methodology

In this unit, you will learn about the research design, sampling and data collection methods.

Learning Outcomes for Unit VII

After you have studied this unit, you should be able to:

1. Describe the sampling methods, its rationale and meaning.

2. Discuss the strengths and limitations of the different research designs.
3. Discuss the data collection methods.

The Importance of Methodology

Science as a way of searching for the “truth” or acquiring knowledge differs from other modes of
knowing by its set of procedures and rules that should be followed depending on the nature of the
problem that needs to be addressed.
When a research result is presented, other researchers may not question the findings but they
can question the way the findings were arrived at. In evaluating research, scientist may disagree on two
broad fronts: 1) the collection of data; and 2) analysis-interpretation of data.
When a researcher presents his research output to a panel, the panel members may not
question the findings if the researcher used the appropriate research designs and followed correct
methods and strategies in sampling, instrumentation, data collection, statistical analysis, and
interpretation. But if there is a flaw in the methodology, the findings become useless.

A. Classification of Research

1. According to level or purpose

There are three levels of research:
a) basic research, pure research, and fundamental research. It aims to
discover basic truths or principles. In this kind of research, the researcher seeks answers
to his questions but with no clear or specific purpose or idea of how the result will be
used. It is a research for knowledge sake.
b) applied research – the application of scientific knowledge to the solution of a
problem. There is a development of new procedure, new devices, or new methods to
solve the problem. This kind of research is very common in agriculture, fishery and
natural resources researches. Because of the problem or need to increase agricultural
yield at least cost, many researchers have been conducted on what is the best
propagating medium and spacing for crops, what is the best organic fertilizer for specific
crops, etc.
c) developmental research- is a systematic work, drawing on existing
knowledge gained from research and/or practical experience that is directed to producing
new materials, products or devices, to installing new processes, systems and services
and to improving substantially those already produced or installed. This research
includes Pilot Testing and Technology promotion/commercialization researches. Pilot
testing is an innovative work to confirm and demonstrate the feasibility of actually using
a technology; gauging end user’s reaction to introduction of improved technologies, and
identifying potential problems related to wider dissemination, utilization and adoption so
that these can be fed back to researchers. Technology promotion/commercialization is
an activity involving application of technologies on a commercial scale by an identified
entrepreneur or user primarily to increase his income/profits and productivity;
technologies utilized/produced on a pre-commercial scale including market testing jointly
undertaken with a client.

Examples of developmental research are:

 Fruits of the Future: Characterization, Propagation, and Commercialization of
Indigenous Fruits of Cagayan Valley (by Dr. Calixto B. Alicay). One aspect of this
research is to produce and commercialize products out of different indigenous
and wild fruits.
 Tinupig Global Invasion: Commercialization of the Native Tinupig of Cagayan
North (by Dr. Babylyn Cenal)
 2. According to Scope

Research and Development undertakings are also classified according to scope as program,
project or study.

A program consists of interrelated or complementing R & D projects on a multi-disciplinary

approach to meet established goals within a specific time frame.
A project is a set of interrelated studies and is a component of a program to meet pre-
determined objectives within a specific time frame.
A study is a single research undertaking.

3. According to Methodology

a) Historical Research is a scientific critical inquiry of the whole truth of past events
using the critical method in the understanding and interpretation of facts which are
applicable to current issues and problems.
 It is the critical investigation of events, developments, and experiences of the
past, the careful weighing of evidence of the validity of sources of information of
the past, and the interpretation of the weighed evidence (Kerlinger,1973).
 Historical research is also called historiography. The historiographer collects
data for validity, and interprets the data.

 Uses of Historical Research

1. Historical research covers the whole expanse of human past. It focuses on culture,
institutions, law, religion, art, literature, travel, engineering, technology, industry,
medicine, science, philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, anthropology, and
education.
2. It is useful in searching through the past for solutions to contemporary problems and
needs.
3. It is used to throw light on the present.
4. It gives people a sense of continuity of the past to the present.
5. It enables the communities to grasp the relationship with the past to the current
issues.
6. It chronicles events of enduring worth which confer upon the individual
consciousness of unity and the feeling of importance of human achievement.

 Steps of Historical Research

The three steps of historical research are as follows:
1. Collection of data, with consideration of documents and remains or relics of primary
and secondary sources, of bibliographical procedure, and organization of materials;
2. Criticism of the data collected, including the processes of external criticism and
internal criticism; and
3. Presentation of the facts in readable form involving problems of organization,
composition, exposition, and interpretation.

 Sources of Historical Research

There are two major primary sources of historical research. These are: 1)
primary sources, and 2) secondary sources.

Primary Sources – two major primary sources of historical research. These are:

1. Documents. These include school directives, court decisions, executive and other
official records, personal materials, newspapers and periodicals.
Examples of school directives are orders, memoranda, circulars, constitution,
laws, and charters
Executive and other official records are proceedings of administrative officers
and bodies, reports of school surveys, annual reports, courses of study, course
syllabi/outlines, catalogues, and prospectuses.
Personal materials include autobiographies, biographies, legal instruments
executed by individuals such as contracts, wills and deeds.
 2. Remains. These include the physical plant, equipment, apparatus, teaching aids and
devices, picture of buildings or furnishing, forms of diplomas and certificates,
textbooks and reference books.

Secondary Sources – a secondary source is an account or record of a historical event or

circumstances one or more steps removed from an original repository. These are
persons who are not direct participants, commentaries, written accounts of what was
seen or heard.

 Criticism of Collected Data

1. External criticism consists of determining authenticity (whether genuine or fake) and
authorship or origin. To some extent, it is somewhat similar to weighing evidence or
information presented in court, like getting the services of experts in determining
authenticity of handwriting, archaeological or paleontological evidences although it
may not be as strict as going to the extent of subjecting our informants to a lie
detector test because of ethical considerations.
For external criticism, the researcher critically examines the sources of data for
their genuineness or authenticity, or their validity.
2. Internal criticism addresses the question of veracity of the content of the source or
document. It seeks the true value of the content of sources of data. Here are guide
questions to determine veracity:
a. Is there reason to doubt the assertions or statements of the informant?
b. How acquainted were the witnesses to the circumstances?
c. Did the author or informant have any personal interest in the matter?
d. Is the testimony official or unofficial?

b. Descriptive Research is a method of research that seeks and describes something out
there such as the status, condition or experience of a subject. Its focus is on estimation
rather than testing or confirming a hypothesis because it basically aims to describe “what is”
(not determine what is). For example, in the study on the prevalence of disease in a
community, a researcher may want to describe the following : the nature of the disease, the
history of the disease, the resources required to treat the diseases, the prevalence of the
diseases in the community, the attitudes, behaviors and perceptions of the people about the
disease. A descriptive research is thus the method used to obtain information concerning the
current status of the phenomena to describe “what exists,” thus basically answering “who,”
“what,” “why” and “how” about the subject of the study, whether pertaining to the variables or
specific conditions.

In addition, descriptive research is the study that focuses at the present condition.
The purpose is to find new truth. The truth may have different forms such as increased
quantity of knowledge, a new generalization or a new “law”, an increased insight into factors
which are operating, the discovery of a new causal relationship, a more accurate formulation
of the problem to be solved, and many others.

Descriptive researches are valuable in:

1. providing facts on which scientific judgments may be based;

2. providing essential knowledge about the nature of objects and persons;
3. for closer observation into the practices, behaviour, methods and procedures;
4. playing a large part in the development of instruments for the measurement of many things,
(instruments that are employed I all types of descriptive research as data-gathering
instruments are questionnaires, tests, interviews, checklists, score cards, rating scales, and
observation schedules), and
5. formulating of policies in the local, national, or international level.

 Types of Descriptive Research

There are nine types of descriptive research:

1. Descriptive – survey. This type is suitable wherever the subjects vary among
themselves and one is interested to know the extent to which different conditions and
situations are obtained among these subjects.

o Participants answer questions administered through interviews or questionnaires

 o It is important that the questions are constructed properly to be both reliable and
valid.
o
o These are roughly divided into two broad areas: Questionnaires and Interviews.

o Next, we'll look at how you select the survey method that is best for your situation.
Once you've selected the survey method, you have to construct the survey itself.
Here, we will address a number of issues including: the different types of
questions; decisions about question content; decisions about question
wording; decisions about response format; and, question placement and sequence in
your instrument. We turn next to some of the special issues involved in administering
a personal interview. Finally, we'll consider some of the advantages and
disadvantages of survey methods.

2. Normative Survey – the term normative is sometimes used because surveys are
frequently made to ascertain the normal or typical condition for practice, or to compare
local test results with a state or national norm. In other words, in the descriptive-
normative survey, the results/findings of the study should be compared with the norm.
The target is not only to gather facts but also to point out in which respects the object of
the study can be improved.

a.) General Normative Research - produces theory of practice for a professional activity, such as

design, which can consist of recommendations, rules, standards, algorithms, advices or other
tools for improving the object of study. It does not necessarily include any practical
operations of development. 

b.) Normative Case Study - to find out methods to ameliorate physically the object, for example
by reducing known human problems in the daily lives and work processes of people,
by developing an activity or a new product.

3. Descriptive-status – this approach to problem-solving seeks to answer questions to real

facts relating to existing conditions. This is a technique of quantitative description which
determines the prevailing conditions in a group of cases chosen for study.
Several descriptive-status studies stress current conditions with the assumption
that things will change. They cover many traits or characteristics of the group.

4. Descriptive Analysis – this method determines or describes the nature of an object by

separating it into its parts. Its purpose is to discover the nature of things.

5. Descriptive –classification – this method is employed in natural sciences subjects,

namely: biology, botany, zoology, and the like.

6. Descriptive-evaluative. This design is to appraise carefully the worthiness of the

current study.

7. Descriptive-comparative. This is a design where the researcher considers two

variables (not manipulated) and establishes a formal procedure to compare and conclude
that one is better than the other.

8. Correlational survey. This is designed to determine the relationship of two variables of

(X and Y) whether the relationship is perfect, very high, high, marked or moderate, slight
or negligible. Perfect positive correlation with a value of 1.0 seldom happens, same with
perfect negative correlation. In perfect positive correlation, all the individual performances
in X and Y have the same positions. If he tops in test X he also tops in test Y; and if he is
lowest in test X he is likely lowest in test Y. In perfect negative correlation, all the
individual performances in X and Y have the opposite positions. If he tops in test X, he is
lowest in test Y; if he is lowest in test X, he tops in test Y.

9. Longitudinal survey. This involves much time allotted for investigation of the same
subjects of two or more points in time.
c) Experimental Research

Experimental design is a problem-solving approach that the study is described in the future
on what will be when variables are carefully controlled or manipulated.
Experimental design can be a basic, applied, or developmental research. This type of
research involves the 7Ms, namely: manpower (competent), money, methods, materials, machinery,
moment of time, and marketing.
Experimental research is given priority by research institutions in giving of research grants-in-
aid because research outputs can be converted into SMEs (small and medium enterprises), thus,
help housewives, rural folks, out-of-school youths, unemployed adults and graduates augment their
income, alleviate poverty, and improve their quality of life.
To conduct an experiment means to try in order to see what happens. In other words, in an
experiment, it involves trial-and-error method until the result is successful.
Experimental design is a research wherein a researcher manipulates and controls one or
more independent variables for variation concomitant to the manipulation of the dependent variable.
For example, a researcher wishes to conduct a study on the effectiveness of culturing
grouper in fish cages using bread meal as supplemental feed. There are three fish cages in the
culturing of grouper treated with 5%, 10%, and 15% bread meal as supplemental feed based on body
weight. The feed is the independent variable and the growth rate is the dependent variable. But there
is a possibility that ecological parameters such as salinity, temperature, oxygen, and pH of the water
as intervening variables might affect the growth rate of the grouper. Figure1. Shows the independent,
intervening, and dependent variables on the effectiveness of culturing of grouper in fish cages using
bread meal as supplemental feed.

Intervening
Independent Variables Dependent
Variable Variable
Salinity
Supplemental Temperature
Feed Oxygen Growth rate
(Bread Meal) pH

Figure 1. Independent, Intervening, and Dependent Variables on the Effectiveness

Of Culturing Grouper in Fish Cages Using Bread Meal as Supplemental Feed

Experimental design is the most prestigious method for advancing Science and
Technology as well as Research and Development because it is production-oriented. This is the
only design wherein the invest-harvest principle can be attained.

Types of Experimental Design. There are nine types of experimental design applicable
in natural sciences and education. These types are:

1. Single-group design. This design involves a single treatment with two or more levels.

Illustration: Suppose a researcher wishes to study on the effect of fish meal as

supplemental feed upon the yield of mudcrab cultured in a fishpond. In this
experimental study, fish meal is subjected to single treatment with different levels
such as 5%, 10%, and 15% based on body weight of mudcrab. F-test or analysis of
variance (ANOVA) is used to determine the significant difference on the effect of fish
meal as supplemental feed upon the yield of mudcrab cultured in the fishpond. If the
F-test value is significant, this means the yield of mudcrab using fish meal in different
levels really differ with each other. If the F-test value is not significant, this means
fish meal of different levels upon the yield of mudcrab is almost the same.

2. Two-group design. In this design, two comparable groups are employed as

experimental and control groups or two comparable groups are both experimental
groups.
Suppose an investigator wants to conduct a study on the growth rate of
 cultivating Eucheuma using broadcasting and lantay methods. The comparable
groups in cultivating Eucheuma are broadcasting method (control group) and lantay
method (experimental method). Broadcasting method of cultivating Eucheuma is
control group because this method has been practiced or existed for quite a long
time. Lantay method is experimental method because this is novel or new.
T-test is used to determine the significant difference on the growth rate of
cultivating Eucheuma using broadcasting (control group) and lantay (experimental
group) methods. If t-value is significant ast .01 or .05 level of probability, this means
the growth rate of Eucheuma using broadcasting (control group) and lantay
(experimental group) methods really differ with each other because one is better
than the other. If t-test is not significant either at .01 or .05 level, this means the
growth rate Eucheuma using broadcasting and lantay methods are almost the same.
Another example, the study on the acceptability of milkfish offal and goatfish offal
into luncheon meat. The two comparable groups are luncheon meat from milkfish
bone meal as offal of boneless milkfish and luncheon meat from bone meal of
goatfish as offal of goatfish tapa. Both are experimental groups because no study
yet has been conducted on the utilization of offal from boneless milkfish and goatfish
tapa into fish value added product, luncheon meat.
Organoleptic test is used by trained panellists to evaluate the acceptability of
milkfish and goatfish luncheon meat using the 9-point Hedonic Scale (9, like
extremely to 1, dislike extremely).
Weighed arithmetic mean and t-test are the statistical tools used to analyse and
interpret the data. Mean is used to determine the acceptability of milkfish and
goatfish luncheon meat and t-test, to assess the significant difference on the
acceptability of milkfish and goatfish luncheon meat.
3. Two-pair group design. This design is an elaboration of the two-group design
wherein there are two control groups and two experimental groups.
Example: A researcher wishes to study on the acceptability of canned milkfish
bone meal in Salmon and French styles with and without sea vegetable. The pair
of control group are canned milkfish bone meal in Salmon and French styles
without sea vegetable and the other pair of experimental groups are canned
milkfish bone meal in salmon and French styles with sea vegetable. Sensory
evaluation by the panellists with the use of 9-point hedonic scale (9, like
extremely to 1, dislike extremely) to evaluate the acceptability of the products.
4. Parallel-group design. This is a design in which two or more groups are used as the
same time with only a single variable (control group) manipulated or changed. The
experimental group varies while the parallel group serves as control for comparative
purposes.
5. Counterbalanced or Latin square design. This design is also called “rotation design.”
It involves an exchange of two or more treatments taken by the subjects during the
experiment. The arrangement employed in the design is Latin square in which each
variable is a form of square occurring once in each row or column. This is also called
quasi-experimental design.
6. Complete Randomized Design (CRD). This is a design in which a group of test
plants or animals is studied only once but subsequent treatment is applied to
determine the cause of change. There is no control in this design but the subjects will
undergo randomization procedures.
7. Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). This experimental design uses a
group of test plants and animals as subjects of the study which are studied once but
subsequent treatments applied are replicated to determine the cause of change.
There is control in this design and the subjects will undergo randomization process.
8. Correlational design. This experimental design is used to determine the relationship
of two dependent variables, X and Y, on how they are manipulated by the
independent variable.
9. Pre-test-Post-test design. This design involves the experimental group and the
control group which are carefully selected through randomization procedures. Both
groups are given pretest at the beginning of the semester and posttest at the end of
the semester. But the control group is isolated from all experimental influences.
A. Sampling may be defined as the method of getting a representative portion of a population.
The term, population, is the aggregate or total of objects, persons, families, species, or
orders of plant or animals.

 Advantages of Sampling
1. It saves time, money, and effort. The researcher can save time, money, and effort
because the number of subjects involved is small. With only a small number of
subjects to be collected, tabulated, presented, analysed and interpreted, the use of
sample gives a comprehensive information of the results of the study.
2. It is more effective. Sampling is more effective if every individual of the population
without bias has an equal chance of being included in the sample and data are
scientifically collected, analysed, and interpreted.
3. It is faster, cheaper, and economical. Since sample is only “drop in a bucket”, the
collection, tabulation, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data are rapid and
less expensive due to small number of subjects and few copies of the questionnaires
are used.
4. It is more accurate. Fewer errors are made due to small size of data involved in
collection, tabulation, presentation, analysis, and interpretation.
5. It gives more comprehensive information. Since there is a thorough investigation of
the study due to small sample, the results give more comprehensive information
because all members of the population have an equal chance of being included in
the sample.

 Disadvantages of Sampling
If sampling design has strength, it also has its weaknesses. The disadvantages
of sampling are as follows:

1. Sample data involve more care in preparing detailed subclassification due to small
number of subjects.
2. If the sampling plan is not correctly designed and followed, the results may be
misleading.
3. Sampling requires an expert to conduct the study in an area. If this is lacking, the
results can be erroneous.
4. The characteristic to be observed may occur rarely in a population, for instance,
teachers over 30 years of teaching experience or teachers with outstanding
performance.
5. Complicated sampling plans are laborious to prepare.

 Planning a Sample Survey

The steps in planning a sampling survey are as follows:
1. State the objectives of the survey.
2. Define the population.
3. Select the sampling individual.
4. Locate and select the source list of particular individuals to be included in the
sample.
5. Decide the sampling design to be used that suits to the study, either scientific or non-
scientific sampling.
6. Determine the sample size by using the formula,

Ss = NV + [ Se2 (1 – p ) ]
NSe + [V2 p(1 – p) ]

Where Ss stands for sample size; N, the population; V, standard value (2.58) of 1 percent
level of probability with 0.99 reliability level; Se, sampling error (0.01); and p, the largest possible
proportion (0.50).

7. Select the method in estimating the reliability of the sample either test-retest, split-
half, parallel-forms, or internal consistency.
 8. Test the reliability of the sample in a pilot institution.
9. Interpret the reliability of the sample.
10. Choose experts to administer the research instruments.

 Determination of Sample Size

Sampling is advisable if the population is equal to or more than 100. It is not
applicable if population is less than 100. The use of total population is advisable if
population is less than 100 due to categorization. For instance, the study is “Performance
of RNDs in the Government and Private Hospitals in the Province of Catanduanes”. First,
the respondents are categorized as a whole; second, into government and private
hospitals; third, length of experience; and so on. It is necessary to have a larger number
in each categorization of samples to arrive at reliable results.

The following formula is presented to have a scientific determination of sample

size:

Ss = NV + [Se2 (1 – p)]
NSe + [V2 p(1 – p)

Where: Ss = sample size

N = total number of population
V = standard value (2.58) at 1 percent level of probability with 0.99
Reliability
Se = sampling error (0.01)
p = largest possible proportion (0.05)

For an illustration of the formula, the steps are as follows:

Step 1. Determine the total population (N) as assumed respondents of the study.
Step 2. Get the value of V (2.58), Se (0.01) and p (0.50).
Step 3. Compute the sample size using formula.

For instance, the total population (N) is 900, the standard value (V) at 1 percent level of
probability is 2.58 with 99% reliability and has sampling error (Se) of 1% or 0.01 and the
proportion (p) of a target population is 50% or 0.50. Then, the sample size is computed as
follows:
Given: N = 900
V = 2.58
Se = 0.01
p = 0.50

Ss = NV + [(Se)2 X (1 – p)
NSe + [(V)2 X p(1 – p)]

= 900 (2.58) + (0.01)2 X (1 – 0.50)

900 (0.01) + (2.58)2 X 0.50 (1-0.50)

= 2322 + 0.0001 X 0.50

9 + 6.6564 X 0.50 (0.50)

= 2322 + 0.00005
9 + 6.6564 (0.25)

= 2322.00005
9 + 1.6641

= 2322.00005
10.6641

Ss = 218

The sample size for a population of 900 is 218. This sample will represent the
respondents of the study.
 Computed Sample Sizes for Different Population (N) at 0.01 Level of Probability
to a Proportion of 0.50

N Sample Size N Sample Size

100 97 700 208
125 111 725 210
150 122 750 211
175 132 775 212
200 141 825 215
225 148 850 216
250 155 875 217
300 166 900 218
325 171 925 219
350 175 950 220
375 179 1000 221
425 185 1500 224
450 188 1700 232
475 191 2000 235
500 194 2500 238
525 196 3000 244
575 200 3500 246
600 202 4000 248
625 204 4500 249
650 205 5000 250
675 207

It can be gleaned that the foregoing computed sample sizes, appears that the smaller the
population is, the higher the percentage of the sample size will be; and the larger the population is, the
lower the percentage of the sample size will be. For instance, the sample size of 100 population is 97 or
97%; 425, 185 or 43.53%; 600, 202 or 33.67%; and so on. In other words, population is inversely
proportional to the percentage of the sample size.

 Sampling Designs

Sampling is the representativeness of the sample in relation to the population under study. This
is taken care of by sampling designs, particularly those which have known probability for population
units to be included in the sample.
These are actually various sampling designs which are usually grouped into two categories,
namely: a) probability sampling and non-probability sampling.
The difference between these two categories lies in the estimation of the probability that each
unit of the population will be included in the sample. In probability sampling one can specify for each
unit of the population the probability that it will be included in the sample. For instance, one may
specify that each unit of the population has the same probability or chance to be included. This
means that each unit of the population has known probability to be part of the sample. This is not
true in the case of non-probability sampling because there is no way of estimating the probability that
each unit has a chance of being included in the sample. In this type of sampling there is no
assurance that each unit has some possibility or chance of being part of the sample.
The advantage of probability sampling is that it allows for the selection of sample which is
representative of the population from which it was drawn. It thus makes possible the estimation
of the extent to which the findings from the sample vary or disagree from what would have been
found by studying the population. The advantages of non-probability sampling are: convenience
and economy.

o Probability of Sampling Designs

 Five designs of probability sampling are :

1. Simple random sampling. Simple random sampling is the basic and best-known probability
sampling design. It gives each unit of the population an equal probability or chance of being
included in the sample. It is the approach to use for population which is homogeneous in
characteristics important to the study.
In this design, samples are selected by the use of the popular lottery technique or the
table of random numbers. Samples are then drawn one at a time until the desired sample
size is reached. A number is taken just once since each unit of the population is assigned
just one number. This technique is useful in a small population; for a large population, the
table of random numbers is most helpful. This technique uses columns and rows of
numerical digits which were generated mechanically, usually by a computer, to ensure a
random order. In selecting sample units, the number of digits to be used should be equal to
the number of digits in the population. For instance, if the total population is 3,000 then the
number of digits in the column that will be used should be four. Samples are selected by
taking the digits in the column or row which are equal or less than the total number of the
population. A number is taken just once because each unit of the population is assigned a
unique number. Several columns or rows of numbers may be used until the required number
of samples is drawn. This procedure requires a random start, that is, one starts with a digit or
digits chosen by any other random technique like the lottery technique or by a blind pencil
stab at the page of the random numbers.

2. Systematic sampling. Systematic sampling design is a modified version of the simple

random sampling design. It is less time consuming and easier to implement. In using this
design, one has to first establish the sampling interval using this formula:

N
K = ________

Where:
K is the sampling interval
N is the total number of the population and
n is the total number of the sample

The sample is drawn by listing all population units in random order and by
selecting every kth unit, starting with a randomly selected number, until the desired
sample size is reached.
For instance, if the total population is 3,000 and the adequate sample size is
341, then, using the formula given above, the sampling interval should be 8.79 or 9.
Starting from the random start number, every 9 th in the list of numbers will be the number
of the sample. For example, if the random start is five add the sampling interval (9) to five
and thus the fourteenth is the second sample, as is the twenty-third sample were drawn
from the list of the population units.
To ensure objectivity, the listing of population units in the sampling frame should
be in random order. Arranging the population units by some basis like alphabetical order
of names may result to a biased sample.

3. Stratified sampling. This sampling design is appropriate for heterogeneous population as it

ensures adequate representations for each of the population subgroups or strata in the
sample. The procedure starts with the stratification or grouping of the population units into
non-overlapping strata determined by the number of categories of selected characteristics or
variables such as sex, age, residence, education, occupation, religion, etc. Having done this,
required number of samples within each stratum is drawn either by simple random or by
systematic sampling technique. The combination of either of these two sampling techniques
with the stratified sampling design explains the two variations of this design, namely,
stratified simple random sampling and stratified systematic sampling.
 Stratified sampling is also known as the stratified proportional sampling because the size
of the sample for each population strata is proportional to the size of the sample for each
population strata is proportional to the size of the sub-population in each stratum. For instance, if
the population is 1,000, the adequate sample size is 278, and sex is the variable under
consideration and the distribution of the sample is such that there are 400 males and 600
females. What should be the size of the sample for each stratum? This is answered with the use
of the following formula:

Nk\
Nk = ________ X n

Where:
Nk is the size of sub-population in stratum k,
nk is the sample size for sub-population in stratum k, and
N is the total population and
n is the sample size for the population.
k is stratum number

Using this formula, the sample size for each stratum is computed as follows:

Male Stratum:

= 400 x 278
1,000

= 111.2 or 111

Female Stratum

= 600 x 278
1,000

= 166.8 or 167

Total sample size = 278

To check whether or not sample sizes in all strata were arrived at correctly, one measure
is to add up all the sample sizes the summation of which should be equal to the sample size of
the population. In the illustration above, the sample sizes for the two strata, 111 and 167, have a
total of 278 which is equal to the sample size of the population.

4. Cluster sampling. Cluster sampling consists in the random selection of groups, not
individuals, as samples. A cluster refers to any entire group of individuals or objects which
share similar characteristics important in a study. This sampling design is sometimes referred
to as area sampling because it is frequently used on the basis of geographical consideration
(Pagoso and others, 1978). Households in blocks or districts of a city constitute a cluster and
are assumed to be similar in terms of characteristics which are relevant to the study. If a city
has seven districts, these areas serve as cluster from which sample clusters will be randomly
drawn. All units, in this case the households, within the sample clusters are to be covered by
the study. This is not always the case though, because it the total population within the
sample cluster is quite large the researcher has the option to apply random selection of just a
portion of the population. Cluster sampling has the advantage of being economical because
concentrating on few sample clusters the researcher will save time, effort and money than
when he covers the whole area.

5. Multi-stage sampling. Multi-stage sampling involves several stages or phases in drawing the
samples from the population. In this design, population units are grouped and arranged into
hierarchical order or level and sampling is done successively. For instance, in a nationwide
 study, sample regions are randomly selected at the first stage, sample provinces within
sample regions at the second stage, sample municipalities within sample provinces at the
third stage, sample villages within sample municipalities at the fourth stage, and finally,
sample households within sample villages at the last stage.

o NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING DESIGNS

There are four non-probability sampling designs which are often used by
researcher who for some reasons cannot use any of the probability sampling designs.

1. Purposive sampling. In purposive sampling, the researcher uses his good judgment and
an appropriate strategy in selecting the subjects who will comprise the sample and who
will meet best the purposes of his study. A common practice is to pick the subjects that
are judged to be typical of the population under study.
2. Convenience sampling. In convenience sampling, the investigator simply takes the
available persons to constitute his sample and continues doing so until he reached a
predetermined sample size. The major consideration here is the convenience of the
researcher. Thus, the subjects in his study may be people whom he meet anywhere and
are willing to be interviewed; or jeepney drivers who are very eager to share their views
and sentiments with regard to the yearly substantial increase in the price of oil.
Convenience sampling is also known as accidental sampling.
3. Quota sampling. Quota sampling is the equivalent of stratified sampling under the
probability category. In this design, the target population, based on certain characteristics
relevant to the study, is divided into strata. On the basis of the estimation of the size of
the sub-population in each stratum, sample size proportional to the sub-population for
each stratum is determined. The selection of the subjects to constitute the sample in
each stratum is done in a non-random manner. After the quotas are set, quota sampling
is done by merely finding persons with the requisite characteristic.
4. Snowball sampling. Snowball sampling is useful when there is no available list of
population units to work on. This design requires identification of a few persons who
meet the requisite characteristics important to the study. After interviewing them, these
persons act as informants to identify others who qualify for inclusion in the sample who,
in turn, lead to more persons who qualify. This process continues until the desired
number of sample is attained.
The name “snowball” stems from the analogy of a snowball which starts small
but increases in size as it rolls down the hill gathering more snow.

B. Data Collection

There are various methods of collecting data for a research project. They vary in terms of
convenience, complexity, cost and appropriateness to the research problem and objectives
and nature of the subjects under study. These methods include observation, interview, use
of questionnaire, administration of test, focus group discussion and examination of
secondary data.

1. Questionnaire. The use of questionnaire in collecting research data is as popular as

the use of interview schedule. Like the interview schedule, the questionnaire is a set
of carefully prepared and logically ordered questions. But unlike the interview
schedule, the questionnaire is accomplished by the respondent himself. Having
received the questionnaire, the respondent reads the questions and writes down his
answers in the space provided.

Compared with the personal interview using the interview schedule, the use of
the questionnaire in collecting research information is less expensive, requires much
less skill to administer, can be administered to a large number of individuals
simultaneously, can cover a wider area and obtain information from more people and
will save the researcher time. Moreover, the questionnaire places less pressure on
the respondent with whom he may not feel comfortable with. Lastly, because of
greater confidence in their anonymity, the respondents feel free to express views
they fear might be disapproved or might get them into trouble.

On the other hand, the questionnaire cannot be used on a population which is

made up mostly of members who cannot accomplish the questionnaire by
 themselves because they do not know how to read and write. Another problem is
that there are questions and instructions in the questionnaire which the respondents
may mis-understand or may not understand. Since the researcher is not around to
give needed explanation, the respondents may accomplish the questionnaire without
understanding the questions and the instructions may skip many portions of the
questionnaire or it may not be accomplished at all. Thirdly, one cannot be so sure
whether the questionnaire is accomplished by the respondent himself because if he
is busy or is not interested at all, he may ask anyone in his household or office to
accomplish it for him. Finally, the rate of return for mailed questionnaire is so low.
The researcher would be lucky to have a return rate of 25 or 30 per cent but such a
proportion may affect the adequacy and the representativeness of the sample. This
in turn, will have harmful effects on the validity and usefulness of the findings.

To maximize the return rate of the questionnaire, Fox recommends the following
in the construction of the questionnaire:
1) Limit the length of the questionnaire to maximize the likelihood that a
respondent will return it;
2) Structure the response format to the effect that the actual amount of writing
the respondent must do is minimized;
3) Write the introductory material eloquently and frankly so that the
respondents will be convinced that the purpose is worthwhile and
professionally desirable;
4) make some provisions for the respondents to know about the result of the
research, if they wish so.

Guide for Questionnaire Construction. In constructing a questionnaire for a particular

study, the following guide will be helpful (Selltiz and others, 1976):

On Content:

1. Is this question necessary? Just how will it be useful?

2. Are several questions needed on the subject matter of the questions?
3. Do respondents have the information necessary to answer the question?
4. Does the question need to be concrete, specific and closely related to the
respondent’s personal experience?
5. Is the question content sufficiently general and free from spurious concreteness and
specificity?
6. Does the response express general attitudes and only seem to be as specific as they
sound?
7. Is the question content biased or loaded in one direction, without accompanying
questions to balance the emphasis?
8. Will the respondents give the information that is asked for?

On question wording:

1. Can the question be misunderstood? Does it contain difficult or unclear phraseology?

2. Does the question adequately express the alternatives with respect to the points?
3. Is the question misleading because of unstated assumptions or unseen implications?
4. Is the question wording biased? Is it emotionally loaded or slanted toward a
particular kind of answer?
5. Is the question wording likely to be objectionable to the respondent in any way?
6. Would a more personalized or less personalized wording of the question produce
better results?
7. Can the question be better asked in a more direct or in a more indirect form?

On form of response:

1. Can the question be best asked in a form calling for check answer (or short answer
of a word or two, or a number), free answer or check answer with follow-up answer.
2. If a check answer is used, which is the best type for this question
- Dichotomous, multiple choice (“cafeteria” question) or scale?
 3. If a checklist is used, does it cover adequately all the significant alternatives without
overlapping and in defensible order? Is it of reasonable length? Is the wording of
items impartial and balanced?
4. Is the form of response easy, definite, uniform and adequate for the purpose?

On the place of the question in the sentence:

1. Is the answer to the question likely to be influenced by the content of preceding

question?
2. Is the question led up to in a natural way? Is it correct psychological order?
3. Does the question come too early or too late from the point of view of arousing
interest and receiving sufficient attention, avoiding resistance, and so on?

Reliability and Validity. One important consideration in the construction of the research data-
gathering instrument, whether interview schedule or questionnaire, is its reliability and validity.
Reliability and validity are essential to the effectiveness of any research instrument and even of
the research design or procedure.

Reliability refers to the degree of consistency, accuracy, stability, dependability and

predictability of the research instrument or procedure. A research instrument or procedure that
will yield the same results, even if conducted twice, is reliable. It is unreliable when, used the
second time, the results are different from those obtained the first time it was used. To determine

reliability the researcher may ask himself: would the same respondents give the same answers
to the same questions asked in the second round of the study? It should be the goal of the
researcher to come up with survey questions which will produce stable responses.

Validity refers to that quality of research instrument or design that enables it to measure
or produce what it is supposed to measure or produce and to arrive at data that are true and
accurate. To check the validity of the questions in his instrument the researcher should ask
himself: Do the responses to the questions really measure the variables which I think they
measure?

The relationship between reliability and validity was described succinctly by Fox (1969).
He said, “the reliability for a procedure is essential before its validity can be considered, and the
actual reliability sets the ceiling for the maximum validity the instrument can possess.”

The reliability and validity of some instruments and procedures can be determined
quantitatively with the use of certain statistical treatments. This is hardly possible with some
instruments or procedures which produce qualitative data that are not always readily quantifiable
such as observation and interview.

One method of data collection which is popular among researchers in the field of
education is the administration of objective type of tests. In this method, the objectivity of tests is
not concerned with the type of items but with the reliability of scoring.

The various types of objective tests most often used are:

1. Multiple-choice type. The multiple-choice test is often employed when the goal of the study is
to find out individual’s knowledge, understanding and judgment on certain issues. It is also
appropriate to studies which aim is to determine the ability of individuals to solve problems as
well as to make predictions. This type of test is very effective when it comes to measuring the
academic performance of students.

2. Scale type. In this type of test, the individuals rate themselves or their behaviour either
numerically or with the use of symbols to determine their position in a rating scale. A scale is
defined by Kerlinger (1973) as a set of symbol or numerals “so constructed that the symbols
or numerals can be assigned by rule to the individuals (or their behaviours) to whom the
scale is applied, the assignment being indicated by the individual’s possession of whatever
the scale is supposed to measure.”
 Scale points differ in the fineness of the distinctions they permit and in the procedures
involved in assigning persons or objects to positions. Usually, the scale points in the
continuum range from three to five but there were researchers who have used as many as
eleven scale points beyond five.

a. Rating scales. While there are a number of types of rating scales, one feature is
common to all. The rater assigns a person or object to a scale point in a continuum or to
one of an ordered series of categories; each scale point or category in a continuum has
numerical value.

There are two broad types of rating scale:

1. Category rating scale – example is the evaluation form of teacher’s
classroom performance, a portion of which is presented below:

SCALE
ITEMS
Poor Fair Average Good Very Good Excellent
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

2. Numerical rating scale – can be constructed on the basis of the category

rating scale. Using the illustration above, the continuum “poor” to “excellent”
is maintained but the scale points are now in numbers:

SCALE
ITEMS
Poor Fair Average Good Very Good Excellent

1. 1 2 3 4 5 6

2. 1 2 3 4 5 6

3. 1 2 3 4 5 6

4. 1 2 3 4 5 6

5. 1 2 3 4 5 6

b. Rank-order scale. The rank-order scale is useful when the investigator is more
concerned with the order of items rather than with the quality of scale. Here, the subjects
of the study are instructed to rank the items in the order of importance as perceived by
them and on the basis of certain guideline.
c. Q-Sort. It is a technique in which the subjects are presented with a large number of
statements which are believed relevant to the topic being investigated. The subjects are
 instructed to sort them into a specified number of groups or piles on the basis of some
attitude of an individual toward the object under consideration. The basis for placing
statements in the various piles is the extent of the sorter’s agreement with them, while
the pattern into which the person sorts the statements forms the basis for analysing the
person’s position.
d. Semantic-differential scale. The semantic differential scale is used to rate a concept on
bipolar scales, using certain criterion such as the quality of positiveness and
negativeness as basis. This scale is based on the principle that semantic dimensions
vary across individuals and concepts; with its use the meaning of a concept and how it is
understood by an individual is determined.

Example: The study of Sevilla (1973) which used the semantic differential scale.
Using word-association test factorial analysis, she came up with ten bipolar
scales for rating the Philippines.

Philippines

Good Bad
Helpful Unhelpful
Ugly Beautiful
Clean Dirty
Dark Bright
Sad Happy
Delicious Unsavory
Black White
Loving Not loving
Faithful Unfaithful

e. Attitude scale. The attitude scale is to be used when the aim of the study is to find out
the inclinations and feelings, prejudices or biases, preconceived notions, ideas, fears,
threats and convictions of persons about something.
There are three popular attitude scales as follows:
1. Thurstone scale. It is a device designed to appropriate interval scales. The
distinctive feature of an interval scale is that the distances between points on
the measuring instrument are known, and the equal numerical distances
represent equal distances along the continuum being measured.
2. Likert scale. It uses the method of “summated ratings”. Statements of
opinions are presented to persons participating in the study who indicate
their degree of agreement or disagreement with the statements by checking
any of the scales in a continuum of five or seven. For example, in a
continuum of five, the respondent is asked to check which of the following
scales best describes his attitude toward something: strongly agree, agree,
undecided, disagree, strongly disagree. Half of the statements are worded
positively; the other half, negatively. These statements are randomly
distributed or ordered in the instrument in order to avoid the effect of “blind”
responding, that is, the tendency to rate the statements following just one
position or scale in the continuum. The score of the individual respondent is
the sum of all his scores in different statements.
Comparatively, the Likert scale is more popular than the Thurstone scale
particularly among the social scientists and researchers in the field of education.

3. Interviews. This is the most often-used technique for obtaining information from
people. It is a “face-to-face” interpersonal role situation” in which the interviewer
asks a person – an interviewee or respondent – questions which are meant to obtain
information pertinent to the research problem.

There are two broad types of interview:

i. Structured or standardized interview – the questions, their sequence and their
wordings are fixed, that is, they have been carefully thought out and organized
and must be strictly followed. In this type of interview, the interviewer uses an
interview schedule which is a research instrument made up by a set of carefully
prepared and logically-ordered questions which the researcher asks of the
 respondents and with adequate space in which the interviewer writes
down the responses to the questions.
ii. Unstructured or un-standardized interview – is flexible and open. While the
questions asked are determined by the research problem and objectives, their
content, sequence and wordings are up to the interviewer. If needed, he can
modify, repeat and clarify or explain the questions, and he can follow up the
responses with more questions or clarifications without deviating from the
purpose of the interview. Instead of an interview schedule, the unstructured
interview makes use of an interview guide which is a listing of topics to be
covered during the interview process. Here, the interviewer is given the option to
ask questions in the manner and order he chooses; he has less restriction when
it comes to obtaining the data needed in his particular study.

 Advantages of Interview
1. It can be used with almost all segments of the population.
2. It usually yields a much better sample of the general population.
3. It has a greater sensitivity to misunderstanding by respondents.
4. It is the more appropriate technique for revealing about complex, emotionally-laden
subjects or for probing the sentiments that may underlie an expressed opinion.

Added to these is the advantage of the interviewer getting all the data right after the
interview has been completed, thus, getting data from all persons covered by the
interview.

The interview can be done either individually or by group. It is individual interview if it

is one-to-one basis, that is, one person interviewing another person. It is group interview
when it involves an interviewer and a group of respondents of manageable size of five to
ten members. In some cases, two interviewers may work on one respondent. One
interviewer asks questions while the other does the recording of the answers.

Another interview technique is telephone interview. The major advantages of this

technique include:
1. Low cost
2. Rapid collection of data
3. Relative high response rate.
However, in an area or community where not all people have telephone or where
only the upper-middle class to upper-class people have this kind of gadget in their
homes, result of a study using the telephone interview is likely to be biased. This will
be so because the samples will not have representations for families without
telephone, therefore, result of the study cannot be generalized to the whole
population.

 Data Quality Measure

One important concern in collecting data through interview is the quality of data. To
ensure or determine the quality of data gathered through interviews, certain measures may be
used. One measure is asking deliberately two or more questions that give the same information.
Example, the researcher may ask these questions: how many children do you have? How many
boys do you have? How many girls do you have? The first question may be asked at the early
part of the interview, while the latter two questions may be asked at the middle or latter part of the
interview. Comparison of the answers to the first question and to the second and third questions
will reveal the consistency of the information given.
Another measure that can be employed is by asking probe questions. This means asking
the respondent the same question in a different form, or asking some explanations to understand

clearly or get the essence of the response to the question or by repeating the response and
asking the respondent whether it is right or wrong. For instance, in order to prove the validity of
respondent’s age, the researcher will ask the respondent about the exact date he was born.
Another strategy in ensuring data quality is to do a re-interview of certain percentage of
the respondents. The usual practice is to re-interview from five to ten percent of the total sample.
In the re-interview, not all questions need to be asked. Selected questions on non-opinionated
information like demographic data on sex, age, civil status, and the like may be asked the
answers to which are compared with those given in the first interview.
Even after the data have been tabulated, they can still be subjected to statistical checks
for errors or inconsistency of response. For example, if the subjects of the study are women
aged 15 to 45, the entry of ages below 15 or above 45 would be erroneous. The researcher may
go back to the raw data in the interview schedule for a check or he may discard all information
from respondents of questionable reported age.

All the measures discussed are nothing if the interview was started without first getting
the trust and confidence of the respondent. This can be achieved by emphasizing the value of
the study and the participation and contribution of the respondent. The respondent should be
assured that whatever information he shares will be treated with utmost confidence. It is only
after the respondent manifested trust, verbally or non-verbally, should the interviewer begin
asking questions from the interview schedule.

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