English Grammar

Оглавление
What is GRAMMAR? ............................................................................................................................ 3

Parts of speech ........................................................................................................................... 3
Types of words in sentences ..................................................................................................... 4
Word order and Sentence Pattern............................................................................................ 4
Subject-verb agreement. ..................................................................................................................... 7
Nouns 9
The possessive case ........................................................................................................................... 21
Possessive adjectives/pronouns ........................................................................................................ 22
Pronouns 23
Question structure ............................................................................................................................. 24
Question types ......................................................................................................................... 24
Adjectives 26
Adverbs 28
The position of the adverbs ..................................................................................................... 28
Tenses 31
The Present Simple Tense. ...................................................................................................... 31
The Present Continuous (Progressive) Tense. ........................................................................ 33
The Past Simple Tense. ............................................................................................................ 34
Used to 36
Would 36
The Past Continuous (Progressive) Tense............................................................................... 37
The Present Perfect Tense....................................................................................................... 39
The Present Perfect Continuous Tense. ................................................................................. 41
The Past Perfect Tense. ........................................................................................................... 42
The Past Perfect Continuous Tense. ....................................................................................... 43
The Future Simple Tense. ........................................................................................................ 44
The Future Continuous Tense. ................................................................................................ 45
The Future Perfect Tense. ....................................................................................................... 46
The Future Perfect Continuous Tense. ................................................................................... 47
Future forms............................................................................................................................. 48
Other ways of expressing the future ...................................................................................... 51
The future in the past .............................................................................................................. 51
State verbs 52
Passive Voice 54
The Passive Structures ............................................................................................................. 54
Conditionals 55
Type 0 Conditionals.................................................................................................................. 55
Mixed Conditionals .................................................................................................................. 56
Wishes 57
Modals 58
Can 58
Could 59
May 59
Will 60
Would 60
Must 60
Need 61
Might 61
Shell 61
Should 61
Ought (to) ................................................................................................................................. 62
Reported speech ................................................................................................................................ 66
Infinitives and gerund ........................................................................................................................ 69
Tenses of the Infinitive ....................................................................................................................... 70
Participles 73
Too/Enough 74
What is GRAMMAR?
Grammar is a study or science of rules for the combination of words into sentences (syntax) and
the forms of words (morphology).
Grammar may be defined as…
- the study of the way words are put together to make meaningful structures in speech and
writing.
- the system of laws governing the change of grammar forms of words and the building up of
sentences.
- a source and instrument to compare grammar forms and structures in different languages.
- a standard of the appropriate use of the spoken and written language.
Parts of speech
Parts pf the speech (J. Eastwood) Traditional classification

1. nouns 1. nouns
2. pronouns 2. pronouns
3. verbs 3. verbs
4. adverbs 4. adverbs
5. adjectives 5. adjectives
6. prepositions 6. prepositions
7. determiners 7. numerals
a. articles 8. conjunctions
b. possessive 9. interjections
c. demonstratives
d. interrogatives
8. linking words
Nouns – are names of objects.

Pronouns – are words we use in the place of a full noun.
Verbs – are words denoting processes or activities.
Adverbs – are words that describe or give more information about verbs.
Adjectives – are words expressing properties.
Prepositions – are words that are used before a noun or a pronoun, connecting it to another
word.
Numerals – are words that represent a number.
Conjunctions – are words that connect words, phrases and clauses in a sentence.
Interjections – are words that are used to show a short sudden expression of emotion.
Determiners - are words that are used before a noun to show which particular example of the
noun you are referring to.
Determiners are:
a. Articles (a, an, the)
b. Possessive (my, our, their, your)
c. Demonstratives (this, some, that)
d. Interrogatives (what, where, how)
Linking words – are words and phrases which are used to combine two clauses or sentences
presenting contrast, comparison, condition, supposition, purpose, etc.
Grammar categories
Verbs have categories of tens, mood, aspect, voice, person and number.
Nouns have two categories: number and case.
Adjectives have degrees of comparison.
Types of words in sentences

All words may be divided into three main groups: notional, structural and independent elements.
1. Notional words have distinct lexical meanings and perform independent syntactic functions in
the sentence. They are verbs, nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns and adverbs.
2. Structural words: prepositions, conjunctions, articles, some adverbs. Their lexical meaning is of
a more general character (e.g. in, and, even). Sometimes they are altogether devoid of it (e.g. the,
a, conjunction that; of). Structural words do not perform any independent syntactic function but
serve to express various relations between the words in the sentence or to specify (уточнять) the
meaning of a word.
3. Independent elements: interjections, particles, modal words, words of affirmation and negation
(e.g. yes, no, certainly, oh, alas). They have practically no connection with the sentence in which
they occur.
Word order and Sentence Pattern

Sentence – is the smallest unit of speech conveying a thought and built in accordance with the
laws of grammar.
A normal Sentence Pattern:
Subject + Predicate Verb + Object /Complement + Adverbial Modifier
The subject (S) is the agent of the sentence in the active voice; it is the person or thing that does
the action and it normally precedes the verb. Every sentence in English must have a subject (in
the case of commands, the subject is understood).
The subject may be a single noun.
Coffee is delicious. Milk contains calcium.
The subject may be a noun phrase. A noun phrase is a group of words ending with a noun.
That new grammar reference book is yours. (It ends with a noun “book”)
In some sentences there is no true subject. However, “it” and “there” can often act as pseudo-
subjects and should be considered as subjects.
It is a nice day today. There were many students in the room.
The predicate verb (PV) follows the subject: it generally shows the actions of the sentence. Every
sentence must have a verb. The verb may be a single word.
John drives too fast.
The verb may be a "verb phrase". A verb phrase consists of one or more auxiliaries and one main
verb.
She has been learning these sentences for 5 years.
(Auxiliaries: has been + main verb: learning)
An object completes the meaning of a verb. It comes after the verb in the active voice and can
become the subject of a verb in the passive. An object is normally a noun, pronoun or noun phrase.
It answers the question What? or Whom? Objects can be direct or indirect.
A direct object (DO) says who or what something happens to and is closely connected with the
verb. It comes immediately after the verb and doesn’t have any prepositions.
Please, don’t annoy me. (DO is expressed by a pronoun)
I broke a cup. (DO is expressed by noun)
My father drives fast cars. (DO is expressed by a noun phrase)
An indirect object (IO) usually refers to the person who “benefits” from the action expressed in
the verb, it says who something is given to, done for etc. It is often used with prepositions. There
are only three verbs (read, write and sing) which may take an indirect object without any direct
object.
Won’t you sing to me? (IO is expressed by a pronoun)
Other verbs can be followed either by a direct and indirect object together or by a direct object
only. As a rule the indirect object comes before the direct object. In this case it is used without a
preposition.
She sent the manager (IO without a preposition) a dozen roses (DO).
When we put the indirect object after the direct object we use a preposition (usually to or for).
She sent a dozen roses (DO) to the manager (IO with a preposition).
Note that when the direct object is expressed by a pronoun it always comes first.
I sent him (DO, expressed by a pronoun) to his mother (IO).
A complement (C) follows link verbs, such as be, seem, appear, become, get, feel, look, seem, stay,
sound, which cannot be followed by an object. It completes the sense of a sentence by telling us
something about the subject. It is expressed by an adjective, noun, noun phrase or a pronoun. It
generally follows the verb when the sentence is in the active voice. The complement cannot begin
with a preposition. Every sentence does not necessarily require a complement.
She seems nervous. (adjective)
He is a doctor. (noun)
It was a big problem. (noun phrase)
An adverbial modifier (AM) tells the time, place or manner of the action. It is expressed by an
adverb (e.g. outdoors, downtown), adverbial phrase (e.g. last night) or a prepositional phrase. A
prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun. A
modifier answers the question When? Where? How? Every sentence does not necessarily require
a modifier.
According to their meaning, adverbial modifiers are subdivided into modifiers of time (AMT), place
(AMP) and manner (AMM). If there is more than one modifier in a sentence, they are used in the
following order:
(1) MANNER – (2) PLACE – (3) TIME
We bought this book at the bookstore.
(Where did we buy? – AMP)
Jill was swimming (1) in the pool (2) yesterday.
((1) Where was she swimming yesterday? – AMP,
(2) When was she swimming in the pool? – AMT)
The modifier normally follows the object or complement but not always. It may open the
sentence.
Subject-verb agreement.
1) The subject and the predicate must agree in person and number.
2) If the subject is expressed by uncountable noun, the verb is singular.
3) If the subject and verb are separated by prepositional phrase, the prepositional phrase has
no effect on the verb.
4) If two subjects are used with the conjunction “and” the verb is in plural form.
5) Such words as somebody, anything, nowhere, each, every, everybody and either, neither when
used without or, nor are followed by singular predicate.
6) When either, neither are followed by or, nor the form of the verb depends on the noun
following or, nor. In not only but also the verb depends on the noun following but also.
7) If two subjects are connected by together with, including, accompanied by, along with, as
well as, the form of the verb depends on the first noun.
8) The verb after half of, some of, none of, more of, all of is depend on the noun after of.
9) Nouns that are always plural are followed by plural verb.
10) There is / are agrees with the first following noun. With quantifiers (all, any, enough, a lot
of) we use there are.
11) The verb following a pronoun “who” agrees with its antecedent.
12) Use a singular verb with name of quantities: distances, periods, sums of money when
considered as a unit.
13) A lot (of)
a majority of
some (of)
all (of)
a group of are followed by the plural predicate verb.
rest of
one of + plural noun
plenty of
a number of (many)
per cent + of + plural noun
a variety of
14) The number of (=amount)
more than one
plural names of countries
per cent / percent / %
per cent + group noun
any of
none of are followed by
the majority of the singular predicate.
a lot of + an uncountable noun
plenty of
all (of)
some (of)
15) With collective nouns such as group, family, audience, population, majority the verb might
be singular or plural depending on the writer’s intent.
16) If the subject is expressed by a substantivized adjective referring to the group of people, the
verb is plural. (The unemployed are on the dole.)
If the substantivized adjective refers to the abstract notion, the verb is singular.
(The unusual frightens me.)
Nouns
Nouns have the category of number and case.
Noun cases:
a) subjective or nominative
b) possessive
c) objective
Classification of nouns
A proper noun – is a noun which denotes a particular person, place or thing.
A common noun – is a noun denoting a class of objects or a concept as opposed to a particular
individual.
A pair noun is used to denote a thing made of two parts which are the same.
A group (collective) noun – is a noun that denotes a group of individuals.
A possessive noun – is a noun indicating ownership (possession).
A compound noun – is a noun made up of two or more existing words.
Abstract nouns – names something that you can’t see, hear, touch, smell or taste.
Concrete nouns – are things that you can experience from your 5 senses: sight, hear, touch, smell
and taste.
Gender types:
 masculine (men and boys)
 feminine (women and girls) (ships, vehicles (when regarded with affection or respect)
and countries)
 neuter (inanimate things, animals and babies whose sex we do not know).
Gender forms:
actor – actress [ˈæktə] – [ˈæktrɪs] актер – актриса

bachelor – spinster [ˈbæʧələ] – [ˈspɪnstə] холостяк – старая дева
barman – barmaid [ˈbɑːmən] – [ˈbɑːmeɪd] бармен – бармен
boy – girl [bɔɪ] – [gɜːl]
bridegroom – bride [ˈbraɪdgrʊm] – [braɪd] жених – невеста
bull – cow [bʊl] – [kaʊ]
cock – hen [kɒk] – [hen]
conductor – conductress [kənˈdʌktə] – [kənˈdʌktrɪs] кондуктор – кондукторша
count – countess [kaʊnt] – [ˈkaʊntɪs] графиня – графиня
dog – bitch [dɒg] – [bɪʧ]
drake – duck [dreɪk] – [dʌk] селезень – утка
duke – duchess [djuːk] – [ˈdʌʧɪs] герцог – герцогиня
emperor – empress [ˈempərə] – [ˈemprɪs] император – императрица
father – mother [ˈfɑːðə] – [ˈmʌðə]
gander – goose [ˈgændə] – [guːs] гусак – гусыня
gentleman – lady [ˈʤentlmən] – [ˈleɪdi]
heir – heiress [eə] – [ˈeərɪs] наследник – наследница
hero – heroine [ˈhɪərəʊ] – [ˈherəʊɪn]
host – hostess [həʊst] – [ˈhəʊstɪs] хозяин – хозяйка
king – queen [kɪŋ] – [kwiːn]
landlord – landlady [ˈlænlɔːd] – [ˈlændˌleɪdi] хозяин – хозяйка
lion – lioness [ˈlaɪən] – [ˈlaɪənɪs]
man – woman [mæn] – [ˈwʊmən]
manager – manageress [ˈmænɪʤə] – [ˈmænɪʤəˈrɛs]
monk – nun [mʌŋk] – [nʌn] монах – монахиня
nephew – niece [ˈnevju(ː)] – [niːs] племянник – племянница
policeman – policewoman [pəˈliːsmən] – [pəˈliːsˌwʊmən]
prince – princess [prɪns] – [prɪnˈses]
ram – ewe [ræm] – [juː] баран – овца
salesman – saleswoman [ˈseɪlzmən] – [ˈseɪlzˌwʊmən] продавец – продавщица
son – daughter [sʌn] – [ˈdɔːtə]
stag – doe [stæg] – [dəʊ] олень – самец – лань
stallion – mare [ˈstæljən] – [meə] жеребец – кобыла
steward – stewardess [stjʊəd] – [ˈstjʊədɪs] стюард – стюардесса
tiger – tigress [ˈtaɪgə] – [ˈtaɪgrɪs]
uncle – aunt [ˈʌŋkl] – [ɑːnt]
waiter – waitress [ˈweɪtə] – [ˈweɪtrɪs] официант – официантка
widower – widow [ˈwɪdəʊə] – [ˈwɪdəʊ] вдовец – вдова
Noun Formation
To describe people: -ar, -er, -ее, -or (to the end of verbs),
-ian, -ist (to the end of nouns or verbs)
beg - beggar, train – trainer/trainee, invent - inventor, magic - magician, type - typist
Suffixes used to form nouns from verbs: Suffixes used to form nouns from adjectives:
-age break - breakage -ance tolerant - tolerance
-ence neglect - negligence -ion desperate - desperation
-sis hypnotise - hypnosis -cy pregnant - pregnancy
-al remove - removal -iness happy - happiness
-ion inspect - rnspecffon -ence independent - independence
-tion abolish - abolition -ity pure - purity
-ance attend - attendance -ment content - contentment
-ation deprive - deprivation -ty anxious - anxiety
-ment commit - commitment -y honest - honesty
-sion revise - revision
-y injure - injury
Plural forms
Nouns are made plural by adding:
 -s
a) to the noun, (cat-cats etc)
b) to nouns ending in vowel + y
c) to nouns ending in: vowel + о (video - videos)
d) double o (zoo - zoos)
e) abbreviations (photograph/photo - photos)
f) musical instruments (piano - pianos)
g) proper nouns (Navajo - Navajos)
h) international words (piano-pianos, video-videos, photo-photos, audio-audios)
 -es
a) to nouns ending in -ch, -s -sh, -ss, x
b) to nouns ending in -o. ('tomato - tomatoes)
 -ies
to nouns ending in consonant + y
 -ves
to some nouns ending in -f/-fe. (self - selves but: chiefs, handkerchiefs, roofs, safes, cliffs, giraffes)
 Note that some nouns ending in -o take either -es or –s
(buffaloes buffalos, mosquitoes/mosquitos, volcanoes/volcanos, zeroes/zeros,
tornadoes/tornados etc.)
 Some nouns of Greek or Latin origin form their plural by adding Greek or Latin suffixes.
Compound nouns form their plural by adding -s,'-es:
• to the second noun if the compound consists of two nouns, (schoolboy -
schoolboys)
• to the noun if the compound consists of an adjective and a noun, (frying pan -
frying pans)
• to the first noun if the compound consists of two nouns connected with a
preposition or to the noun if the compound has only one noun, (looker on - lookers on)
• at the end of the compound if this is not made up of any nouns, (runaway -
runaways)
Irregular Plurals:
NOUN TRANSCRIPTION PLURAL TRANSCRIPTION TRANSLATION

alumna (f) [əˈlʌmnə] alumnae [əˈlʌmniː] выпускница
alumnus (m) [əˈlʌmnəs] alumni [əˈlʌmnaɪ] выпускник
apexes, [ˈeɪpeksɪz]
apex [ˈeɪpeks] вершина
apices [ˈeɪpɪsiːz]
appendixes [əˈpen·dɪk·səz]
appendix [əˈpendɪks] приложение
appendices [əˈpen·dəˌsiz]
applause [əˈplɔːz] (uncountable) аплодисменты
basis [ˈbeɪsɪs] bases [ˈbeɪsiːz] основание
buffaloes, [ˈbʌfələʊz]
buffalo [ˈbʌfələʊ] буйвол
buffalo [ˈbʌfələʊ]
chaos [ˈkeɪɔs] (uncountable) хаос
crisis [ˈkraɪsɪs] crises [ˈkraɪsiːz] кризис
criterion [kraɪˈtɪəriən] criteria [kraɪˈtɪərɪə] критерий
datum [ˈdeɪtəm] data [ˈdeɪtə] информация, данные
diabetes [daɪəˈbiːtiːz] (uncountable) диабет
dungarees [ˌdʌŋɡəˈriːz] (only plural) комбинезон
formulas [ˈfɔːmjʊləz]
formula [ˈfɔːmjələ] способ, формула
formulae [ˈfɔːmjʊliː]
indices, [ˈɪndɪsiːz]
index [ˈɪndeks] индекс
indexes [ˈɪndeksɪz]
jodhpurs [ˈdʒɒdpəz] (only plural) галифе
laryngitis [ˌlærɪnˈdʒaɪtɪs] (uncountable) ларингит
measles [ ˈmiːzlz] (uncountable) корь
media, [ˈmiːdiə],
medium [ˈmiːdjəm] средство, середина
mediums [ˈmiːdiəmz]
pajamas [pəˈʤɑːməz] (only plural) пижама
phenomenon [ fɪˈnɒmɪnən] phenomena [fɪˈnɒmɪnə] феномен, явление
pneumonia [njuːˈməʊnjə] (uncountable) пневмония
rabies [ˈreɪbiːz] (uncountable) бешенство
salmon [ ˈsæmən] salmon [ ˈsæmən] лосось, семга
scissors [ ˈsɪzəz] (only plural) ножницы
stimulus [ˈstɪmjələs] stimuli [ˈstɪmjəlaɪ] стимул
stratum [ˈstrɑːtəm] strata [ˈstrɑːtə] слой
terminuses [ˈtɜːmɪnəsɪz] вокзал, конечная
terminus [ˈtɜːmɪnəs]
termini [ˈtɜːmɪnaɪ] остановка
thesis [ˈθiːsɪs] theses [ˈθiːsiːz] диссертация
tuberculosis [tjuːˌbɜːkjəˈləʊsɪs] (uncountable) туберкулез
Irregular plurals
actor – actress актер – актриса
aircraft – aircraft самолет – самолеты
break – in – break – ins взлом – взломы
child – children ребенок – дети
deer – deer олень – олени
fish – fish (also: fishes) рыба – рыбы
foot – feet стопа – ступни
goose – geese гусь – гуси
hovercraft – hovercraft судно на воздушной подушке – судна
louse – lice вошь – вши
mackerel – mackerel скумбрия – скумбрии
man – men мужчина – мужчины
means – means средство – средства
mouse – mice мышь – мыши
ox – oxen бык – быки
person – people (peoples) человек – люди (народы)
runner – up – участник состязания, занявший второе место – участники
runners – up состязания, занявшие второе место
salmon – salmon лосось – лососи
series – series сериал – сериалы
sheep – sheep овца – овцы
spacecraft – spacecraft космический корабль – корабли
species – species специя – специи
tooth – teeth зуб – зубы
trout – trout форель
woman – women женщина – женщины
Plural Nouns
1. objects consisting of two parts:
a) garments (clothes, braces (подтяжки), pajamas, trousers, trunks (плавки), dungarees,
jodhpurs, knickers, leggings, suspenders, underpants, tights etc),
b) instruments (binoculars, compasses, handcuffs, spectacles, scales etc),
c) tools (pliers (плоскогубцы), scissors, , tongs (щипцы), tweezers (пинцет), etc)
2. Others:
Authorities (власти), belongings, contents (содержание), foundations (фундамент),
headquarters (главное управление), lodgings (жилье), particulars (детали), proceeds
(выручка), remains (останки), thanks (благодарность), troops (войска), arms (оружие),
ashes (пепел, останки), barracks (казарма), congratulations, earnings, goods, (good) looks,
outskirts (окраина), people, police, premises (помещение), riches (богатство), stairs,
surroundings, wages (заработок), traffic lights (светофор), cattle (крупный рогатый
скот) etc.
Where are my clothes?
Countable - Uncountable Nouns
Nouns can be countable (those that can be counted) or uncountable (those that can't be counted).
Uncountable nouns take a singular verb and are not used with а/an. Some, any, much, no etc. can
be used with them.
BUT: a help, a knowledge (of sth), a pity, a relief, a shame, a wonder.
Uncountable nouns are:
a) Mass nouns (fluids, solids, gases, particles, food):
beer, blood, bread, butter, air, oxygen, flour, rice, vinegar, petrol, concrete (бетон), sellotape
(скотч),
b) Subjects of study:
accountancy (бухгалтерия), chemistry, economics, history, literature, maths, physics etc
c) Languages:
Chinese, French, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Spanish etc
d) Sports and activities:
baseball, billiards, cricket, cycling, darts, football, golf, rugby, shopping, training, travel, cycling,
etc
e) Diseases:
Chickenpox (ветрянка), flu, measles (корь), mumps (свинка), pneumonia, tuberculosis, rabies
(бешенство) etc
f) Natural phenomena:
darkness, fog, gravity, hail (град), snow, sunlight, sunshine, shade (тень), scenery (пейзаж),
seaside etc
g) Some nouns:
accommodation, advice, applause, assistance, behaviour, business, chaos, countryside, dirt,
education, evidence (признак), homework, housework, housing, information, intelligence,
knowledge, luck, music, mud, news, leisure (досуг), pay, poetry, produce (продукция), peace,
progress, shopping, traffic, trouble, truth, wealth, work, conduct, determination, research,
sellotape (скотч), sightseeing, underwear, property (имущество) etc
h) Collective nouns:
baggage, cash, crockery (посуда), cutlery (столовые приборы), furniture, jewellery, luggage,
machinery (оборудование), money, rubbish, stationery (канцелярские товары), publicity etc
i) Features:
anger, goodwill, intelligence, creativity, harm, violence, safety, stamina (стойкость), patience,
reliability (надежность), courage (мужество),
Some nouns can be used in the singular and plural with a different meaning.
(гласность, огласка, an
advertisement (объявление)
publicity) advertisement
beer (жидкость) a beer (стакан пива)
chicken (мясо) a chicken (птица)
chocolate (шоколад) chocolates (конфеты)
cloth (ткань) a cloth (тряпка)
coffee (кофе) a coffee (чашка кофе)
(деньги за возмещение
damage (ущерб) damages
ущерба)
drink (спиртное) a drink (напиток)
experience (опыт) an experience (впечатление)
fish (блюдо) a fish (рыба)
glass (стекло) a glass (стакан)
hair (волосы) a hair (один конкретный волосок)
ice (лёд) an ice (мороженое)
iron (железо) an iron (утюг)
land (земля) a land (участок, страна)
light (огонь) a light (осветительный прибор)
onion (лук) an onion (луковица)
a paper (газета)
paper (бумага)
papers (документы)
pepper (молотый перец) a pepper (сладкий перец)
pity (жалость, сочувствие) It’s a pity (Как жаль, что…)
policy (политика) a policy (полис)
potato (картофельное пюре) a potato (картофелина)
(облегчение) physical
relief a relief (облегчение) emotion
feeling
rubber (резина) a rubber (ластик)
shame (стыд) a shame (жалость, досада)
tape (лента) a tape (запись, кассета)
tea (чай) a tea (чашка чая)
trade (торговля) a trade (профессия, сделка)
traffic (дорожное движение) a traffic (пробка) informal
wonder (изумление, восхищение) a wonder (чудо)
wood (дерево) a wood (лес, брусок, бочка)
(научная работа, труды,
work (работа как профессия) work
заводы)
Countable/uncountable equivalents
Uncountable Countable
accommodation (жилье) a flat (квартира)
a case, a bag, a
baggage, luggage (багаж) (чемодан, сумка)
suitcase
bread (хлеб) a loaf (буханка)
clothing (одежда) a garment (предмет одежды)
a table, a chair, a (стол, стул,
furniture (мебель)
wardrobe шифанер)
information (информация) a fact (факт)
travel (путешествие) a journey (путешествие)
laughter (смех, хохот) a laugh (смех)
a coin, a note, a
money, cash (деньги) (монета, купюра)
banknote
poetry (поэзия) a poem (стихотворение)
publicity (гласность) an advertisement (гласность)
(машины,
(дорожное
traffic cars, vehicles транспортные
движение)
средства)
work (работа) a job (работа)
Group (collective) nouns
Group nouns can take either a singular or a plural verb depending on whether we see the group
as a whole or as individuals.
The team was chosen as the most promising, (the team as a group)
The team were given bonuses for their performance, (each member of the team separately)
When a group is considered as a single unit, the collective noun is used with a singular verb and
singular pronoun.
For example - The committee has reached its decision.
When the focus is on the individual parts of the group, British English sometimes uses a plural verb
and plural pronouns.
For example - "The committee have been arguing all morning." This is the same as saying "The
people in the committe have been ...."
However, if you are talking about more than one committee, then you use the plural form.
For example - "Many committees have been formed over the years."
army; fall (падение); press;

association (объединение); family; public;
audience (аудитория); firm; school;
board (комитет); flock; series (серия, курс, ряд);
bunch (пучок); gang; seе (набор);
cast (актерский состав); generation; shoal (косяк, стая);
choir (хор); government; shower (ливень, дождь);
class; group; sony;
club; headquarters (штаб); stack (стопка);
college (колледж); heap; staff;
committee (комитет); herd; swarm (стая);
community; IBM; team;
company; jury (суд присяжных); the BBC;
council (Совет); mob (толпа); troupe (труппа);
crew; orchestra; university;
crowd; pack;
department (отдел); panel (группа);
electorate (избирательный pile (куча);
корпус);
population;
enemy;
People
a group of people (small group);
a crowd of people (large number);
a gang of football fans (rather negative);
a mob (angry group of people) (a group of kangaroos);
Animals
A flock of sheep/ birds/geese/pigeons (стадо);
a herd of cows/deer/goats (стадо);
a pack of/dogs/hyenas/wolves (стая);
a shoal of fish/herring/mackerel (note the use of singular here) (косяк);
a swarm of insects/bees/gnats (рой);
Job/activity
a board [group of professionals, who take on an advisory role]
a cast [actors in a particular production]
a company [group of actors]
a crew [workers on a ship];
a panel [a group of experts];
a staff [general word for groups who share a place of work, e.g. teachers in a school, people in an
office]
a team of surgeons/ doctors/ experts/ reporters/ scientists/ rescue-workers/ detectives arrived at
the scene of the disaster;
a troupe [group of actors or acrobats; also used to describe a group of monkeys]
Physical features
a clump of trees (скопления деревьев);
a group of islands;
a range of hills;
a row of cottages (ряд коттеджей);
Other
a bunch of flowers/grapes/ bananas/ berries/keys (букет, связка, гроздь);
a pack of (playing) cards (колода карт);
a pile/heap of papers/clothes/dishes/toys (куча);
a set of tools/pots/pans;
a stack of chairs/tables/boxes/logs (стопка);
Counters
a piece of advice/cake/furniture/information/paper;
a bit of furniture/information/advice/computer equipment (Bit is less formal than piece.);
a(n) item/piece of news;
Groceries: Weather:
a bag of flour (мешок муки); a clap/peat/rumble of thunder (удар
a bar of chocolate/soap; грома/раскат грома) ;
a box/sheet of paper; a flash/bolt of lightning (вспышка молнии);
a can of Coke (банка Колы); a gust of wind (порыв ветра);
a carton of milk (коробка молока); a shower of rain (ливень);
a drop/can of oil (капля/банка масла); a spot of rain (капля дождя);
a glass/bottle of beer/water/wine; a spell of fine weather (период хорошей
a jar of jam; погоды);
a kilo/pound of meat;
a lump of sugar (кусок сахара);
a packet of tea; Nature
a pint of beer (пинта пива); a bit/piece of chalk;
a pocket of yoghurt; a blade of grass (стебелёк травы, травинка);
a pot/cup of tea; a block of wood (брус);
a rasher of bacon; a breath of fresh air;
a slice of cake; a cloud of smoke;
a slice of toast/meat/cheese. a puff of smoke;
a slice/loaf of bread; lump of coal/wood;
a tube of toothpaste;
an ice cube;
Other
a fit of temper (вспышка гнева);
a game of soccer (игра в футбол);
a pair of trousers;
a state of chaos/emergency/ tension/confusion/ health, disorder/
uncertainty/poverty/agitation/ disrepair/flux (for abstract nouns);
a stroke of luck;
a stroke of work [only in negative sentences];
article/item of clothing (предмет одежды);
means of transport (транспортные средства);
a barrage/stream of complaints (поток жалоб);
a vial/bottle of ink (бутылочка чернил);
The possessive case
1) With ’s for people or animals
 Singular nouns + ’s (Jim’s pen)
 Plural nouns ending in -s +’ (the boys’ hats)
 Plural nouns not ending in -s + ’s (the children’s toys)
 Compound nouns + ’s (my father-in-law’s house; John and Helen’s house. The house
belongs to both of them)
 Individual possession + ’s (Mary’s and Diana’s bags)
2) With of for inanimate things
 of + inanimate thing or abstract nouns (the windows of the house)
 a/the/this/that + noun + of + possessive (He’s a friend of Jack’s)
 phrase or place (shop, home,…) + ’s (At the baker’s. We mean the shop)
 phrase showing lends do time (specific moment or event) + ’s (an hour’s delay; two
days’ work)
 either ’s or of when we talk about places or organizations (NASA’s headquarters /
headquarters of NASA)
Possessive adjectives/pronouns
• Possessive adjectives/pronouns can be used to talk about ownership or the relationship between
people. Possessive adjectives are followed by nouns, whereas possessive pronouns are not.
This is my diary. It's mine.
Sometimes possessive pronouns go at the beginning of a sentence.
Theirs is the blue car.
• We use the and not the possessive adjective with preposition phrases, mostly when we are
talking about things that happen to parts of people's bodies, for example blows, pains, etc. Verbs
used in this pattern are: hit, punch, slap, bite, touch, pat, sting, bang, etc. He punched me on the
nose. (NOT: on my nose)
• Own is used with possessive adjectives to emphasize the fact that something belongs to one
person and no one else.
noun + of + my/your, etc. + own She's got a chauffeur of her own.
my/your, etc. + own + noun She's got her own chauffeur.
Pronouns
Pronouns – are words we use in the place of a full noun.
Types of pronouns:
 Personal pronouns (e.g., he, they).
Personal pronouns represent specific people or things.
 Demonstrative pronouns (e.g., this, these)
Demonstrative pronouns indicate items in space or time.
 Interrogative pronouns (e.g., which, who)
Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions.
 Indefinite pronouns (e.g., none, several)
Indefinite pronouns don’t refer to any specific person, thing or amount.
 Possessive pronouns (e.g., his, your)
Possessive pronouns are used to refer to possession and ‘belonging’.
 Reflexive pronouns (e.g., itself, himself)
Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject forms of personal pronouns.
 Intensive (emphatic) pronouns (e.g., itself, himself)
When reflexive pronouns are used to put emphasis on a particular noun they are called
intensive emphatic pronouns.
Question structure
A question An auxiliary All other parts of

The subject The predict verb the sentence
word verb
What do you like to eat?
Why are his parents watching this film?
When did Jack buy his car?

General (yes/no) question
Special (wh-) question
Question types
1) Yes / No questions
A Yes / No question is a question which can be answered with Yes or No.
2) Wh- questions
A Wh- question begins with a question word: what, where, who, whose, when, why, which,
how.
3) Alternative questions
4) Negative questions
We normally form negative questions with the contraction n’t. We put it after an auxiliary
verb.
5) Tag questions
It’s cold today, isn’t it?
A question tag is a short question added on to a statement.
We form question tags with an auxiliary verb + personal pronoun.
A question tag has the same auxiliary verb that is in the main clause.
If the main clause has the full verb be, we use be in the question tag.
If the main clause has have got, we use have in the question tag.
If there are two or more auxiliary verbs, we use the first auxiliary in the question tag.
We normally put a negative question tag with a positive statement, and a positive question
tag with a negative statement.
But we use non-negative tags after never, no, nobody, hardly, scarcely, little.
She never smiles, does she?
The question tag for I am is aren’t I? (I’m right, aren’t I? )
After imperatives, we can use question tags will / would you? and can / can’t / could you?
when we want people to do things.
Switch off the light, will you?
After a negative imperative, we use will you?
Don’t forget to post my letter, will you?
After let’s we use shall we? to make suggestions.
Let’s listen to some music, shall we?
We use they in question tags after somebody / someone, everybody / everyone and nobody
/ no one.
Somebody told you, didn’t they?
We use it in question tags after nothing.
Nothing is wrong, is it?
We can use there as a subject in question tags.
There won’t be any problems, will there?
6) Indirect questions
When we ask people for information, we sometimes use “indirect” questions beginning with
a phrase like Could you tell me…? Do you know…? or Can you remember…?
In indirect questions the word order is the same as in statements.
In present simple and past simple indirect questions we do not use auxiliary verbs.
7) Subject questions
When who asks about the subject, the verb has the same form as a statement, and we do
not use do / does in the present simple and did in the past simple.
We can also use what, which and how many to ask about the subject.
8) Object questions
Adjectives
Adjectives – are words expressing properties.
The adjectives which can go only before a noun: main, only, indoor, former, chief
(=main), alder (=older), eldest (=oldest), inner, outdoor, outer, principal (=main), upper.
The adjectives which can go only after linking verbs: pleased, alike, ill, afraid, alone,
ashamed, awake, alive, content (=happy), fine (=in good health), glad, unwell, well.
Look, taste and appear can be either linking verbs or action verbs.
The normal adjective order:

1) opinion (unusual, lovely, beautiful)
2) size (big, small, tall)
3) physical quality (thin, rough, untidy)
4) shape (round, square, rectangular)
5) age (young, old, youthful)
6) colour (blue, red, pink)
7) origin (Dutch, Japanese, Turkish)
8) material (metal, wood, plastic)
9) type (general-purpose, four-sided, U-shaped)
10) purpose (cleaning, hammering, cooking)
The adjectives we can use when we talk about group of people: rich, disadvantages,
homeless, hungry, poor, privileged, starving, strong, underprivileged, unemployed, weak,
blind, deaf, dead, disabled, handicapped, living, elderly, middle-aged, old, over-sixties,
under-fives, young.
Degrees of comparison
Positive degree Comparative degree Superlative degree
1-syllable adjective; (the) -est
-er
2-syllable adjective ending -y
2 syllables and more more (the) most
The Positive Degree of an adjective in comparison is the adjective in its simple form. It is used to
denote the mere existence of some quality of what we speak about. It is used when no comparison
is made.
The Comparative Degree denotes the existence of a higher degree of the quality than the positive.
The Superlative Degree denotes the existence of the highest degree of the quality.
Some adjectives have -er, -est or more, most:
Clever, common, cruel, gentle, narrow, pleasant, polite, quiet, simple, stupid, tired.
Exceptions:
 little - less - least (мало)
 much - more - most (много)
 good/well - better - best (хорошо)
 badly - worse - worst (плохо)
 far - farther; further - farthest; furthest (далеко)
Both an adjectives and adverbs: cheap, deep, early, fast, high, late, long, low, hear, right, straight,
wrong, loud, quick, slow.
Adverbs
Adverbs – are words that describe or give more information about verbs.
Degrees of comparison
Positive degree. Comparative degree Superlative degree
1-syllable adverb (early, fast, hard, high, (the) -est

-er
late, long, near)
2 syllables and more more (the) most
Free (бесплатно)-freely (свободно); hard (тяжело)-hardly (вряд ли); high (высоко)-highly

(очень, весьма); late (поздно)-lately (за последнее время); near (близко)-nearly (почти).
The position of the adverbs
 Adverbs usually goes in the end position but an adverb which ands in -ly can sometimes go in
the mid position (before a verb)
(We asked permission politely. / We politely asked permission.)
 Adverbs of probability
Adverbs of probability (certainly, probably, definitely) can go between the subject and the verb
after a positive auxiliary and before a negative auxiliary
You certainly made your position very clear.
They'll probably change their minds.
They definitely won't arrive on time.
However, maybe and perhaps usually go at the beginning of the sentence
Perhaps / Maybe they'll like each other.
 Adverbs of degree
We can use adverbs of degree to change the strength of other adverbs and adjectives. They
go before the adjective. Here are some adverbs of degree which make adverbs and adjectives
stronger:
very - really - extremely - incredibly - absolutely
I'm really excited about the new James Bond film. (stronger than I'm excited about...)
Here are some adverbs of degree which make adverbs and adjectives weaker:
slightly – a bit – quite – fairly – rather
He was a bit upset that he wasn't invited to the party. (not as strong as He was upset...)
 Adverbs of completeness
We can use some adverbs to describe how complete an action is. These include absolutely,
completely, totally, perfectly, virtually, practically, almost, hardly, scarcely. They go between the
subject and the verb, or after an auxiliary:
I completely forgot her birthday (= I didn't think of it at all.)
We have virtually finished the project. (= We have finished most of it.)
You'll hardly have time for any lunch. (= You'll have almost no time.)
 Adverbs of manner, place and time
Adverbs of manner, place and time usually go after an intransitive verb or after a transitive
verb + object (in the and).
Adverbs of manner: The children quietly.
Adverbs of place: They stayed in a hotel.
Adverbs of lime: They arrived this morning.
Short adverbs of manner, place and time can sometimes be placed at the beginning of a
sentence for emphasis:
Slowly, the door started to open.
In Crete, we stayed in a beautiful beach villa.
Last weekend, I stayed in and did lots of work.
Short adverbs of manner and adverbs of indefinite time go between the subject and the verb
(mid position):
Ben stupidly went out without locking the door.
I recently changed my job.
If there is more than one kind of adverb in a sentence, the order is usually: manner, place,
time:
She waited anxiously at the airport for five hours.
 Adverbs of definite frequency
Adverbs of definite frequency (once, twice, three times a week, daily, every afternoon, on
Saturdays, again) go in front or at the end of a sentence:
I go swimming twice a week.
I get up at seven o’clock every morning.
But they can also go at the beginning of a sentence:
On Saturdays, I do my shopping.
 Adverbs of indefinite frequency
Adverbs of indefinite frequency (always, usually, sometimes, often, never) usually go after an
auxiliary or the verb to be and before a full verb:
I am usually in bed before midnight.
I have always wanted to go there.
We sometimes meet for lunch.
 Normally, usually, often, sometimes, occasionally go in front or end position.
 The adverbs frequently, generally, normally, occasionally, ordinarily, sometimes, usually,
quite/very often, always/never (in the imperative), can also go at the beginning of a sentence
for special emphasis:
Sometimes he agrees to help me with my homework.
Never do that again!
 Sentence adverbs
Sentence adverbs (clearly, generally, evidently, honestly) can go in front, mid or end position:
Clearly, the situation is very serious.
I honestly believe that this is the best thing we can do.
Mr Jameson is evidently very happy with the results.
 Also usually goes in the mid position
 Too, as well go in the end position.
 Yet goes at the end.
 Usually a single-word adverb comes before a phrase
They landed safely on a small airfield.
 In a positive statement still and already usually go in the mid position.
Sarah isn’t home yet. She’s still at work.
 In a negative statement still, probably, certainly go before an auxiliary verb.
 No longer goes in mid position.
 Any longer/any more comes at the end.
 A bit, a little, a lot, awfully, much, terribly go at the end of the sentence when describe a verb.
Tenses
The Present Simple Tense.
We use the present simple:
a) for permanent states, repeated actions and daily routines.
He works in a bank. (permanent state)
He takes the train to work every morning. (daily routine/repeated actions)
b) for general truths and laws of nature.
The sun sets in the west.
c) for timetables (planes, trains, etc.) and programs.
The plane from Brussels arrives at 8:30.
d) for sports commentaries, reviews and narration.
a. Peterson overtakes Williams and wins the race. (sports commentary)
b. Mike Dalton plays the part of Macbeth. (review)
c. Then the prince gets on his horse and quickly rides away. (narration)
e) to give instructions or directions (instead of the imperative).
You sprinkle some cheese on the pizza and then you bake it. (Instead of: Sprinkle some cheese on
the pizza ...)
f) We often use the present simple with verbs that perform the action they describe. Performative
verbs: accept, acknowledge, advise, apologise, assume, deny, guarantee, hope, inform, predict,
promise, recommend, suggest, suppose, warn.
I admit I can't see as well as I used to. (= an admission)
I refuse to believe that he didn't know the car was stolen. (= a refusal)
We can use modals with performative verbs to make sentence more tentative or polite.
I would advise you to arrive two hours before the flight leaves.
I'm afraid I have to inform you that your application for funding has been turned down.
The present simple is used with the following time expressions:
usually, often, always, seldom, sometimes, never, etc. (the adverbs of frequency);
every day/ week/month/year, etc.;
in the morning/afternoon/ evening, at night, etc.;
at the weekend, on Mondays, on Wednesdays, etc.
The rules of adding -s, -es:
in most cases → +s;
the verb ends in -z, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -o → +es
the verb ends in a consonant +y → we change y→i +es
the verb ends in a vowel +y → -y+es
The pronunciation of endings -s, -es:
[s]: if a word ends with a voiceless consonant sound ([p], [t], [k], [f], or [θ])
[z]: If a word ends with a voiced consonant sound ([b], [d], [g], [v], [d], [l], [r], [m], [n], [ŋ]), or a
vowel sound
[iz]: If a word ends with the sibilant sounds (a hissing or buzzing sound) ([s], [z], [ʒ], [ʃ], [tʃ], [dʒ])
Structure:
+ Subject + V / V-s, -es (for he, she, it)
- Subject + don’t / doesn’t(for he, she, it) + V
? Do / Does(for he, she, it) + Subject + V
The Present Continuous (Progressive) Tense.
We use the present continuous:
a) for actions taking place now, at the moment of speaking.
He is giving the baby a bath at the moment.
b) for temporary actions; that is actions that are going on around now, but not at the actual
moment of speaking.
I'm looking for a new job these days. (He is not looking for a job at the moment of speaking.)
c) for changing or developing situations.
More and more species are becoming extinct.
d) with adverbs such as: always, constantly, continually, etc. for actions which happen very often,
usually to express annoyance, irritation or anger.
a) I'm always meeting Sara when I go shopping. (action which happens very often)
b) You're constantly interrupting me when I'm talking. (expressing annoyance/irritation)
e) for actions that we have already arranged to do in the near future, especially when the time and
place have been decided.
They're moving into their new house next week. (The time has been decided.)
The present continuous is used with the following time expressions:
now, at the moment, at present, these days, still, nowadays, today, tonight, etc.
The rules of adding -ing:
in most cases → +ing;
the verb ends in -e → -e+ing (dance → dancing);
the verb ends in -ie → we change -ie→y +ing (die → dying);
the one-syllable verb ends in a consonant + vowel + consonant (count from the end of the
word), we double the final consonant and +ing (swim → swimming);
But, we do not double the final consonant when the verb ends in w, x or y or when the final
syllable is not emphasized (fix → fixing).
Structure:
𝐚𝐦
+ Subject + 𝐢𝐬 + Ving
𝐚𝐫𝐞
am
- Subject + is not + Ving
are
Am
? Is + Subject + Ving
Are
The Past Simple Tense.
We use The Past Simple:
a) for actions which happened at a definite time in the past; the time is stated, already known
or implied (past fact)
They went to the theatre last week.
b) for actions which happened immediately one after the other in the past (the succession of
actions)
First she paid the driver, then she got out of the taxi.
c) for past habits or states which are now finished. In this case we can use adverbs of
frequency (always, often, usually, etc.). In this case we can also use the expression used to.
Schools were/used to be very different a hundred years ago.
d) We use the past simple to talk about actions which were performed by people who are no
longer alive, even if the time is not stated.
Tom was a good friend, I'm sorry he's dead.
The past simple is used for actions which happened in the past and are not related to the present.
e) for an action which happened at a definite time in the past.
The time is 1980 stated, already known or implied. Simon Cook painted his first picture in
1980. (When? In 1980. The time is stated. )
f) for an action which began and finished in the past.
Mr Clark taught Maths for thirty years. (He is no longer a teacher. He has retired. )
g) for an action which happened in the past and cannot be repeated
a) Mike won more than Twenty medals when he was an athlete. (He is no longer an
athlete, He cannot win another medal.
b) I once spoke to Frank Sinatra. (He is no longer alive. I won't speak to him again.)
h) for an action which happened within a specific time period which is over at the moment of
speaking.
I wrote three letters this morning. (The time period is over. it is evening or night now.)
NOTE:
We can use the past simple, past continuous or past perfect without any difference in
meaning with verbs such as think, hope, mean, expect, etc. for things we hoped or wished to
do, but didn't.
I expected / was expecting / had expected him to call me, but he didn't.
The past simple is used with the following time expressions:
yesterday;
last night/week/month/year/Monday, etc.;
two days/weeks/months/years ago;
then, when,
exact year: in 1992, etc.
The rules of adding -ed:
 verbs ending in -e → + d (dance → danced);
 verbs ending in a consonant + y, -y → -i + ed (try → tried);
 verbs ending in a vowel + y, → + d (play → played, stay → stayed);
 verbs ending in one stressed vowel between two consonants → double the last consonant
+ ed
 (plan → planned but open → opened)
 verbs ending in -l → + I + ed (travel → travelled, quarrel → quarrelled)
The pronunciation of endings -ed:
[ɪd] when the verb ends in a [t] or [d] sound (posted, succeeded);
[t] when the verb ends in a voiceless consonant: [k], [s], [ʧ], [ʃ], [f] or [p] sound (cooked, kissed,
touched, wished, laughed);
[d] when the verb ends in a voiced consonant or a vowel (arrived, prepared, showed, robbed).
Structure:
+ Subject + V2
- Subject + didn’t + V
? Did + Subject + V
Used to
used to + V is used to talk about
a) a repeated past action that no longer happens
I used to help her with homework.
b) a past state (a situation or feeling) that lasted a long time but which is no longer true
We used to live in London.
Be used to + noun/pronoun/-ing form = be accustomed to, be in the habit of
a) They are used to the cold. (present)
b) I don't mind walking. I'm used to it. (present)
c) She wasn't used to living in the country. (past)
Get used to + noun/pronoun/-ing form = become accustomed to
a) I am getting used to the weather. (present)
b) He didn't like using the computer at first, but he got used to it. (past)
c) She will soon get used to wearing contact lenses. (future)
Structure:
+ Subject + used to + V
- Subject + didn’t + use to + V
? Did + Subject + used to +V
Would
would + V
is only used to for repeated actions
She would often go to noisy London nightclubs.
Note: would is more likely than used to when you describe more than one past action
I would come home late, and my mum would worry about me, and she would get upset, and we
would start arguing.
Was going to
Was going to expresses actions one intended to do but didn't.
She was going to buy a new watch but unfortunately, she couldn't afford one.
The Past Continuous (Progressive) Tense.
We use the past continuous:
a) for an action which was in progress at a stated time in the past. We do not know when the
action started or finished.
At three o'clock yesterday afternoon Mike and his son were washing the dog.
b) for a past action which was in progress when another action interrupted it. We use the past
continuous for the action in progress (longer action) and the past simple for the action
which interrupted it (shorter action).
He was reading a newspaper when his wife came.
c) for two or more actions which were happening at the same time in the past (simultaneous
actions).
She was talking her mobile phone while she was driving at her work.
d) to describe the atmosphere, setting in the introduction to a story before the main events.
The sun was shining and the birds were singing, Tom was driving his old truck through the
forest.
NOTE:
do, but didn't.
The past continuous is used with the following time expressions:

while, when, as, all day/night/morning, etc.
when/while/as + past continuous (longer action)
when + past simple (shorter action)
The rules of adding -ing:

in most cases → +ing;
the verb ends in -e → -e+ing (dance → dancing);
the verb ends in -ie → we change -ie→y +ing (die → dying);
the one-syllable verb ends in a consonant + vowel + consonant (count from the end of the
word), we double the final consonant and +ing (swim → swimming);
But, we do not double the final consonant when the verb ends in w, x or y or when the final
syllable is not emphasized (fix → fixing).
Structure:
𝐰𝐚𝐬
+ Subject + + Ving
𝐰𝐞𝐫𝐞
𝐰𝐚𝐬
- Subject + not + Ving
𝐰𝐞𝐫𝐞
Was
? + Subject + Ving
Were
The Present Perfect Tense.
We use the present perfect:
a) for an action which started in the past and continues up to the present, especially with state
verbs such as be, have, like, know, etc. In this case, we often use for and since.
Rachel has had the dog for three years. (She got the dog three years ago and she still has it.)
b) for an action which has recently finished and whose result is visible in the present.
She has just washed her hair. (She has now wrapped her hair in a towel, so the action has
finished.)
c) for an action which happened at an unstated time in the past. The exact time is not mentioned
because it is either unknown or unimportant. The emphasis is placed on the action.
The Taylors have bought a sailing boat. (The exact time is unknown or unimportant. What is
important is the fact that they now own a sailing boat.)
d) for an action which has happened within a specific time period which is not over at the
moment of speaking. We often use words and expressions such as today, this
morning/evening/week/month, etc.
She has taken fifteen pictures today. (The time period - today -is not over yet. She may take
more pictures.)
BUT: She took twenty pictures yesterday. (The time period - yesterday - is over.)
Note: We use the present perfect to announce a piece of news and the past simple or past
continuous to give more details about it.
The police have finally arrested Peter Duncan. He was trying to leave the country when they
caught him.
e) for an action which happened in the past and may be repeated.
a) Ben is an athlete. He has won more than ten medals. (He is still an athlete. He may win
some more medals. )
b) I've spoken to Celine Dion. (She is still alive. I may speak to her again. )
f) In news reports, you will often read or hear events introduced with the present perfect, and
then the past simple is used to give the details
The film star Jim Cooper has died of cancer. He was 68 and lived in Texas...'
The present perfect is used with the following time expressions:
for, since, already, yet, always, just, ever, never, so far, today, this week/month, etc.,
how long, lately, recently, still (in negations), so far, up to now, for many years now, only just etc.
Structure:
𝐡𝐚𝐬
+ Subject + + V3
𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞
𝐡𝐚𝐬
- Subject + not + V3
𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞
Has
? + Subject + V3
Have
NOTE:
Structures with Since
In a sentence which includes a since-clause, the usual pattern is for the since-clause to contain a
past simple, and the main clause to contain a present perfect:
a) Since Mr Hassan became president, both taxes and unemployment have increased.
b) I haven't been able to play tennis since I broke my arm.
However, we can use a present perfect in the since-clause if the two situations described in the
main and since-clause extend until the present:
Since I've lived here, I haven't seen my neighbours.
Structures with Have gone to / Have been to / Have been in
a) She has gone to the bank. (She's on her way to the bank or she's there now. She hasn't
come back yet. )
b) She has been to New Orleans. (She has visited New Orleans but she isn't there now. She has
come back. )
c) She has been in the Hague for four years. (She lives in the Hague now. )
The Present Perfect Continuous Tense.
We use the present perfect continuous:
a) to put emphasis on the duration of an action which started in the past and continues up to the
present, especially with time expressions such as for, since, all morning I day I year, etc.
Sam has been talking on the phone for half an hour. (He began talking on the phone half an hour
ago and he is still talking.)
b) to talk about repeated actions up to now
They have been working hard lately.
c) for an action which started in the past and lasted for some time. The action may have finished
or may still be going on. The result of the action is visible in the present (evidence).
Her feet hurt. She has been walking all morning. (The result of the action is visible in the present -
her feet hurt.)
d) to express anger, irritation or annoyance.
Somebody has been giving away our plans. (The speaker is irritated.)
Note: With the verbs live, work, teach and feel (= have a particular emotion) we can use the
present perfect or present perfect continuous with no difference in meaning.
We have lived/have been living here for twenty years.
The present perfect continuous is used with the following time expressions:
for, since, how long, lately, recently.
Note: We use the present perfect to put emphasis on number and the present perfect continuous
to put emphasis on duration.
Structure:
𝐡𝐚𝐬
+ Subject + + been + Ving
𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞
𝐡𝐚𝐬
- Subject + not + been + Ving
𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞
Has
? + Subject + been + Ving
Have
The Past Perfect Tense.
We use the past perfect simple:
a) for an action which happened in the past before another past action. The action which
happened earlier in the past is in the past perfect simple, and the action which happened later is
in the past simple.
They had done their homework before they went out to play yesterday afternoon.
b) for an action which happened before a stated time in the past.
She had watered all the flowers by five o’clock in the afternoon.
c) for an action which finished in the past and whose result was visible in the past
He had broken his leg, so he couldn’t walk.
Note: the past perfect is the equivalent of the present perfect.

NOTE:
do, but didn't.
The past perfect simple is used with the following time expressions:
before, after, already, just, till/until, when, by, by the time, only just (when the next part in past
simple) etc.
Structure:
+ Subject + had + V3
- Subject + had not + V3
? Had + Subject + V3
The Past Perfect Continuous Tense.
We use the past perfect continuous:
a) to put emphasis on the duration of the action, which started and finished in the past before
another action or a stated time in the past, usually with since or for.
They had been skating together for five years before they entered the competition.
b) for an action which lasted for some time in the past and whose result was visible in the past.
She was really tired, she had been working hard that day.
Note: the past perfect continuous is the equivalent of the present continuous.
The past perfect continuous is used with the following time expressions:
before, for, since, how long, until, etc.
Structure:
+ Subject + had + been + Ving
- Subject + had not + been + Ving
? Had + subject + been + Ving
The Future Simple Tense.
We use the future simple:

a) for predictions about the future (usually with think, believe, expect, be sure, be afraid,
probably, perhaps, certainly, etc.)
I am afraid, we won’t be on time for the meeting.
b) for on-the-spot decisions.
I’ll take this red umbrella.
c) for promises, threats, warnings, requests, hopes and offers.
(-Will you help me with this task? (a request)
- Of course, I will explain it to you. (a promise)
d) for actions/events/situations which will definitely happen in the future and which we cannot
control.
He will be 30 next year.
NOTE:
We can use shall (or shan't) instead of will (or won't) in statements about the future with I
and we, although it is more common to use will/won't:
 When I retire, I shall/will have more time for my painting.
 The stronger we are, the more we shall/will be able to help others.
In current English we don't use shall/shan't with other subjects (it, she, they, etc.) when we
talk about the future.
The future simple is used with the following time expressions:

tomorrow, the day after tomorrow, tonight, soon,
next week/month/ year,
in a week/month/year, etc.
Structure:
+ Subject + will +V
- Subject + will not / won’t + V
? Will + subject + V
The Future Continuous Tense.
We use the future continuous:

a) for an action which will be in progress at the started future time
This time next week we will be swimming in the Pacific Ocean.
b) for an action which will de definitely happen in the future as a result of a routine or
arrangement.
Don’t call Jim. I will be seeing her later, so I will pass the message on.
c) when we ask politely about someone’s plans for the near future (what we want to know if our
wishes fir in with their plans.
Will you be using a photo copier for long? (when you want to use it)
The future continuous is used with the following time expressions:

this time, this week, exact time
Structure:
+ Subject + will + be + Ving
- Subject + will not / won’t + be + Ving
? Will + subject + be + Ving
The Future Perfect Tense.
We use the future perfect:

a) for an action which will be finishes before a started future time
She will have been delivered all her newspapers by 8 o’clock.
The future perfect is used with the following time expressions:

before, by, by then, by the time, until, till (until, till are used only in negative sentences)
Structure:
+ Subject + will + have + V3
- Subject + will not / won’t + have + V3
? Will + subject + have + V3
The Future Perfect Continuous Tense.
We use the future perfect continuous:

a) to emphasize the duration of an action up to a certain time in the future
By the end of next month, she will have been teaching for 20 years.
The future perfect is used with the following time expressions:

by… for
Structure:
+ Subject + will + have + been + Ving
- Subject + will not / won’t + have + been + Ving
? Will + subject + have + been + Ving
Future forms
Be going to
We use the structure be going to to express the future:
a) for intentions or ambitions that we have for the future.
I’m going to become a famous scientist one day.
b) in predictions when there is evidence that something will happen in the near future.
Look at the clouds! It’s going to rain.’
c) We normally use ‘be going to’ to talk about something we intend to do and ‘will’ to give
details or make comments.
A: I'm going to have a party next week. I invite all my friends.
B: That'll be great.
d) We can use will or going to with little difference in meaning in the main clause of an if-
sentence when we say that something (often something negative) is conditional on
something else - it will happen if something else happens first:
• If we go on like this, we'll / we're going to lose all our money.
• You'll / You're going to knock that glass over (if you're not more careful).
However, we use will (or another auxiliary), not going to, when we describe a future
event that follows another. Often 'if' has a meaning similar to 'when' in this kind of
sentence:
• If you look carefully, you'll (or can) find writing scratched on the glass.
• If you move to your left, you'll (or may) be able to see the church.
Note: We usually use the Present Continuous rather than be going to with verbs which express
movement, especially go and come.
Structure:
+ Subject + will + have + been + Ving
- Subject + will not / won’t + have + been + Ving
? Will + subject + have + been + Ving
Present Continuous
We use the present continuous to express the future:
for actions we have decided and arranged to do in the near future.
I’m flying to Paris tomorrow morning.
Structure:
+ Subject + am / is / are + Ving
- Subject + am / is/ are not + Ving
? Am / Is / Are + Subject + Ving
Present Simple
We use the present simple to express the future:
a) to refer to programs and timetables.
This bus arrives in Liverpool at 7.30.
b) to refer to the future, not will, in adverbial clauses introduced by time conjunctions such as
after, before, when, and until:
• After you go another 50 metres, you'll see a path to your left.
• When you see Dennis, tell him he still owes me some money.
• Wait here until I call you.
c) in conditional clauses with if, unless, in case, and provided:
• Let me know if he says anything interesting.
• Provided the right software is available, I should be able to solve the problem.
• I'll bring a compass in case we get lost.
d) in that- and wh- clauses when both the main clause and the that- /wh- clause refer to the
future. We don't use will in the that- / wh- clause in this kind of sentence
• I'm going to make sure (that) you are invited next time. (not ...you’ll be invited...)
• I'll let you know when she gets here, (not ...when she will get here.)
Structure:
+ Subject + V / V-s, -es (for he, she, it)
- Subject + don’t / doesn’t(for he, she, it) + V
? Do / Does(for he, she, it) + Subject + V
Note: We use the Present Simple or Present Perfect, and NOT future forms after words and
expressions such as while, before, after, until/till, as, unless, when, whenever, if,
suppose/supposing, once, as soon as, as long as, by the time, in case, in condition that.
We use future forms:

a) With when when it is used as a question word.
When will they get married? I’m not sure when they will visit us.
a) With if (=whether) when it is used after expressions which show ignorance, uncertainty
such as I don’t know, I wonder, I doubt, etc.
I don’t know if/whether he’ll move house.
NOTE for future tenses:

We can use the future simple, future continuous or future perfect to make a prediction about
the present or past, that is to say what we believe may be happening or have happened.
a) 'There's somebody on the phone for you. That'll be my mother.
b) Don't call her now - she'll be sleeping.
c) It's seven o'clock. Dad will have left the office by now.
Other ways of expressing the future
be to + infinitive (formal English).

The President is to visit Poland next Monday.
be about to + infinitive
be on the point of + Ving (to refer to the near future).
Look! The bus is about to leave / is on the point of leaving.
be due to + infinitive (timetables).

Their flight is due to arrive at 6:15.
verbs such as decide, plan, intend, arrange, mean + to-infinitive (for plans or intentions)
We intend to buy a bigger flat.
be sure to
be certain to + infinitive (to express certainty about the future).
be bound to
This plan is sure to / is bound to succeed.
The future in the past
was going to
was to + infinitive
was about to
was due to
Mr Simon was going to resign.
was on the point of + Ving

They were on the point of leaving the house when the phone rang.
State verbs
Verbs of feelings Verbs of

Verbs of the senses Some other verbs
and emotions perception
like see know be include
love hear believe fit belong
dislike smell understand own require
hate taste realise owe weigh
enjoy feel remember want contain
prefer look forget cost matter
adore sound notice need mean
detest think wish have (possess)
forgive We often use can/could seem want keep
with these verbs when we (=continue)
see
refer to what we see, hear,
(=understand)
etc. at the moment of
speaking. expect (=think)
Used to express
involuntary actions.
Some of the verbs above can be used in continuous tenses when they describe actions and not
states.
1. I think he’s lying (=believe)

I’m thinking about the plan (=am considering)
2. The food tastes delicious (= has a delicious flavour)
He is tasting the food (=is testing the flavour of)
3. I can see some people (= perceive with my eyes)
I see what you mean. (=understand)
I’m seeing my doctor tomorrow (=am meeting)
4. It looks as if they’ve finished the job (=appears)
Mike is looking out of the window (= is directing his eyes)
5. This perfume smells nice (= has a nice smell)
He is smelling the mils (=is sniffing)
6. The baby’s hair feels like silk (= has the texture of)
She’s feeling the baby’s leg (= is touching)
7. Bob has a Porsche (=possess)
He’s having a shower at the moment (= is taking a shower)
8. The chicken weighs 2 kilos (= has a weight of)
The butcher is weighing the meat (= is measuring how heavy it is)
9. This dress fits you perfectly (=it is the right size)
We are fitting new locks (=are putting on)
10. He appears to be nervous (=seems)
He is appearing in a new play (= is taking part)
11. He is a rude person (=character: permanent state)
He is being rude (= behaviour: temporary situation)
Note:
Enjoy, love, like, hate are used in continuous tenses to express specific preference:
I enjoy parties (=in general)
I’m enjoying this party (=in particular)
The verbs look (=personal appearance), feel (=emotion), hurt and ache can be used in either
continuous or simple tenses with no difference in meaning.
You look / are looking great today.
Passive Voice
We form the Passive Voice with the verb to be and the past participle of the main verb.
1. The Present Perfect Continuous, The Past Perfect Continuous, The Future Perfect
Continuous, The Future Continuous are NOT normally used in the Passive Voice;
2. We form questions by putting the verb to be before a subject;
3. We form the Passive of infinitives like this: to be + past participle;
4. We form the Passive of modals like this: modal verb + to be + past participle.
The Passive Voice is used:
a) When the person who carries out the action is unknown, unimportant or obvious
from the context;
b) When the action itself is more important that the person who carries it out (in news
headlines, newspaper articles, formal notices, instructions)
c) When we want to make statements more polite
Note: We use by + agent to say who or what carries out the action;
We use with + instrument, material, ingredient to say what the agent used.
The Passive Structures
1. The structure with introductory it
(It is thought that the Browns are the richest people in the our city)
2. Complex Subject (subject + passive voice + infinitive)
(He is believed to have bought that skyscraper)
3. Structures as There is thought/said + to be…
(There were said to be several markets in the center of the city)
4. Structures with need: need + Ving; need + to be done
Have something done
We use have + object + past participle to say that we have arranged for some to do something
(She is having her hair caut).
We can also use get something done (informal)
Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect continuous

𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚
𝐻𝑎𝑠
Present 𝐼𝑠 + 𝑉3 𝐼𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉3 𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑛 + 𝑉3 ⊗
𝐻𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝐴𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒
𝑊𝑎𝑠 𝑊𝑎𝑠
Past + 𝑉3 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝑉3 Had been + V3 ⊗
𝑊𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑊𝑒𝑟𝑒
Future Will be + V3 Will have been + V3 ⊗
Conditionals
There are three types of conditionals. Each type consists of two parts: the if-clause (hypothesis),
which begins with the word if, and the main clause, which shows the result of the hypothesis.
When the if-clause comes before the main clause, they are separated with a comma. We can use
When or Whenever instead of if.
Type 0 Conditionals
(General truth)
They are used to express something, which is always true.
If + present simple, > present simple
Type 1 Conditionals
(Real present)
They are used to express a real or very probable situation in the present or future.
If + present tense, > future/imperative/can/must/may/might/should/could
Type 2 Conditionals
(Unreal present)
They are used to express an imaginary or improbable situation, which is unlikely to happen in
the present or future.
If + past simple, past continuous, > would/could/might + bare infinitive
Type 3 Conditionals
(Unreal past)
They are used to express imaginary situations in the past; that is, they refer to past situations
that did not happen.
They also can used to express regrets or criticism.
If + past perfect, > would/could/might + perfect bare infinitive
Notes:
1) We can use will or would after if to make a polite request or express insistence or
uncertainty (usually I don’t know, I am sure, I wonder, etc).
In this case if means whether.
We can also use should after if to talk about something which is possible but not very
likely to happen.
(If you will wait for a minute, Mr Black will come to great you.
If you will continue shouting, I will send you out.
If you insist of shouting, I will send you out.
If Jack should turn up, tell him to call me.)
2) We can use were instead of was for all persons. We use If I were you... when we want
to give advice.
3) We can use inversion in Types 1, 2, 3 Conditionals
(If he comes tonight, tell him about that job.
Should he come tonight, tell him about that job.
Were Tom richer, he would buy a beautiful yacht.
Had they known about the film, they would have definitely watched it.)
4) We can use unless instead of if…not in the if-clause. The verb is always in the
affirmative after unless.
Mixed Conditionals
If-clause Main-clause
Type 2 Conditionals Type 1 Conditionals
(If he paid the bill, the electricity won’t be cut off.)
(общая характеристика)
(If I you were kinder, more people would have talked to you yesterday.)
(If she hadn’t missed the bus, she would be here now.)
Wishes
We use the verb wish and the expression If only to express a wish. If only is more emphatic than I
wish.
1) We use wish/lf only + past simple, past continuous for the present when we want to
say that we would like something to be different.
I wish/lf only I had a lot of money. (But I don't have a lot of money.)
2) We use wish/lf only + past perfect to express regret that something happened or did
not happen in the past.
I wish I had come to your party last night. (But I didn't come to your party.)
If only I had listened to your advice. (But I didn't listen to your advice.)
3) We use wish/lf only + would
a) for a polite imperative
I wish you would put your things away.
b) to express our wish for a change in a situation or someone’s behaviour because we
are annoyed by it.
I wish it would stop raining, (wish for a change in a situation)
If only Susan would stop playing the music so loud, (wish for a change in someone's
behaviour)
Notes:
a) We can use were instead of was in the first and third person singular after wish or if only.
However, were is more often used in formal English.
b) After the subject pronouns I and we, we use could instead of would
(I wish I could instead of would)
Modals
Modal Verbs – are the verbs that express some hues of actions.
They also can express the speaker’s attitude to the action indicated by the main verb.
Modal verbs are:
Can, could, may, might, must, shell, should, ought (to), need, dare, will, would.
 Modal Verbs do not take any suffixes;
 Modal Verbs are followed by the bare infinitive, except ought to;
 Modal Verbs go before the subject in questions;
 Modal Verbs are followed by not in negations;
 Modal Verbs do not usually have tenses.
Can
1. Ability
Present Ability
- Can (with verbs of sense; general)
(She can skip well.)
- Be able to (to-infinitive; after a modal verb; present perfect; more formal)
(She is able to reach out that shelf.)
Future Ability (suggesting possible future)
(I’m afraid I can’t attend the conference tomorrow.)
Lack of ability
Can’t
(He can’t swim.)
2. Permission
Asking for Permission in present
Can (more common)
(Can I borrow your camera, please?)
Giving Permission
(You can go to the cinema tonight.)
Refusing Permission
Can’t
(You can go to the theatre tomorrow.)
3. Request
(Can you help me with the maintenance?)
4. Suggestion, offer
(We can go to the restaurant tonight.)
5. Theoretical possibility
(Tinted windows in a car can protect it from penetration of sunlight.)
6. Negative logical assumption

(He can’t fail his exam.)
Past negative logical assumption
(Jane walked past me without speaking. She can't have seen me.)
Could
1. Ability
Past Ability
- Could (general situations; with verbs of sense)
(He could play the guitar at the age of six.)
- Was/were able to (general situations; particular situations)
(He was able to submit documentation on time.)
In –, ? no difference
Lack of ability in the past
Couldn’t
(He couldn’t travel by plane.)
2. Permission
Asking for Permission
Could (more polite)
(Could you open the window, please?)
3. Possibility
- Could (less possible than may, might)
(It could be rain tomorrow.)
Past possibility
- Could+ perfect infinitive (for the possibility in the past; something could happened, but it didn’t)
(She could have won the competition but she didn’t.)
Lack of Possibility:
Could not (impossible at all)
(He couldn’t jump over the fence.)
4. Request
(Could you put the glass into the cupboard?)
(We could have a cup of coffee.)
May
1. Permission
Talking and Asking:
- May (more formal)
(May I sit down here?)
- Be allowed to (for permission coming from rules)
(Am I allowed to carry out the experiment there?)
Talking and asking in the past:
Was/were allowed to (particular permission)
(We were allowed to pass the exam next week.)
Giving:
May (formal)
(You may attend the summit.)
Refusing:
May not (formal)
(You may not join the assembly.)
2. Possibility
May (more possible than might, can)
(The camera may monitor the process.)
3. Request
(May I take one of these lists of paper.)
Will
1. Offers
(Will you have a cup of tea?)
2. Invitations
(Will you come to our party?)
3. Prediction
(It’ll be a great party.)
4. Refusal
Won’t
(I won’t go to his parties.)
5. Request
(Will you let me copy your homework?)
Would
1. Polite request
(Would you help me with my homework?)
2. Offers
(Would you like some chocolate?)
3. Invitations
(Would you like to have a dinner with me?)
4. Past prediction
(I would enjoy trip to France.)
5. Refusal
(I saw her in the supermarket but she wouldn’t tell me anything.)
6. Request
Would you like an apple?
Dare
Must
1. Necessity
- Must (own necessity, wish, obligation; strongly recommendation)
(You must help your parents.)
- Have/has to (to talk about past, future; needs auxiliary verbs will, do, does, did; to-infinitive; after a modal verb;
present perfect; necessity that comes from outside; regulation)
(Pupils have to wear uniform to school.)
2. Prohibition
Mustn’t
(Citizens mustn't smoke in public places.)
3. Logical assumption (conclusion)

Must (something is certainly true)
(Nobody answers the phone, she must be out.)
Past Logical assumption
(The phone rang but I didn't hear it. I must have been asleep.)
4. Strong advice
(You must go for a walk with the dog.)
Need
1. Necessity
(Kate need to buy some apples.)
2. Lack of necessity in present:

- Needn’t (personal situation)
(She needn't bring the copybook for the lesson.)
- Don’t have to (general situations)
(Citizens don't have to bring their passports with them.)
- Don’t need to (personal, general situations)
(Fred don't need to switch on the TV.)
2. Lack of necessity in past:

Needn’t have + past participle (we did something but we needn’t)
(Mark needn't have to bring un umbrella.)
Didn’t need to (we didn’t do something and we needn’t)
(Ann didn't have to bring her phone to the repair centre but she did.)
Might
1. Permission
Asking:
- Might
(Might I switch on the light?)
Refusing in the past:
Might not (formal)
(You might not stay in the director’s room for long that morning.)
2. Possibility
Might
Might + perfect infinitive (for the possibility in the past; something could happened, but it didn’t)
(She might win the competition.)
3. Request
(Might we go to the gym today?)
Shell
1. Offers, Suggestions
(Shall we watch TV tonight?)
2. Asking for suggestions

(How shall I help you?)
3. Predictions
Shall (instead of will after I, we; little formal)
(I shall be 20 in March.)
Should
1. Giving Advice
- Should (the right thing to do)
(You should do your hometask every day.)
- Had better (stronger than Should, Ought to; used in particular situations)
(You’d better take your umbrella with you tomorrow.)
- Be supposed to (normal, correct way of doing things)
(You’re supposed to hand in your work on time.)
2. Asking advice
(Where should we go tonight?)
3. Criticism
Shouldn’t + perfect infinitive
(You shouldn’t have drunk yesterday.)
4. Asking for Suggestions

(Where should go next summer?)
5. Predictions (прогноз)
Should (instead of would after I, we; little formal)
(We should like to go to your father’s work.)
Ought (to)
1. Giving Advice
Ought to (the right thing to do, formal)
(You ought to wear woolly cap.)
2. Asking advice
(What ought I to wear today?)
3. Criticism
Ought to + perfect infinitive
(You ought to have mopped the floors yesterday.)
Can Could May
1. Ability 1. Ability 1. Permission
Present Ability Past Ability Talking and Asking:
- Can (with verbs of sense; general) - Could (general situations; with - May (more formal)
(She can skip well.) verbs of sense) (May I sit down here?)
(He could play the guitar at the age
- Be able to (to-infinitive; after a modal of six.) - Be allowed to (for
verb; present perfect; more formal) permission coming from
(She is able to reach out that shelf.) - Was/were able to (general rules)
situations; particular situations) (Am I allowed to carry out the
Future Ability (suggesting possible future) (He was able to submit experiment there?)
(I’m afraid I can’t attend the conference documentation on time.)
tomorrow.) In –, ? no difference Talking and asking in the past:
Was/were allowed to
Lack of ability Lack of ability in the past (particular permission)
Can’t Couldn’t (We were allowed to pass
(He can’t swim.) (He couldn’t travel by plane.) the exam next week.)
2. Permission 2. Permission Giving:
Asking for Permission in present Asking for Permission May (formal)
Can (more common) Could (more polite) (You may attend the
(Can I borrow your camera, please?) (Could you open the window, summit.)
please?)
Giving Permission Refusing:
(You can go to the cinema tonight.) 3. Possibility May not (formal)
Refusing Permission - Could (less possible than may, (You may not join the
Can’t might) assembly.)
(You can go to the theatre tomorrow.) (It could be rain tomorrow.)
2. Possibility
3. Request Past possibility May (more possible than
(Can you help me with the maintenance?) - Could+ perfect infinitive (for the might, can)
possibility in the past; something (The camera may monitor
4. Suggestion, offer could happened, but it didn’t) the process.)
(We can go to the restaurant tonight.) (She could have won the competition
but she didn’t.) 3. Request
5. Theoretical possibility (May I take one of these lists
(Tinted windows in a car can protect it Lack of Possibility: of paper.)
from penetration of sunlight.) Could not (impossible at all)
(He couldn’t jump over the fence.)
6. Negative logical assumption
(He can’t fail his exam.) 4. Request
Past negative logical assumption (Could you put the glass into the
(Jane walked past me without speaking. cupboard?)
She can't have seen me.)
(We could have a cup of coffee.)
Will Shell Dare
1. Offers 1. Offers, Suggestions
(Will you have a cup of tea?) (Shall we watch TV tonight?)
2. Invitations 2. Asking for suggestions
(Will you come to our party?) (How shall I help you?)
3. Prediction 3. Predictions
(It’ll be a great party.) Shall (instead of will after I, we; little
formal)
4. Refusal (I shall be 20 in March.)
Won’t
(I won’t go to his parties.)
5. Request
(Will you let me copy your homework?)
Must Need Might
1. Necessity 1. Necessity 1. Permission
- Must (own necessity, wish, obligation; (Kate need to buy some apples.) Asking:
strongly recommendation) - Might
(You must help your parents.) 2. Lack of necessity in present: (Might I switch on the light?)
- Needn’t (personal situation)
- Have/has to (to talk about past, future; (She needn't bring the copybook for Refusing in the past:
needs auxiliary verbs will, do, does, did; to- the lesson.) Might not (formal)
infinitive; after a modal verb; present - Don’t have to (general situations)
perfect; necessity that comes from (Citizens don't have to bring their
outside; regulation) passports with them.) 2. Possibility
(Pupils have to wear uniform to school.) - Don’t need to (personal, general Might
situations) Might + perfect infinitive (for
2. Prohibition (Fred don't need to switch on the the possibility in the past;
Mustn’t TV.) something could happened,
(Citizens mustn't smoke in public places.) but it didn’t)
2. Lack of necessity in past: (She might win the
3. Logical assumption (conclusion) Needn’t have + past participle (we competition.)
Must (something is certainly true) did something but we needn’t)
(Nobody answers the phone, she must be (Mark needn't have to bring un 3. Request
out.) umbrella.) (Might we go to the gym
Past Logical assumption Didn’t need to (we didn’t do today?)
(The phone rang but I didn't hear it. I must something and we needn’t)
have been asleep.) (Ann didn't have to bring her phone
to the repair centre but she did.)
4. Strong advice
(You must go for a walk with the dog.)
Would Should Ought (to)
1. Polite request 1. Giving Advice 1. Giving Advice
(Would you help me with my homework? - Should (the right thing to do) Ought to (the right thing to
) (You should do your hometask every do, formal)
day.) (You ought to wear woolly
2. Offers cap.)
(Would you like some chocolate?) - Had better (stronger than Should,
Ought to; used in particular 2. Asking advice
3. Invitations situations) (What ought I to wear
(Would you like to have a dinner with me? (You’d better take your umbrella with today?)
) you tomorrow.)
3. Criticism
4. Past prediction - Be supposed to (normal, correct Ought to + perfect infinitive
(I would enjoy trip to France.) way of doing things) (You ought to have mopped
(You’re supposed to hand in your the floors yesterday.)
5. Refusal work on time.)
(I saw her in the supermarket but she wou
ldn’t tell me anything.) 2. Asking advice
(Where should we go tonight?)
6. Request
Would you like an apple? 3. Criticism
Shouldn’t + perfect infinitive
(You shouldn’t have drunk
yesterday.)
4. Asking for Suggestions
(Where should go next summer?)
5. Predictions (прогноз)
Should (instead of would after I, we;
little formal)
(We should like to go to your father’s
work.)
Reported speech
Direct speech — is the exact words someone used. We use quotation marks in direct speech.
(‘It's nice to be home’, Tom said.)
Reported speech — is the exact meaning of what someone said, but not the exact words. We do
not use quotation marks in reported speech. We can either use the word after the introductory
verb or omit it. (Tom said (that) it was nice to be home.)
Rules for the direct speech:

1) “___.” said the father.
2) “___!” he said.
3) He said: “___.”
4) He said, “___.”
We can use the verbs say and tell both in direct and reported speech.
Say to sb Tell sb
good morning, afternoon, etc; the truth; a lie; a secret; a story; the time;
something, nothing, etc; the difference; sb one's name; sb the way;
one's prayers; so; a few words. one from another; one's fortune
Changing certain words and time expressions

now → then
today, tonight → that day, that night
yesterday → the day before, the previous day
the day before yesterday → two days before
tomorrow → the next/following day
the day after tomorrow → in two days time/ two days later
this week/month/year → that week/month/year
next week/month/year → the following week/month/year
last week/month/year → the previous week/month/year, the week/month before
ago → before
here → there
this/that (determiner) → the (this cake – the cake)
This is → It is/was
These are → They are/were
can → could
may → might
must (obligation, present) → must / had to
must (obligation, future) → must / would have to
shall (asking for advice) → should
will → would
Modals which do not change in indirect speech

could
would
might
must (deduction)
mustn't
had better
should
ought to
used to
Type 1 Conditionals
If-clause: present simple → past simple
Main-clause: will → would
Type 2 & 3 Conditionals do not change.
Cases when we change tenses:
Cases when we either change tenses or remain the same:
Cases when we remain the same:
Introductory verbs:
Infinitives and gerund
To-infinitive is used:
a) to express purpose.
(She went to the bank to get some money.)
b) after certain verbs (advise, agree, appear, decide, expect, hope, manage, offer, promise,
refuse, seem, want, afford, pretend, etc.).
(He advised me to apply for the job.)
c) after verbs such as know, decide, ask, learn, remember, want to know, etc., when they a
re followed by question words (who, what, where, how, etc.).
‘Why’ is followed by a subject + verb, not by an infinitive.
(I can't decide where to go)
(I want to know why you’ve decided to leave.)
d) after adjectives such as nice, sorry, glad, happy, willing, afraid, ashamed, etc.
(He is glad to be back)
e) after too and enough.

(She’s too shy to talk to the manager.)
(We have got enough money to buy a new car.)
f) after it + be + adjective (+ of + noun/pronoun)

(It was nice of him to help.)
g) after would like/would love, prefer (to express specific preference).

(I would like to learn a foreign language.)
h) after only to express an unsatisfactory result.

(He rushed to the back door only to discover that it was locked.)
a) Help is followed by either the to-infinitive or the bare infinitive.

(She helped me (to) fix the tap.)
i) after begin, start, continue without changing in meaning

(They started talking/to talk.)
j) after advise, allow, permit, recommend, encourage (with an object or in passive form)
(They don’t allow as to park there. /object/)
(They aren’t allowed to park there./passive/)
(They don’t allow parking there./no object/)
k) after need + passive infinitive

(Their flat needs to be decorated.)
l) intend, arrange
m) after the constructions be made/be heard/be seen + to-infinitive (passive)

Bare infinitive is used:
b) after modals
c) after see, hear, feel, watch, listen to, notice for a complete action from beginning to end
(I hear Tom talk to her. /The part of the conversation/)
d) after the verbs let, make,

(They made him pay for the damage.)
but: be made/be heard/be seen + to-infinitive (passive)

(He was made to pay for the damage.)
e) after had better and would rather.

(You had better sign the contract.)
(I would rather go home now.)
f) Help is followed by either the to-infinitive or the bare infinitive.

(She helped me (to) fix the tap.)
g) If two infinitives are joined by and, the to of the second infinitive can be omitted.
(He decided to go to university and study biology.)
Tenses of the Infinitive
Active Passive
Present (to) give (to) be given
Present continuous (to) be giving —
Perfect (to) have given (to) have been given
Perfect continuous (to) have been giving —
Gerund is used:
a) as a noun.
(Swimming keeps you fit.)
b) after prepositions.
(He left without saying goodbye.)
c) after love, like, enjoy, dislike, hate and prefer to express general preference.
(She likes going for long walks.)
d) after certain verbs (avoid, deny, look forward to, confess to, fancy, involve, mention, risk, spen
d, mind, regret, admit, suggest, imagine, etc.).
(Jessica spent all day shopping.)
e) after go for activities.
(They often go climbing at the weekends.)
f) after:
it’s no use,
it’s (not) worth,
it’s no good,
be busy,
what’s the use of...?,
there’s no point in,
can’t help,
can’t stand,
used to,
have difficulty (in).
(It’s no use waiting for the bus. It won’t come.)
g) after the verbs see, hear, feel, watch, listen to and notice to describe an incomplete action, th
at is to say that somebody saw, heard, etc. only a part of the action.
(I heard Jack talking on the phone.)
(= I heard Jack while he was talking on the phone. I heard part of the action in progress.)
(I didn't listen to the whole conversation.)
love, like, enjoy, dislike, hate and prefer (general preference)

see, hear, feel, watch, listen to and notice (incomplete action)
consider, avoid, deny, look forward to, confess to, fancy, involve, mention, risk, spend, mind,
regret, admit, suggest, imagine
after go for activities
it’s no use,
it’s (not) worth,
it’s no good,
be busy,
what’s the use of...?,
there’s no point in,
can’t help,
can’t stand,
used to,
have difficulty (in)
begin, start, continue
advise, allow, permit, recommend, encourage (without an aoject)
need/require/want + -ing form
Verbs taking the to-infinitive or the gerund without a change in meaning
a) begin, start, continue

We never have two -ing forms together.
They started talking/to talk.
(It's beginning to get dark.)
(NOT: It's beginning getting dark.)
b) advise, allow, permit, recommend, encourage take the to-infinitive when they are followed b
y an object or when they are in the passive form. They take the -ing form when they are not
followed by an object.
(They don’t allow us to park here, (object)
We aren’t allowed to park here, (passive) They don't allow parking here, (no object)
c) need/require/want + -ing form

This construction often shows that it is necessary to repair or improve something. ‘Need’ can
also be followed by a passive infinitive.
(The flat needs decorating.)
(The flat needs to be decorated.)
Verbs taking the to-infinitive or the gerund with a change in meaning
forget + to - Inf = not remember

forget + -ing form = not recall
remember + to - Inf = not forget
remember + -ing form = recall
go on + to – Inf = then
go on + -ing form = continue
mean + to - inf = intend to
mean + -ing form = involve
regret + to -1 n = be sorry to
regret + -ing form = feel sorry about
try + to - inf = attempt, do one’s best
try + -ing form = do sth as an experiment
stop + to - inf = stop briefly to do sth else
stop -ing form = finish, give up
be sorry + to - inf = apologise for a present action
be sorry for + -ing form = apologise for an earlier action
like + to - Inf = think that sth is good or right to do
like + -ing form = enjoy (general preference) e.g. She likes swimming.
would like + to – Inf = want (specific preference)
be afraid + ю Inf (the subject is unwilling to do sth)
be afraid of + -ing form = (the subject is afraid that what is described by the -ing form may ha
ppen)
Participles
Too/Enough
Portas Alyona, LTE-202
NON-FINITE VERBS
1 2a 2b 2c 3 4 5
VERBS
FOLLOW
ED BY A
VERBS
NOUN VERBS
VERBS FOLLOW
AND A FOLLOWE
FOLLOWE ED BY AN VERBS
‘PRESEN D BY
D BY AN VERBS INFINITIV FOLLOWE
T’ EITHER A
VERBS INFINITIV FOLLOWE E, WITH D BY THE
PARTICIP ‘THAT’
FOLLOWED BY E D BY A OR GERUND
LE OR (IN CLAUSE,
THE GERUND WITHOUT NOUN + WITHOU OR AN
THE OR BY A
A INFINITIVE TA INFINITIV
ACTIVE) NOUN +
PRECEDIN PRECEDI E
AN TO BE OR
G NOUN NG
INFINITI TO HAVE
NOUN
VE
WITHOU
T ‘TO’
a preposition; afford; accustom; ask; Verbs Verbs of advocate;

followed percepti
a prepositional agree; aid; beg; agree;
by an on.
verb;
aim; appoint; choose; infinitive anticipate;
We use
a phrasal verb; without a
appear; assist; dare; bare appreciate
acknowledge; preceding
infinitive ;
arrange; cause; desire; noun:
admit; when we
attempt; percept arrange;
bother; challenge; elect;
advocate; the
begin; darn;
care; command expect; whole
after go for
; cease; action. decide;
activities; chance; help (can
commissi followed continue; fed; demand;
anticipate; condesce
on; by to-
nd; decline; hear; deny;
appreciate; infinitive
defy;
consent; or by notice; determine
avoid; deserve;
direct; bare ;
darn; infinitive disdain; observe;
be busy;
drive; ); doubt;
decide; dread; perceive
it’s no use;
empower; mean ; fed;
demand; fear;
it’s (not) worth; (intend);
enable; see; foresee;
determin forbear;
it’s no good; request;
e; encourag sense; forgive;
what’s the use e; forget;
endeavou want; guarantee;
of...?; watch;
r; entice; go on;
wish; have);
there’s no
fail; entitle; neglect;
point in; catch; hear;
entreat; omit;
can’t help; hope;
can’t stand; get impel; plan; spot; mean
(reach (intend);
used to; implore; regret; find;
the stage
mean ;
have difficulty of); incite; remembe discover;
(in); r; mention;
guarante induce; smell;
have trouble; e; start; notice;
inspire; leave;
have a happen; try; observe;
instruct; keep
hard/difficult
hasten; venture; perceive;
time; invite;
have (be pretend;
can’t endure; lead;
obliged);
verbs profess;
celebrate; leave (put
hesitate; followed
responsibi promise;
confess to; by a noun
hope; lity on);
+ propose ;
consider (think
learn order; infinitive:
about); recall;
(how to);
persuade; advise;
contemplate; recollect;
long;
press; allow
continue; report;
manage; (=let);
prompt;
control over); request;
offer; authorize;
provoke;
defer; resolve;
prepare; forbid;
remind;
delay; see;
presume permit
(take the require; (=let);
deny; sense;
liberty); rust;
detest; recomme smear;
pretend; stimulate; nd;
discuss; suggest
proceed; summon; require; (raises
dislike;
profess; urge; special
teach
dispute; problems);
promise; (how to);
doubt; threaten;
propose tell verbs
endanger; (intend); (instruct, followed understan
order); by an d;
enjoy; prove
tempt; infinitive, vow;
entail; (turn
with or
out); trust;
envisage; without a
refuse; warn; preceding
escape; noun:
resolve;
excuse; can't
seek; bear;
fancy;
seem; hate;
fanty;
smear; intend;
favour;
strive; like;
finish; tend; loathe;
foresee; threaten; love;
forgive; trouble; need;
go (for undertak prefer;
activities); e;
MAKE is Only when
grudge; volunteer roughly it has the
; synonymo subject IT:
imagine;
vow; us with
include; appear;
these
involve; verbs, but chance;
is
it’s (not) worth; followed happen;
it’s no good; in the seem;

active, by
it’s no use; a noun -
infinitive
justify;
without
keep (= to:
continue,
compel;
persist in);
force;
look forward
to; oblige;
lose (time,
GET may Followed May be
money etc.);
also be by a followed
mean (entail); followed gerund by a noun
by an (with an a + to be or
mention; object + object): to
mind (object past
advise; acknowled
to); participle,
ge;
to express allow;
miss; a passive admit;
meaning : permit;
necessitate; fanty;
get (= recomme
need/require/
‘causative nd; imagine;
want;
’) encourag
pardon; e;
postpone; We do not
put a noun
practise; between
these
prevent;
verbs and
prohibit; a ‘that’
clause.
propose Followed The use of
(suggest); by a to- SHOULD is
infinitive a common
quit;
(with an a feature in
recall; object): such
clauses
recollect; advise; after these
regret; verbs.
allow;
repent; command;
permit;
report; direct;
recomme
resent; nd; entreat;
resist; encourag order;

e;
resume; remind;
Followed require;
risk;
by a
save; gerund to trust;
describe implore;
spend (time,
an
money); ask;
incomplet
stand; e action.
beg;
suffer; hear;
desire;
suggest; listen to;
expect;
tolerate; notice;
wish;
understand; see;
waste (time, watch;
money);
feel;
Followed We
by a bare always put
infinitive a noun
to between
describe these
a verbs and
complete a ‘that’
action. clause:
hear; persuade;
listen to; remind;
notice; A noun is
see; optional
between
watch; these
feel; verbs and
a ‘that’
Verbs clause:
followed instruct;
by a
gerund to teach
express (how to);
general
warn;
preferenc
e:
love;
like;
enjoy;
dislike;
hate;
prefer;
Verbs These
followed verbs are
by a to- followed
infinitive by a
to clause
express introduce
specific d by that.
preferenc They may
e: also be
followed
love;
by an
like; object
(very
enjoy; often it) +
dislike; to be or to
have.
hate;
allow
prefer; (admit);
assume;
believe;
calculate;
confess;
confirm;
consider
(be of the
opinion);
declare;
demonstra
te;
disclose;
estimate;
feel
(think);
guess;
hear (be
informed);
hold
(maintain
the;
indicate;
know;
learn (be
informed,
discover);
maintain;
opinion);
presume
(assume);
prove
(show
conclusive
ly);
reckon;
recognize;
report;
reveal;
see
(realize);
sense (be
aware of);
show;
state;
suppose;
suspect;
think;
NON-FINITE VERBS IN A SENTENCE
[1] The gerund and the infinitive can function as nouns. The gerund is more readily identifiable
with a noun than the infinitive is.
[1.1] The gerund may stand alone as the subject of a verb:
Reading is his favourite pastime.
The infinitive is not often used in this way.
[1.2] Both may stand alone as the object of a verb:
I’ve finished working, I want to have.
[1.3] Both may function as the complement of to be:
My worst vice is smoking, Her first impulse was to scream.
[1.4] Only the gerund, can be used as the object of a preposition:
He insisted on coming.
Only the gerund may be qualified by adjectives:
This book makes good light reading.
Only the gerund can be used with an article and can have a plural form:
The findings of the court have now been made public.
I can’t keep track of his comings and goings.
[2] The gerund and the infinitive can operate as verbs in non-finite noun clauses.
[2.1] They may be followed by a direct or an indirect object:
a) Closing the factory means putting people out of work, (direct object)
b) He hates speaking to strangers, (indirect object)
c) To ease credit restrictions at this stage would be unwise, (direct object)
d) The manager wants to speak to you. (indirect object)
Note that in c, the infinitive is used in the initial position when it is followed by an
object (or an adverb, or both), i.e. when it operates as a verb in a non-finite noun
clause. This is fairly common in written English, but in spoken English it is much more
usual to find a construction with ‘anticipatory’ it:
It would do no good at all to explain again.
(To explain again would do no good at all.)
[2.2] They may be qualified by adverbs:
A teacher of English must avoid speaking too quickly. He wants to leave immediately.
[2.3] They also have ‘perfect’ and passive forms:
a) The soldier was accused of having betrayed his country, (perfect)
b) He pretended to have forgotten the man’s name, (perfect)
c) No one likes being thought a fool, (passive)
d) He doesn’t want to be told the truth, (passive)
e) He resented having been criticized by the manager, (perfect passive)
f) He claimed to have been badly treated, (perfect passive)
[3] In some of the above examples, a ‘that' clause could be used after the main verb in place of
the gerund or the infinitive:
Closing the factory means putting people out of work.
Closing the factory means that people will lose their jobs.
He pretended to have forgotten the man’s name.
He pretended that he had forgotten the man’s name.
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE

Active Passive
Present (to) give (to) be given
Present continuous (to) be giving —
Perfect (to) have given (to) have been given
Perfect continuous (to) have been giving —
Active
 present infinitive: refers to the present or future
He expects to stay here for a week.
 present cont. infinitive: (to) be + -ing Refers to an action happening now.
He seems to be working hard.
 perfect infinitive: (to) have + past participle Refers to the past and shows that the action
of the infinitive happened before the action of the verb.
He claims to have won a lot of money. (First he won the money, then he claimed that
he had won it.)
 perfect cont. infinitive: (to) have + been + -ing Refers to the past and emphasises the
duration of the action of the infinitive, which happened before the action of the verb.
He’s got a headache. He claims to have been working on the computer all morning. (We
emphasise what he has been doing all morning.)
The perfect infinitive is used with verbs such as seem, appear, believe, know, claim,
expect and modal verbs.
Passive
 present infinitive: (to) be + past participle
He hopes to be offered a promotion.
 perfect infinitive: (to) have been + past participle
She is believed to have been kidnapped.
FORMS OF THE -ING FORM
Active Passive
Simple losing being lost
Perfect having lost having been lost
 The simple -ing form refers to the present or future.
Swimming is an energetic form of exercise.
 The perfect -ing form shows that the action of the -ing form happened before the action
of the verb.
He denied having lied to his parents.
 We can use the simple -ing form instead of the perfect -ing form with no difference in
meaning.
He admitted to having stolen/stealing the car.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS BEFORE GERUNDS

We feel the necessity for a possessive form more particularly when the gerund is the subject of
the main verb;
Your calling on us just at this time is most inconvenient.
When the gerund is the object of the main verb, however, we often use the object form of a
personal pronoun, more especially in the spoken language
Do you mind me coming as well?
The object form of a personal pronoun or other noun is always preferred where the use of a
possessive would entail an awkward (or, in spoken ! English, misleading) construction:
I remember him and his sister coming to London.
(Not his and his sister's)
With other pronouns, only one form may be available:
I don’t envisage there being any real disagreement.
A GERUND AFTER THE PREPOSITION TO:

1) If the to is part of a phrasal verb or verb + preposition combination:
I look forward to meeting your parents tonight!
He confessed to killing his next-door neighbour.
She adjusted to living on her own.
He objects to spending so much money on a T.V.
Mother Theresa devoted her life to helping the poor.
(Not every verb + preposition combination is a phrasal verb. A phrasal verb is when the
preposition changes the meaning of the verb.)
2) If the to is part of an adjective + preposition combination:

I am addicted to watching soap operas on T.V.!
She is committed to improving the education system.
I am opposed to increasing taxes.
Many of the nurses and doctors in the hospital are truly dedicated to making life better for the
patients.
Mother Theresa was devoted to helping the poor throughout her life.
He’s not used to driving on the left-hand side of the road!
3) If the to is part of a noun + preposition combination:

His addiction to gambling has caused a lot of stress for his family.
Her great dedication to teaching inspires her students.
Mother Theresa’s devotion to helping the poor brought her worldwide acclaim.
Her reaction to winning the Oscar was priceless!
SUBJECT OF THE INFINITIVE/-ING FORM:

[1] The subject of the infinitive or the -ing form is omitted when it is the same as the subject
of the main verb.
I would like to help with the preparations.
When it is different, however, it is not omitted. The subject of the infinitive can be an
object pronoun, a name or a noun.
I would like her/Mary/my assistant to help with the preparations.
The subject of the -ing form can be an object pronoun, a possessive adjective, a name, a
possessive case or here, there.
I remember him/his/Steve/Steve’s winning the gold medal.
[2] We use for + noun/pronoun to introduce the subject of the infinitive in the following
cases:
a) with verbs such as arrange, hope, long, prepare, ask, wait, etc.
We’ve arranged for the plumber to come tomorrow.
b) with adjectives such as anxious, cheap, convenient, dangerous,
difficult, important, necessary, etc.
I’m anxious for Beth to go to university.
c) with nouns such as advantage, disadvantage, demand, disaster,
idea, mistake, etc.
It was a mistake for you to lend him the money.
d) with too/enough.
It was easy enough for her to find a job.
e) when the to -infinitive expresses purpose.
There are benches for people to sit on in the park.
STRUCTURES
STRUCTURES WITH SUGGEST
 The simple construction is:
I suggest seeing a specialist immediately.
 The ‘full’ construction is:
I suggest (that) he should see a specialist immediately.
 However, the conjunction that is often omitted, and so is should (which in any case
simply reinforces the idea of recommendation implied in the word suggest)-.
I suggest he see a specialist immediately.
 The dependent verb may then be ‘regularized’:
I suggest he sees a specialist immediately.
STRUCTURES WITH DARE

If no noun is used after dare, two patterns are possible:
a) the infinitive with to:
He dared to call me a fool to my face.
b) the infinitive without to (more especially in negative and interrogative sentences). In
this case, dare patterns like an auxiliary verb, the negative being formed by the
addition of not (n ’t), and the interrogative by simple inversion of subject and verb:
He daren’t tell me what happened.
Dare you mention it to him?
STRUCTURES WITH PREFER

 Prefer + noun + to + noun / Prefer + -ing + to + -ing. (The normal construction)
I prefer cigars to cigarettes.
I prefer riding to walking.
 Prefer +to-inf + rather than + bare inf
I prefer to walk rather than drive.
 Would/Should prefer + to-inf + rather than + bare inf
I should prefer to stay at home rather than go out in this weather. Alternatively, we can
use the idiomatic phrase I'd rather.
I’d rather stay at home than go out in this weather.
 Prefer + an object → + to-inf
STRUCTURES WITH NEED, DESERVE, WANT, REQUIRE

The gerund after need, deserve, require and want is equivalent in meaning to a passive infinitive:
My pen needs filling (= to be filled)
The fire wants making up (= to be made up)
The point deserved mentioning (= to be mentioned)
VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND OR AN INFINITIVE WITH DIFFERENT IN MEANING
 forget + to-inf = not remember (refers to the present, future) (I have to go out. I forgot
to buy a newspaper.)
forget + -ing form = not recall (refers to the past) (He never forget travelling by plane
for the first time.)
 remember + to-inf = not forget (refers to the present, future) (Did you remember to
tell Sam about the meeting?)
remember + -ing form = recall (refers to the past) (I remember talking to him before.)
 go on + to-inf = then (She introduced herself and went on to talk about her new book.)
go on + -ing form = continue (He went on writing letters until 10.00.)
 mean + to-inf = intend to (She means to buy a new car soon.)
mean + -ing form = involve (She is determined to get a ticket for the concert, even if it
means paying a lot of money.)
 regret + to-inf = be sorry to (refers to the present, future) (normally used in the
present simple and is followed by verbs such as say, tell, inform) (We regret to inform
you that you have failed.)
regret + -ing form = feel sorry about (refers to the past) (He regretted selling his
house.)
 try + to - inf = attempt, do one’s best (We tried to move the heavy branch to the side
of the road.)
try + -ing form = do sth as an experiment (If you can't go to sleep, try drinking some
milk.)
 stop + to-inf = stop briefly to do sth else (He stopped to fill the tank with petrol, then
continued driving.)
stop -ing form = finish, give up (He stopped drinking coffee because it upset his
stomach.)
 be sorry + to-inf = apologise for a present action (I'm sorry to say this, but your work is
rather unsatisfactory.)
be sorry for + -ing form = apologise for an earlier action (We are sorry for keeping you
waiting.)
 like + to-inf = think that sth is good or right to do (I like to pay my bills as soon as I get
them.)
like + -ing form = enjoy (general preference) (She likes swimming.)
would like + to-inf = want (specific preference) (I would like to go to that new
restaurant.)
 be afraid + to-inf (the subject is unwilling to do sth) (He is afraid to touch the dog in
case it bites him.)
be afraid of +-ing form = (the subject is afraid that what is described by the -ing form
may happen) (She doesn't want to drive her father's car. She's afraid of crashing it.)
 like, love, prefer, hate, bathe, dread, can’t bear +-ing form = general reference
like, love, prefer, hate, bathe, dread, can’t bear + to-inf = particular reference, things
that are right to do at this very situation
with dislike we always use -ing form
VERBS FOLLOWED BY A NOUN AND A ‘PRESENT’ PARTICIPLE OR (IN THE ACTIVE) AN INFINITIVE
WITHOUT ‘TO’
 Catch, spot, find, discover, and smell are associated in meaning with the above group.
None, however, is followed by an infinitive. All may be followed by an object and a
present participle:
The teacher caught the pupil cheating.
The search party found (spotted, discovered) the climbers clinging to a rock face.
He smelt the meat cooking.
 Spot, find, and discover may be followed by an object + past participle:
The police found the money hidden in a disused garage.
 They may also be followed by a ‘that’ clause, or by an object + to be or to have. In this
case, the verbs suggest the discovery of a fact rather than an act, an intellectual
awareness rather than a physical perception:
Scientists found that the theory was correct.
Scientists found the theory to be correct.
 Smell may also be followed by a ‘that’ clause:
You could smell that someone had been smoking a cigar.
 Leave and keep (someone in a certain situation or condition) share some of the
characteristics of find and discover. They can be followed by an object + a present or
past participle:
He left me silting in the restaurant alone.
He kept me waiting.
He left his bicycle propped against a wall.
He kept the dog chained up.
‘Causative’ have shares the grammatical characteristics of many of the above verbs, though it is
not related to them in meaning. It is followed by a norm and:
a) the infinitive without to:
I’ll have the electrician check everything while he’s here.
b) the present participle:
The doctor mill soon have you walking again.
c) the past participle
We have our central heating boiler serviced every six months.
Subject-verb agreement.
17) The subject and the predicate must agree in person and number.
18) If the subject is expressed by uncountable noun, the verb is singular.
19) If the subject and verb are separated by prepositional phrase, the prepositional phrase has
no effect on the verb.
20) If two subjects are used with the conjunction “and” the verb is in plural form.
21) Such words as somebody, anything, nowhere, each, every, everybody and either, neither when
used without or, nor are followed by singular predicate.
22) When either, neither are followed by or, nor the form of the verb depends on the noun
following or, nor. In not only but also the verb depends on the noun following but also.
23) If two subjects are connected by together with, including, accompanied by, along with, as
well as, the form of the verb depends on the first noun.
24) The verb after half of, some of, none of, more of, all of is depend on the noun after of.
25) Nouns that are always plural are followed by plural verb.
26) There is / are agrees with the first following noun. With quantifiers (all, any, enough, a lot
of) we use there are.
27) The verb following a pronoun “who” agrees with its antecedent.
28) Use a singular verb with name of quantities: distances, periods, sums of money when
considered as a unit.
29) A lot (of)
a majority of
some (of)
all (of)
a group of are followed by the plural predicate verb.
rest of
one of + plural noun
plenty of
a number of (many)
per cent + of + plural noun
a variety of
30) The number of (=amount)
more than one
plural names of countries
per cent / percent / %
per cent + group noun
any of
none of are followed by
the majority of the singular predicate.
a lot of + an uncountable noun
plenty of
all (of)
some (of)
31) With collective nouns such as group, family, audience, population, majority the verb might
be singular or plural depending on the writer’s intent.
32) If the subject is expressed by a substantivized adjective referring to the group of people, the
verb is plural. (The unemployed are on the dole.)
If the substantivized adjective refers to the abstract notion, the verb is singular.
(The unusual frightens me.)
Nouns
Nouns have the category of number and case.
Noun cases:
d) subjective or nominative
e) possessive
f) objective
Classification of nouns
A proper noun – is a noun which denotes a particular person, place or thing.
A common noun – is a noun denoting a class of objects or a concept as opposed to a particular
individual.
A pair noun is used to denote a thing made of two parts which are the same.
A group (collective) noun – is a noun that denotes a group of individuals.
A possessive noun – is a noun indicating ownership (possession).
A compound noun – is a noun made up of two or more existing words.
Abstract nouns – names something that you can’t see, hear, touch, smell or taste.
Concrete nouns – are things that you can experience from your 5 senses: sight, hear, touch, smell
and taste.
Gender types:
 masculine (men and boys)
 feminine (women and girls) (ships, vehicles (when regarded with affection or respect)
and countries)
 neuter (inanimate things, animals and babies whose sex we do not know).
Gender forms:
actor – actress [ˈæktə] – [ˈæktrɪs] актер – актриса
bachelor – spinster [ˈbæʧələ] – [ˈspɪnstə] холостяк – старая дева
barman – barmaid [ˈbɑːmən] – [ˈbɑːmeɪd] бармен – бармен
boy – girl [bɔɪ] – [gɜːl] мальчик – девочка
bridegroom – bride [ˈbraɪdgrʊm] – [braɪd] жених – невеста
bull – cow [bʊl] – [kaʊ] бык – корова
cock – hen [kɒk] – [hen] петух – курица
conductor – conductress [kənˈdʌktə] – [kənˈdʌktrɪs] кондуктор – кондукторша
count – countess [kaʊnt] – [ˈkaʊntɪs] графиня – графиня
dog – bitch [dɒg] – [bɪʧ] пес – собака
drake – duck [dreɪk] – [dʌk] селезень – утка
duke – duchess [djuːk] – [ˈdʌʧɪs] герцог – герцогиня
emperor – empress [ˈempərə] – [ˈemprɪs] император – императрица
father – mother [ˈfɑːðə] – [ˈmʌðə] мать – отец
gander – goose [ˈgændə] – [guːs] гусак – гусыня
gentleman – lady [ˈʤentlmən] – [ˈleɪdi] кавалер – леди
heir – heiress [eə] – [ˈeərɪs] наследник – наследница
hero – heroine [ˈhɪərəʊ] – [ˈherəʊɪn] герой – геоиня
host – hostess [həʊst] – [ˈhəʊstɪs] хозяин – хозяйка
king – queen [kɪŋ] – [kwiːn] король – королева
landlord – landlady [ˈlænlɔːd] – [ˈlændˌleɪdi] хозяин – хозяйка
lion – lioness [ˈlaɪən] – [ˈlaɪənɪs] лев – львица
man – woman [mæn] – [ˈwʊmən] мужчина – женщина
[ˈmænɪʤə] –
manager – manageress менеджер – менеджер ж.
[ˈmænɪʤəˈres]
monk – nun [mʌŋk] – [nʌn] монах – монахиня
nephew – niece [ˈnevju(ː)] – [niːs] племянник – племянница
[pəˈliːsmən] – полицейский – полицейский
policeman – policewoman
[pəˈliːsˌwʊmən] женщина
prince – princess [prɪns] – [prɪnˈses] принц – принцесса
ram – ewe [ræm] – [juː] баран – овца
[ˈseɪlzmən] –
salesman – saleswoman продавец – продавщица
[ˈseɪlzˌwʊmən]
son – daughter [sʌn] – [ˈdɔːtə] сын – дочь
stag – doe [stæg] – [dəʊ] олень – самец – лань
stallion – mare [ˈstæljən] – [meə] жеребец – кобыла
steward – stewardess [stjʊəd] – [ˈstjʊədɪs] стюард – стюардесса
tiger – tigress [ˈtaɪgə] – [ˈtaɪgrɪs] тигр – тигрица
uncle – aunt [ˈʌŋkl] – [ɑːnt] дядя – тетя
waiter – waitress [ˈweɪtə] – [ˈweɪtrɪs] официант – официантка
widower – widow [ˈwɪdəʊə] – [ˈwɪdəʊ] вдовец – вдова
Noun Formation
To describe people: -ar, -er, -ее, -or (to the end of verbs),
-ian, -ist (to the end of nouns or verbs)
beg - beggar, train – trainer/trainee, invent - inventor, magic - magician, type - typist
Suffixes used to form nouns from verbs: Suffixes used to form nouns from adjectives:
-age break - breakage -ance tolerant - tolerance
-ence neglect - negligence -ion desperate - desperation
-sis hypnotise - hypnosis -cy pregnant - pregnancy
-al remove - removal -iness happy - happiness
-ion inspect - rnspecffon -ence independent - independence
-tion abolish - abolition -ity pure - purity
-ance attend - attendance -ment content - contentment
-ation deprive - deprivation -ty anxious - anxiety
-ment commit - commitment -y honest - honesty
-sion revise - revision
-y injure - injury
Plural forms
Nouns are made plural by adding:
 -s
i) to the noun, (cat-cats etc)
j) to nouns ending in vowel + y
k) to nouns ending in: vowel + о (video - videos)
l) double o (zoo - zoos)
m) abbreviations (photograph/photo - photos)
n) musical instruments (piano - pianos)
o) proper nouns (Navajo - Navajos)
p) international words (piano-pianos, video-videos, photo-photos, audio-audios)
 -es
c) to nouns ending in -ch, -s -sh, -ss, x
d) to nouns ending in -o. ('tomato - tomatoes)
 -ies
to nouns ending in consonant + y
 -ves
to some nouns ending in -f/-fe. (self - selves but: chiefs, handkerchiefs, roofs, safes, cliffs, giraffes)
 Note that some nouns ending in -o take either -es or –s
(buffaloes buffalos, mosquitoes/mosquitos, volcanoes/volcanos, zeroes/zeros,
tornadoes/tornados etc.)
 Some nouns of Greek or Latin origin form their plural by adding Greek or Latin suffixes.
Compound nouns form their plural by adding -s,'-es:
• to the second noun if the compound consists of two nouns, (schoolboy - schoolboys)
• to the noun if the compound consists of an adjective and a noun, (frying pan - frying
pans)
• to the first noun if the compound consists of two nouns connected with a preposition
or to the noun if the compound has only one noun, (looker on - lookers on)
• at the end of the compound if this is not made up of any nouns, (runaway - runaways)
Irregular Plurals:
NOUN TRANSCRIPTION PLURAL TRANSCRIPTION TRANSLATION

alumna (f) [əˈlʌmnə] alumnae [əˈlʌmniː] выпускница
alumnus (m) [əˈlʌmnəs] alumni [əˈlʌmnaɪ] выпускник
apexes, [ˈeɪpeksɪz]
apex [ˈeɪpeks] вершина
apices [ˈeɪpɪsiːz]
appendixes [əˈpen·dɪk·səz]
appendix [əˈpendɪks] приложение
appendices [əˈpen·dəˌsiz]
applause [əˈplɔːz] (uncountable) аплодисменты
basis [ˈbeɪsɪs] bases [ˈbeɪsiːz] основание
buffaloes, [ˈbʌfələʊz]
buffalo [ˈbʌfələʊ] буйвол
buffalo [ˈbʌfələʊ]
chaos [ˈkeɪɔs] (uncountable) хаос
crisis [ˈkraɪsɪs] crises [ˈkraɪsiːz] кризис
criterion [kraɪˈtɪəriən] criteria [kraɪˈtɪərɪə] критерий
datum [ˈdeɪtəm] data [ˈdeɪtə] информация, данные
diabetes [daɪəˈbiːtiːz] (uncountable) диабет
dungarees [ˌdʌŋɡəˈriːz] (only plural) комбинезон
formulas [ˈfɔːmjʊləz]
formula [ˈfɔːmjələ] способ, формула
formulae [ˈfɔːmjʊliː]
indices, [ˈɪndɪsiːz]
index [ˈɪndeks] индекс
indexes [ˈɪndeksɪz]
jodhpurs [ˈdʒɒdpəz] (only plural) галифе
laryngitis [ˌlærɪnˈdʒaɪtɪs] (uncountable) ларингит
measles [ ˈmiːzlz] (uncountable) корь
media, [ˈmiːdiə],
medium [ˈmiːdjəm] средство, середина
mediums [ˈmiːdiəmz]
pajamas [pəˈʤɑːməz] (only plural) пижама
phenomenon [ fɪˈnɒmɪnən] phenomena [fɪˈnɒmɪnə] феномен, явление
pneumonia [njuːˈməʊnjə] (uncountable) пневмония
rabies [ˈreɪbiːz] (uncountable) бешенство
salmon [ ˈsæmən] salmon [ ˈsæmən] лосось, семга
scissors [ ˈsɪzəz] (only plural) ножницы
stimulus [ˈstɪmjələs] stimuli [ˈstɪmjəlaɪ] стимул
stratum [ˈstrɑːtəm] strata [ˈstrɑːtə] слой
terminuses [ˈtɜːmɪnəsɪz] вокзал, конечная
terminus [ˈtɜːmɪnəs]
termini [ˈtɜːmɪnaɪ] остановка
thesis [ˈθiːsɪs] theses [ˈθiːsiːz] диссертация
tuberculosis [tjuːˌbɜːkjəˈləʊsɪs] (uncountable) туберкулез
Irregular plurals
actor – actress актер – актриса
aircraft – aircraft самолет – самолеты
break – in – break – ins взлом – взломы
child – children ребенок – дети
deer – deer олень – олени
fish – fish (also: fishes) рыба – рыбы
foot – feet стопа – ступни
goose – geese гусь – гуси
hovercraft – hovercraft судно на воздушной подушке – судна
louse – lice вошь – вши
mackerel – mackerel скумбрия – скумбрии
man – men мужчина – мужчины
means – means средство – средства
mouse – mice мышь – мыши
ox – oxen бык – быки
person – people (peoples) человек – люди (народы)
runner – up – участник состязания, занявший второе место – участники
runners – up состязания, занявшие второе место
salmon – salmon лосось – лососи
series – series сериал – сериалы
sheep – sheep овца – овцы
spacecraft – spacecraft космический корабль – корабли
species – species специя – специи
tooth – teeth зуб – зубы
trout – trout форель
woman – women женщина – женщины
Plural Nouns
3. objects consisting of two parts:
d) garments (clothes, braces (подтяжки), pajamas, trousers, trunks (плавки), dungarees,
jodhpurs, knickers, leggings, suspenders, underpants, tights etc),
e) instruments (binoculars, compasses, handcuffs, spectacles, scales etc),
f) tools (pliers (плоскогубцы), scissors, , tongs (щипцы), tweezers (пинцет), etc)
4. Others:
Authorities (власти), belongings, contents (содержание), foundations (фундамент),
headquarters (главное управление), lodgings (жилье), particulars (детали), proceeds
(выручка), remains (останки), thanks (благодарность), troops (войска), arms (оружие),
ashes (пепел, останки), barracks (казарма), congratulations, earnings, goods, (good) looks,
outskirts (окраина), people, police, premises (помещение), riches (богатство), stairs,
surroundings, wages (заработок), traffic lights (светофор) etc.
Where are my clothes?
Countable - Uncountable Nouns
Nouns can be countable (those that can be counted) or uncountable (those that can't be counted).
Uncountable nouns take a singular verb and are not used with а/an. Some, any, much, no etc. can
be used with them.
BUT: a help, a knowledge (of sth), a pity, a relief, a shame, a wonder.
Uncountable nouns are:
j) Mass nouns (fluids, solids, gases, particles, food):
beer, blood, bread, butter, air, oxygen, flour, rice, vinegar, petrol, concrete (бетон), sellotape
(скотч),
k) Subjects of study:
accountancy (бухгалтерия), chemistry, economics, history, literature, maths, physics etc
l) Languages:
Chinese, French, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Spanish etc
m) Sports and activities:
baseball, billiards, cricket, cycling, darts, football, golf, rugby, shopping, training, travel, cycling,
etc
n) Diseases:
Chickenpox (ветрянка), flu, measles (корь), mumps (свинка), pneumonia, tuberculosis, rabies
(бешенство) etc
o) Natural phenomena:
darkness, fog, gravity, hail (град), snow, sunlight, sunshine, shade (тень), scenery (пейзаж),
seaside etc
p) Some nouns:
accommodation, advice, applause, assistance, behaviour, business, chaos, countryside, dirt,
education, evidence (признак), homework, housework, housing, information, intelligence,
knowledge, luck, music, mud, news, leisure (досуг), pay, poetry, produce (продукция), peace,
progress, shopping, traffic, trouble, truth, wealth, work, conduct, determination, research,
sellotape (скотч), sightseeing, underwear, etc
q) Collective nouns:
baggage, cash, crockery (посуда), cutlery (столовые приборы), furniture, jewellery, luggage,
machinery (оборудование), money, rubbish, stationery (канцелярские товары), publicity etc
r) Features:
anger, goodwill, intelligence, creativity, harm, violence, safety, stamina (стойкость), patience,
reliability (надежность), courage (мужество),
Some nouns can be used in the singular and plural with a different meaning.
(гласность, огласка, an
advertisement (объявление)
publicity) advertisement
beer (жидкость) a beer (стакан пива)
chicken (мясо) a chicken (птица)
chocolate (шоколад) chocolates (конфеты)
cloth (ткань) a cloth (тряпка)
coffee (кофе) a coffee (чашка кофе)
(деньги за возмещение
damage (ущерб) damages
ущерба)
drink (спиртное) a drink (напиток)
experience (опыт) an experience (впечатление)
fish (блюдо) a fish (рыба)
glass (стекло) a glass (стакан)
hair (волосы) a hair (один конкретный волосок)
ice (лёд) an ice (мороженое)
iron (железо) an iron (утюг)
land (земля) a land (участок, страна)
light (огонь) a light (осветительный прибор)
onion (лук) an onion (луковица)
a paper (газета)
paper (бумага)
papers (документы)
pepper (молотый перец) a pepper (сладкий перец)
pity (жалость, сочувствие) It’s a pity (Как жаль, что…)
policy (политика) a policy (полис)
potato (картофельное пюре) a potato (картофелина)
(облегчение) physical
relief a relief (облегчение) emotion
feeling
rubber (резина) a rubber (ластик)
shame (стыд) a shame (жалость, досада)
tape (лента) a tape (запись, кассета)
tea (чай) a tea (чашка чая)
trade (торговля) a trade (профессия, сделка)
traffic (дорожное движение) a traffic (пробка) informal
wonder (изумление, восхищение) a wonder (чудо)
wood (дерево) a wood (лес, брусок, бочка)
(научная работа, труды,
work (работа как профессия) work
заводы)
Countable/uncountable equivalents
Uncountable Countable
accommodation (жилье) a flat (квартира)
a case, a bag, a
baggage, luggage (багаж) (чемодан, сумка)
suitcase
bread (хлеб) a loaf (буханка)
clothing (одежда) a garment (предмет одежды)
a table, a chair, a (стол, стул,
furniture (мебель)
wardrobe шифанер)
information (информация) a fact (факт)
travel (путешествие) a journey (путешествие)
laughter (смех, хохот) a laugh (смех)
a coin, a note, a
money, cash (деньги) (монета, купюра)
banknote
poetry (поэзия) a poem (стихотворение)
publicity (гласность) an advertisement (гласность)
(машины,
(дорожное
traffic cars, vehicles транспортные
движение)
средства)
work (работа) a job (работа)
Group (collective) nouns
Group nouns can take either a singular or a plural verb depending on whether we see the group
as a whole or as individuals.
The team was chosen as the most promising, (the team as a group)
The team were given bonuses for their performance, (each member of the team separately)
When a group is considered as a single unit, the collective noun is used with a singular verb and
singular pronoun.
For example - The committee has reached its decision.
When the focus is on the individual parts of the group, British English sometimes uses a plural verb
and plural pronouns.
For example - "The committee have been arguing all morning." This is the same as saying "The
people in the committe have been ...."
However, if you are talking about more than one committee, then you use the plural form.
For example - "Many committees have been formed over the years."
army; fall (падение); press;

association (объединение); family; public;
audience (аудитория); firm; school;
board (комитет); flock; series (серия, курс, ряд);
bunch (пучок); gang; seе (набор);
cast (актерский состав); generation; shoal (косяк, стая);
choir (хор); government; shower (ливень, дождь);
class; group; sony;
club; headquarters (штаб); stack (стопка);
college (колледж); heap; staff;
committee (комитет); herd; swarm (стая);
community; IBM; team;
company; jury (суд присяжных); the BBC;
council (Совет); mob (толпа); troupe (труппа);
crew; orchestra; university;
crowd; pack;
department (отдел); panel (группа);
electorate (избирательный pile (куча);
корпус);
population;
enemy;
People
a group of people (small group);
a crowd of people (large number);
a gang of football fans (rather negative);
a mob (angry group of people) (a group of kangaroos);
Animals
A flock of sheep/ birds/geese/pigeons (стадо);
a herd of cows/deer/goats (стадо);
a pack of/dogs/hyenas/wolves (стая);
a shoal of fish/herring/mackerel (note the use of singular here) (косяк);
a swarm of insects/bees/gnats (рой);
Job/activity
a board [group of professionals, who take on an advisory role]
a cast [actors in a particular production]
a company [group of actors]
a crew [workers on a ship];
a panel [a group of experts];
a staff [general word for groups who share a place of work, e.g. teachers in a school, people in an
office]
a team of surgeons/ doctors/ experts/ reporters/ scientists/ rescue-workers/ detectives arrived at
the scene of the disaster;
a troupe [group of actors or acrobats; also used to describe a group of monkeys]
Physical features
a clump of trees (скопления деревьев);
a group of islands;
a range of hills;
a row of cottages (ряд коттеджей);
Other
a bunch of flowers/grapes/ bananas/ berries/keys (букет, связка, гроздь);
a pack of (playing) cards (колода карт);
a pile/heap of papers/clothes/dishes/toys (куча);
a set of tools/pots/pans;
a stack of chairs/tables/boxes/logs (стопка);
Counters
a piece of advice/cake/furniture/information/paper;
a bit of furniture/information/advice/computer equipment (Bit is less formal than piece.);
a(n) item/piece of news;
Groceries: Weather:
a bag of flour (мешок муки); a clap/peat/rumble of thunder (удар
a bar of chocolate/soap; грома/раскат грома) ;
a box/sheet of paper; a flash/bolt of lightning (вспышка молнии);
a can of Coke (банка Колы); a gust of wind (порыв ветра);
a carton of milk (коробка молока); a shower of rain (ливень);
a drop/can of oil (капля/банка масла); a spot of rain (капля дождя);
a glass/bottle of beer/water/wine; a spell of fine weather (период хорошей
a jar of jam; погоды);
a kilo/pound of meat;
a lump of sugar (кусок сахара);
a packet of tea; Nature
a pint of beer (пинта пива); a bit/piece of chalk;
a pocket of yoghurt; a blade of grass (стебелёк травы, травинка);
a pot/cup of tea; a block of wood (брус);
a rasher of bacon; a breath of fresh air;
a slice of cake; a cloud of smoke;
a slice of toast/meat/cheese. a puff of smoke;
a slice/loaf of bread; lump of coal/wood;
a tube of toothpaste;
an ice cube;
Other
a fit of temper (вспышка гнева);
a game of soccer (игра в футбол);
a pair of trousers;
a state of chaos/emergency/ tension/confusion/ health, disorder/ uncertainty/poverty/agitation/
disrepair/flux (for abstract nouns);
a stroke of luck;
a stroke of work [only in negative sentences];
article/item of clothing (предмет одежды);
means of transport (транспортные средства);
a barrage/stream of complaints (поток жалоб);
a vial/bottle of ink (бутылочка чернил);
Pronouns, determiners and quantifiers
Pronouns
Possessive Possessive
Personal pronouns
adjectives pronouns Reflexive-Emphatic
before verbs after verbs not followed pronouns
followed by nouns
as subjects as objects by nouns
I me my mine myself
you you your yours yourself
he him his his himself
she her her hers herself
it it its — itself
we us our ours ourselves
you you your yours yourselves
they them their theirs themselves
The number of noun affects the pronoun.
With an uncountable noun, only it can be used.
The pronouns they, their, theirs cannot be used for an uncountable noun, even if the amount is very
large. (We have a large volume of information. We need a computer to work with it.)
Noun-equivalents
A noun-equivalent is any word, phrase, or clause that refers to a person, place, thing or an idea and
appears in one of the usual noun places.
One common noun-equivalent is a pronoun.
Other common noun-equivalents are verb-forms: an infinitive, a gerund.
Noun clauses – clause patterns used like nouns.
Use
 Pronouns can appear in clauses whenever nouns can appear. Pronoun = in place of noun.
Pronouns replaces a noun or noun-equivalent in clause pattern.
 Pronouns can shorten a sentence by reducing long words.
 Pronouns show that several sentences are part of the same message.
 A pronoun can be used to point to persons, places, things or ideas that are clear in the
message.
 Note: A noun and a pronoun are not used together if they refer to the same person, place,
thing or an idea. (All the students in this school they must be com to class.)
Pronouns can be first, second and third person. First person (the speaker or writer): I, me, we, us.
Second person (the receiver of the message): you. Third person (smb, smth else): he, him, she, her,
it, they, them.
Note: The best order is second person, third person and first person.
Personal Pronouns
Subject pronouns: I, you, he, she, It, we, you, they
Object pronouns: me, you, him, her, It, us, you, them
Subject pronouns go before verbs as subjects and object pronouns go after verbs or prepositions as
objects. (I like him a lot.)
Pronouns can be subject and object. It depends on their position in the sentence.
Two correct ways of identifying yourself: It’s I. It’s me.
He/him, she/her are used for human beings, animals whose sex is known, to refer to objects or ideas
that the speaker feels very close (not common). (She is a fine ship. /captain/)
It is used for animals whose sex is unknown, things, ideas, and uncountable nouns.
They/them are used for countable nouns.
He/him is traditionally used when the person is clearly a man or if it’s not possible to decide he or
she it is. (Every parent decides how he wants to raise his children.) Also she can be used there. It is
impossible.
With words as everybody we use singular pronoun in formal English and can use they in the informal
one.
With collective nouns we use a pronoun according to the meaning.
(His family is strong. It has been built on a strong foundation of love and trust.
His family have not been well. They have colds and flu all winter.)
.
[3] We do not use a noun and a personal pronoun together
(All the students in this school they must be com to class.)
[4] We use there + be to mention something for the first time or to say that something or
someone exists.
We use It + be to give more details about something or someone that has already been
mentioned.
We also use it to refer to a person when we are identifying him or her.
There is a message for you. It is from your boss. ‘Who’s on the phone?’ ‘It’s Mr Fox. ’
(NOT: He’s Mr Fox.)
[5] We can use it as the subject to talk about weather, distance, temperature and time and
also with: It seems/appears that/It is said that, It doesn’t matter, It looks like, etc.
It’s a ten-minute drive to the station. It’s 23°C outside.
It seems that there are some problems with the new management.
There seem to be some problems with the new management.
[6] We use It to talk about something that has already been made clear.
I can’t find my wallet. Have you seen it? (The speaker is talking about a specific wallet.)
[7] We use one when it is not clear which thing in particular we are talking about.
I haven’t got any nice jumpers; I need to buy one.
(The speaker is not talking about a specific jumper.)
[8] In short answers and after as and than we use an object pronoun (informal) or a subject
pronoun + auxiliary verb (formal).
She spends more money than те/than I do
Pronouns for general Reference: You, One, They
We use the pronoun You, One or They to make a general statement about people. In this case, the
pronoun does not refer to any particular person or people; that is, there is no antecedent for it.
(You should be especially careful driving on a mid-city freeway.)
The use of you for people in general is informal.
In British English, one is used in both formal and informal language.

In American English, you is used in both formal and informal language.
They for people in general is informal, it’s used to avoid naming specific people.
Impersonal It; Empty It
It is used to take place of the subject of a sentence.
It is used:
 to discuss time (It was 7:45 in the evening.)
 to discuss days and/or dates (It is Tuesday, April 2.)
 to discuss weather (It will be sunny tomorrow.)
 to identify (It is Robert Johnson.)
 sometimes for emphasis (It is important that we finish before tomorrow.)
Uses of There and Then
The adverbs There and Then are sometime used as pronouns in order to point to an earlier unit of
meaning in the sentence, composition, or conversation.
(We arrived at the airport at 3:00 in the morning. We had to wait there until 5:00 am.)
There is used to fill a noun position in a clause pattern.
(Where there many people near the ticket counter?)

Possessive adjectives/pronouns
[9] The possessive of nouns is formed in two ways:
a) a prepositional phrase with the preposition of.
b) adding the ending
[10] Both possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns can be used to talk about ownership
or the relationship between people.
Possessive adjectives are followed by nouns, whereas possessive pronouns are not.
This is her bag. It's hers.
[11] We normally use possessive adjectives with parts of the body and clothes.
Lucy twisted her ankle. / He put on his jacket and his hat and left.
[12] We use the and not possessive adjectives with prepositional phrases mostly when we are
talking about things that happen to parts of people’s bodies, for example blows, pains, etc. Verbs
used are: hit, punch, slap, bite, touch, pat, sting, etc.
She patted him on the shoulder. He s got a pain in the chest.
[13] We use the word own in the following structures to emphasise the fact that something
belongs to someone.
noun + of + my/your, etc. + own
my/your, etc. + own + noun
I wish I had a room of my own. OR I wish I had my own room.
Note: its = possessive adjective. (The cat is licking its paw.)
it’s = it is or it has (It's (it is) raining. It's (it has) got one room.)
[14] Possessive pronouns is used when there is no following noun.

We saw Bill’s new car, but not Ann’s.
Singular Plural Uncountable
Mine Ours
Yours Yours
His Theirs
Hers Theirs
Its Theirs Its
Possessive nouns and pronouns with different meaning

1. ownership
(Carlo’s English book was found yesterday.)
2. close relationship
(The cover of the book was missing.)
(Carlo’s class in pronunciation meets three times a week.)
(This is his first day in the school.)
(The cost of the classes is high.)
3. doer of an action
(The President is coming tomorrow. We must finish all the work before his arrival.)
4. receiver of an action
(The police were unsure about the time of Alice’s murder. (=the time when someone murdered Alice)
(The renovation of the school was overdue.)
5. period of time
(Each week the students have three hours’ practice in the language lab.)
The possessive case
The possessive case can be used to talk about ownership or the relationship between people.
3) With ’s for people or animals
 Singular nouns + ’s (Jim’s pen)
 Plural nouns ending in -s +’ (the boys’ hats)
 Plural nouns not ending in -s + ’s (the children’s toys)
 Compound nouns + ’s (my father-in-law’s house; John and Helen’s house. The house
belongs to both of them)
 Common possession (Jackie and George's camera. (The camera belongs to both of them.)
 Individual possession + ’s (Mary’s and Diana’s bags)
4) With of for inanimate things
 of + inanimate thing or abstract nouns (the windows of the house)
 a/the/this/that + noun + of + possessive (He’s a friend of Jack’s)
 phrase or place (shop, home,…) + ’s (At the baker’s. We mean the shop)
 phrase showing lends of time (specific moment or event) + ’s (an hour’s delay; two days’
work)
 either ’s or of with places or organizations (NASA’s headquarters / headquarters of NASA.
Rome's population OR the population of Rome)
Double Possessive Forms

The double possessive is used to mean part of a larger group.
John is a friend of mine.
1. a prepositional phrase with of (of mine)
2. a possessive pronoun (mine)
Reflexive pronouns
We use reflexive pronouns:
[15] with verbs such as behave, burn, cut, enjoy, hurt, introduce, kill, look at, teach, etc., or with
prepositions when the subject and the object of the verb are the same person. We do not use
reflexive pronouns after prepositions of place.
Sara (subject) has taught herself how to play the guitar.
You look pleased with yourself.
BUT: She looked behind her as she heard footsteps. (NOT: She looked behind herself)
[16] with the preposition by when we mean alone =
1. without company = on one’s own,
2. without help
Dad fixed the roof by himself. (= Nobody helped Dad fix the roof.)
He hates travelling by himself /on his own. (=He hates travelling alone, without company.)
[17] in the following expressions: enjoy yourself (have a good time), behave yourself (be good),
help yourself (you are welcome to take something if you want).
[18] to emphasise the subject or the object of a sentence.
I spoke to the manager himself. (I spoke to the manager, not somebody else.)
Note:
1) We do not use reflexive pronouns with the verbs concentrate, feel, meet and relax.
I feel nervous. (NOT: I feel myself nervous.)
2) The verbs dress, wash and shave are not normally followed by a reflexive pronoun. However,
we can use a reflexive pronoun with these verbs when we want to show that someone did
something with a lot of effort.
She washed, dressed and then had breakfast.
He had a broken arm, but he managed to shave himself.
But we always say dry myself.
3) Each other means one another.
Determiners
Determiners are:
a) indefinite article (a/an);
b) definite article (the);
c) demonstratives (this-these/that-those);
d) possessive adjectives (my, your, his etc);
e) quantifiers (some, any, no, every, both, each, either, neither, a lot of, many, much, enough,
several, all, most etc);
f) numbers (one, two etc).
Demonstratives
This-That/These-Those
This, these, that and those are used as demonstrative adjectives when they are followed by a noun
and as pronouns when they are not followed by a noun.
This vase is made of crystal, (demonstrative adjective) That is made of glass, (pronoun)
this/these are used:
[19] for people or things which are near us. This is my favourite painting.
[20] for present or future situations. My cousin is staying with me this week.
[21] to refer to an idea we are about to mention. Listen to this. It’s really funny.
[22] to introduce oneself on the phone or to introduce people.
‘Hello? This is Helen’. ‘Mum, this is Kate.’
[23] when the speaker is in or near the place he/she is referring to.
This room hasn’t got enough light.
that/those are used:
[24] for people or things which are not near us. That man over there is waving at you.
[25] for past situations. That was a great party. We enjoyed ourselves.
[26] to refer back to something mentioned before. ‘She lost her job.’ ‘That’s awful. ’
[27] when speaking on the phone to ask who the other person is. ‘Who’s that speaking?’
NOTE: This/These - That/Those are not always followed by nouns.
That’s how he survived the shipwreck.
Quantifiers
Some/ /Any / No
Adjectives Pronouns Adverbs
people things places
some someone/somebody something somewhere
Positive
any anyone/anybody anything anywhere
Interrogative any anyone/anybody anything anywhere
no one/not anyone nothing not
Negative no/not any nowhere not anywhere
nobody/not anybody anything
Positive/Negative/ everybody (all people) everything (alleverywhere (in all
every
Interrogative everyone things) places)
[28] Some, any and no are used with uncountable nouns (rice, tea, etc.) and plural countable
nouns (foys, books, etc.). some rice, some toys
[29] Some and its compounds (someone/somebody, something, somewhere) are normally used
in affirmative sentences.
I need some advice. He’s got something in his pocket.
[30] Some and its compounds are also used in interrogative sentences when we expect a
positive answer, for example when we make an offer or request.
a) This place is crowded. Shall we go somewhere else? (We expect the answer yes.)
b) ‘Would you like something to drink?’ (offer)
c) Yes, please. Can I have some lemonade?' (request)
[31] We use some when we mean quite a large amount of or large number of something
The talks went on at some length. (= a long time)
[32] We use some when we mean “not all”
[33] Any and its compounds are also used in interrogative sentences. Not any is used in negative
sentences.
Are there any vegetables in the fridge? There isn't anybody in the office.
Any and its compounds are also used with negative words such as without, never, seldom, rarely,
hardly, barely, scarcely, seldom; deny, fail, forbid, prohibit, impossible, unlikely etc.
I can do this without any help. I have never seen anything like that.
[34] When any and its compounds are used in affirmative sentences, there is a difference in
meaning.
a) You can come any day you want. (It doesn’t 't matter which.)
b) Anyone / Anybody can take part in the quiz show. (It doesn't matter who.)
c) You can find anything you want in this shop. (It doesn't matter what.)
d) I'll find you anywhere you go. (It doesn't matter where.)
[35] We use any when we mean 'all (of them), and it's not important which'.
Any of the students could have answered the question. ('Some of the students ...' here would
mean 'some, but not all')
[36] We use any when any means 'If there is/are any'.
Any questions should be sent to the manager. (= If there are questions...)
[37] We use any commonly in 'if' clauses.
If you have any problems, let me know, ('some' is possible, but is more positive, expecting
problems)
[38] We use a singular verb with compounds of some, any and no.
There is something wrong with the computer.
[39] Every is used with singular countable nouns. Every employee must clock in and out.
[40] The pronouns everyone/everybody, everything and the adverb everywhere are used in
affirmative, interrogative and negative sentences and are followed by a singular verb.
Everybody/Everyone has a right to a fair trial. (NOT: ... hove a right.)
[41] Some and any can also be used to talk about a particular person or thing without
mentioning them specifically.
There must be some way I can contact Jo. (= There must be a way, but I don't know it.)
Isn't there any book here that will give me the information I want? (= There must be a book like
this, but I can't find out what / where it is.)
No , none (of), and not any
[42] We use no (and its compounds) or none (of) instead of not a or not any to emphasise the
negative idea in a sentence.
There isn't a key for this door. There's no key for this door, (more emphatic)
She didn't give me any help at all. She gave me no help at all.
Sorry, there isn't any left. Sorry, there's none left.
She didn't have any of the typical symptoms of cholera. She had none of the typical symptoms.
He didn’t give me anything. He gave me nothing
[43] we can't use not any in initial position in a clause or sentence:
No force was needed to make them move, (not Not any force was needed...)
None of the children was/were awake, (not Not any of the children...)
[44] We often prefer no and none of rather than not any or ...n't any in formal written English.
[45] In a formal style we can use not a in initial position in a clause or sentence (notice the word
order):
Not a word would she say about the robbery.
Not a sound came from the classroom.
[46] After no, we use a singular noun in situations where we would expect one of something,
and a plural noun where we would expect more than one.
Since his resignation, the team has had no manager, (rather than ...had no managers.)
I phoned Sarah at home, but there was no answer, (rather than ...were no answers.)
There were no biscuits left, (rather than ...was no biscuit left.)
He seems very lonely at school, and has no friends, (rather than ...no friend.)
[47] But we can use either a singular or plural noun with little difference in meaning:
No answer (or answers) could be found.
We want to go to the island but there's no boat (or there are no boats) to take us.
[48] When we use none of with a plural noun the verb can be either singular or plural, although
the singular form is usually more formal.
None of the parcels have arrived yet. (or ...has arrived...)
[49] We use none with an uncountable noun the verb must be singular.
[50] We use none if we want to give special emphasis to no or none of we can use phrases like
no amount of with uncountable nouns and not one (of) with singular countable nouns.
She was so seriously ill that no amount of expensive treatment could cure her.
It was clear that no amount of negotiation would bring the employers and workers closer
together.
Not one member of the History department attended the meeting.
Not one of the hundreds of families affected by the noise wants to move.
Else
[51] The adverb else means ‘other, different’, or ‘more’. It is used after somebody, anybody,
nothing, everywhere, etc. and who, what, why, when, where and how. It is followed by a singular
verb.
a) Can I get you anything else?
b) Kim hasn't arrived yet but everybody else is here.
c) I've been to Lisbon twice this year.' ‘Really? Where else have you been?'
d) I bought a lovely rug from the market.’ ‘What else did you buy?’
[52] Anything (else) and nothing (else) can be used with but.
I haven’t got anything (else) to offer but my advice.
[53] The possessive of else is else’s. I have taken somebody else’s book by mistake.
[54] Or else means ‘otherwise’, ‘if not’. Hurry up or else we'll miss our flight.
[55] Elsewhere is formal and means ‘somewhere else’.
If you are not satisfied with the service in this restaurant, you can go elsewhere.
Every/Each
[56] Every and each are used with singular countable nouns. We normally use each when we
talk about two people or things. We use every when we talk about three or more people or
things.
He was holding an ice cream in each hand. (NOT:... in every hand.)
Every part of my body hurt after the fall.(NO T: Each port of my body ...)
[57] Every one and each (one) can be followed by of.
It was the twins’ birthday yesterday. I gave a present to each (one) of them.
I've seen all of Mel Gibson’s films and I liked every one of them.
[58] We use every when we are thinking of people or things together, in a group to mean ‘all’,
‘everybody/everything’.
Every employee is entitled to twenty days off. (all employees)
Before I met Daniel, I thought every small child liked sweets! (rather than ...each...)
[59] We use every with a plural noun when every is followed by a number to show how often
something happens. Reference to regular or repeated events.
There is a train every twenty minutes. I have to attend a meeting every two months.
[60] We use every but not each with words and expressions such as almost, nearly, virtually,
practically and without exception to emphasise we are talking about a group as a whole
Almost every visitor stopped and stared, (not Almost each visitor...)
She has invited every person she knows, without exception. (NOT: each person she knows.)
[61] We use every with abstract uncountable nouns such as chance, confidence, hope, reason,
and sympathy to show a positive attitude to what we are saying. Here every means 'complete'
or 'total':
She has every chance of success in her application for the job.
[62] We use each when we are thinking of people or things separately, one at a time.
Each employee in turn will tell the manager when he wishes to take his holiday.
[63] We use a singular verb after each (of) and every:
Following the flood, every building in the area needs major repair work, (not ...need...)
[64] BUT: when each follows the noun or pronoun it refers to, the noun and verb are plural:
Every student is tested twice a year. They are each given a hundred questions to do.
[65] Note: we use they, their and them to refer back to phrases such as 'each soldier', 'every
candidate' etc. which do not indicate a specific gender (male or female).
Each woman complained that she (or they) had been unfairly treated.
Every candidate said that they thought the interview was too long.
[66] We use each if we are thinking about the individual members of the group.
We greeted each guest as they entered. (Emphasises that we greeted them individually.)
We greeted every guest as they entered. (Means something like 'all the guests'.)
[67] We use each when we are talking about both people or things in a pair:
I only had two suitcases, but each (one) weighed over 20 kilos.
[68] We use all (with plural or uncountable nouns) or every (with singular countable nouns) to
talk about things or people in a group they have a similar meaning:
Have you eaten all the apples? • He ate every apple in the house.
[69] When we use all or every to talk about time, their meaning is usually different:
John stayed all weekend. (= the whole of the weekend)
John stayed every weekend when he was at university. (= without exception)
A lot of - many - much - (a) few - (a) little
countables uncountables
a lot (of)/lots of/a lot (of)/lots of/ muchThere are a lot of books in the library. There
Positive
many (formal) (formal) is a lot of salt in this omelet.
Are there many paintings in the museum?
Interrogative many much
Did you have much time to talk to him?
There aren’t many tickets left.
Negative many much
I can't buy this. I don't have much money.
a few (= some)/a little (= some)/
A few people were invited to the party. Very
(very) (very)
few people are billionaires.
few (= not many, notlittle (= not much, not
A little sugar will make the pie sweeter.
enough) enough)
A lot of/much/many
[70] A lot of/lots of are used with both plural countable and uncountable nouns. They are
normally used in affirmative sentences. Of is omitted when a lot/lots are not followed by a noun.
There were a lot of /lots of people at the concert.
There is a lot of/lots of yoghurt in the fridge. Have you got many books? Yes, I've got a lot.
[71] Much and many are normally used in interrogative and negative sentences. Much is used
with uncountable nouns and many with plural countable nouns.
Is there much sugar in the cupboard?
There isn 't much sugar in this cake.
Have you got many CDs? I haven't got many CDs.
[72] How much and how many are used in questions and negations.
How much + uncountable noun → amount. How many + countable noun → number
‘How much money have you got?’ ‘Not much.’ ‘How many stamps do you need?’ ‘Six.’
[73] Too many is used with plural countable nouns. (negative meaning and that there is more
of something than is wanted or needed.)
You eat too many sweets. Your teeth will rot.
[74] Too much is used with uncountable nouns. It has the same negative meaning as too many.
I've got too much work to do. I can't go out.
[75] We use most/some/any/many/much/(a) few/(a) little /several/one, two, etc. + of when a
noun follows, preceded by this, that, these, those, a, the or possessives.
Most of the people at the party were from work, BUT: Most people like parties.
[76] We can use much and many in affirmative sentences but it’s very formal.
I've given the problem a lot of thought, ('much thought' is very formal)
[77] In formal contexts (academic writing) much (of) and many (of) are often substituted with
a great deal of or a large amount/number of.
Much debate has been generated by Thornton's controversial paper.
A great deal of the exhibition was devoted to his recent work, (or Much of...)
[78] In formal contexts we can also use much and many as pronouns:
Much remains to be done before the drug can be used with humans.
Many (= many people) have argued that she is the finest poet of our generation.
[79] In both formal and informal contexts we can use much and many in affirmative sentences
after as, so, and too.
I'd say there were twice as many women at the meeting as men.
She gave me so much spaghetti, I couldn't eat it all.
[80] Instead of much, many without a noun at the end of positive sentences we use a lot or lots.
'Have you got any small nails?' 'Yes, I've got a lot / lots.' (not ...I've got many.)
[81] We can use much and many at the end of affirmative sentences after as, so, and too:
Do you want some of the pudding? I've got too much.
[82] We often use plenty of instead of a lot of or lots of. But it’s not likely in certain contexts as
plenty of means 'enough, or more than enough'
We took lots of food and drink on our walk through the hills, (or ...plenty of...)
Jim doesn't look well. He's lost a lot of weight, ('plenty of is unlikely here)
[83] We don't use plenty without of before a following noun:
We've got plenty of time left, (not We've got plenty time left.)
[84] We can use many between a determiner or possessive form and a following noun,
particularly in rather formal speech and writing:
The letter could have been sent by any of his many enemies.
[85] We can use much or many with this and that as in:
I've never had this much money before.
[86] Using many with or without the definite article is different
Many boys enjoy football. (= about boys in general)
Many of the boys enjoy football. (= about a particular group of boys)
A few/few, a little/little
[87] A few/few are used with plural countable nouns (flowers, letters, etc.).
A few means not many, but enough.
There are a few hotels in this town. You'll probably find a room to spend the night.
Few means hardly any, almost none and can be used with very for emphasis.
There are (very) few cupboards in the kitchen. There’s not enough room to store my plates and
glasses.
[88] A little/little are used with uncountable nouns (milk, time, etc.).
A little means not much, but enough.
There is a little petrol in the tank. It will get us to the next town.
Little means hardly any, almost none and can be used with very for emphasis.
There’s (very) little coffee left. We need to buy some more.
Both-Neither – All/alone – Either
[89] Both refers to two people, things or groups. It has a positive meaning and is followed by a
plural verb.
Both men work at the bank.
Both of them cost a lot of money.
[90] Both ... and is followed by a plural verb. (Both Mark and Sam work here.)
[91] Neither refers to two people, things or groups and has a negative meaning. Neither of +
plural noun phrase can be followed by either a singular or plural verb in the affirmative.
Neither of the films has/have won an award.
Neither of them is/are working at the moment. But: Neither dress is long enough.
[92] Either refers to two people, things or groups and is followed by a singular countable noun.
You can paint the walls blue or green. Either colour is fine with me.
[93] Either of + plural noun phrase can be followed by either a singular or plural verb.
Either of these two dresses suits/suit you. But: Either dress suits you.
[94] We can use not ... either (of) instead of neither (of).
I saw two plays, but I didn't like either of them.
[95] Either can also be used at the end of a negative sentence.
My sister can't drive, and I can't either.
[96] Neither ... nor/Either ... or take either a singular or plural verb, depending on the subject
which follows nor or or.
Either Mum or Dad is going to pick me up.
[97] We use all or all of when we are talking about the total number of things or people in a
group.
[98] To make negative sentences with all we normally use not all, particularly in a formal style
[99] or the total amount of something
[100] In spoken English we can use all...not. We can also use none (of). Not all and none (of) have
a different meaning.
Not all my cousins were at the wedding. (= some of them were there)
None of my cousins were at the wedding. (= not one of them was there)
[101] None of refers to more than two people, things or groups and has a negative meaning. It is
used with nouns or object pronouns and is followed by either a singular or plural verb.
None of my friends has/have travelled abroad. But: ‘How many books did you buy?' None.’
[102] All refers to more than two people, things or groups. It has a positive meaning and is
followed by a plural verb.
All the actors were brilliant.
All of them are well-qualified.
[103] Both/All can go:
a) after the verb to be,
b) after the auxiliary verb, but before the main verb.
They are both/all excited. They have both/all signed the contract.
[104] All + day/morning/week/ year = the whole + day/morning/week/year
He's been making phone calls all morning/the whole morning.
[105] In modern English we don't use all without a noun to mean 'everyone' or 'everything':
Everyone was waiting to hear the results, (not All were waiting...)
[106] All can mean 'everything' when it is followed by a relative clause:
I don't agree with all that he said. (= everything that he said)
[107] We can also use all without a noun to mean 'the only thing':
All she wants to do is help.
[108] Whole is used with singular countable nouns. We use a/the/this/my etc. + whole + noun.
He was hungry, so he ate the whole pie.
Also: He was hungry, so he ate all the pie.
[109] We don’t use whole with uncountable nouns.
She spent all the money you gave her. (NOT: ...the whole money...)
[110] Before plural nouns we can use all (of) or whole, but they have different meanings.
All (of the) towns had their electricity cut off. (= every town in an area)
After the storm, whole towns were destroyed. (=some towns were completely affected)
[110.1] After personal pronouns we use all/both, not all of / both of.
I've given all of / both of them to Bob. I've given them all/both to Bob.
All of / Both of them need cleaning. They all/both need cleaning.
[111] In informal contexts we can leave out of before the, these, those (and this or that with all);
my, I your, her, his, etc.; and mine, yours, etc., but not before them, you, or us (and it with all):
Are you going to eat all (of) that cake, or can I finish it?
[111.1] We can use all with or without the definite article with difference in meaning
All champagne comes from France. (= about champagne in general) and
All (of) the champagne we sell is from France. (= about a particular type of champagne)
[112] We can use each before articles, pronouns such as my, her, and our, and possessive forms,
when it means 'each one', as in:
I could see five young elephants, each the size of a car. (= each one)
Other structures
[113] the other(s) = the rest Only those books are mine; the others are from the library.
[114] others = several more apart from the ones already mentioned. At weekends, some people
like to go out and dance, while others prefer to stay at home and relax.
[115] each other = one another. Her two small children are always fighting with each other.
[116] every other = alternate I clean the house every other day.
[117] the other day = a few days ago I saw Joe the other day. I went to his house for dinner.
[118] the other one(s) = not this/these but something else I quite like this dress, but 1 liked the
other one better
[119] another = one more apart from those already mentioned May 1 have another slice of cake
please?
[120] Another can be used with expressions of distance, money and time. It will take us another
two hours before we get to Plymouth.
[121] another = additional, an extra one. It is used with singular countable nouns.
Would you like another cup of tea?
These apples are delicious. Can I have another (one)?
[122] another + few/two, three etc. + noun
We're going to stay for another few days!another four days.
[123] other/another = different, besides this/these
Have you got any other blouses in black?
I don 't like this tie. Can you show me another one?
[124] other/others When other is used with a noun, it has no plural form.
Where are the other files? But: I've got some files here. Where are the others?
Note: Others can also be used to mean (the) other people,
Some people enjoy playing golf, others hate it.
[125] every other = every second We go to the supermarket every other Friday.
[126] the other day = a few days ago
Jack called me the other day; he said he was coming home the following week.
Note: We can use they/them/ their to refer to a person whose sex is unknown.
Suppose a friend of yours asked you to lend them some money, what would you do?
(Also: ...to lend him or her some money ... less usual)
My grandmother celebrated her 70th birthday last week.
[127] We also use they/them/their after words such as somebody, anybody, nobody, whoever, no,
each, every, a person.
If anybody calls while I'm out, ask them to leave a message.
Whoever told you that? They must have been lying.'
One and ones

[127.1] We can use one instead of repeating a singular countable noun when it is clear from the
context what we are talking about:
'Can I get you a drink?' 'It's okay, I've already got one (= a drink).'
'Is this your umbrella?' 'No, mine's the big blue one (= umbrella).'
[127.2] Ones can be used instead of repeating a plural noun:
I think his best poems are his early ones (= poems).
People who smoke aren't the only ones (= people) affected by lung cancer.
[127.3] We don't use one/ones instead of an uncountable noun:
If you need any more paper, I'll bring you some, (not ...one/ones.)
I asked him to get apple juice, but he got orange, (not ...orange one/ones.)
[127.4] We can't use ones without additional information (e.g. small ones, ones with blue laces).
Instead, we use some.
We need new curtains. Okay, let's buy green ones this time. / ...ones with flowers on. and
We need new curtains. Okay, let's buy some, (not ...let's buy ones.)
[127.5] We don't use one/ones after a - instead we leave out a:
Have we got any lemons? I need one for a meal I'm cooking, (not ...need a one...)
[127.6] We don't use one/ones after nouns used as adjectives:
I think I put the keys in my trouser pocket, but they are in my jacket pocket. (my jacket one.)
[127.7] We don't use one/ones instead of using one/ones after personal pronouns (my, your, her,
etc.) we prefer mine, yours, hers, etc. BUT a personal pronoun + one/ones is often heard in
informal speech:
I'd really like a watch like yours, (or '...like your one.' in informal speech)
[127.8] We can leave out one/ones after which:
When we buy medicines, we have no way of knowing which (ones) contain sugar.
[127.9] We can leave out one/ones after superlatives:
Look at that pumpkin! It's the biggest (one) I've seen this year.
If you buy a new car, remember that the most economical (ones) are often the smallest.
[127.10] We can leave out one/ones after this, that, these, and those:
The last test I did was quite easy, but some parts of this (one) are really difficult.
Help yourself to grapes. These (ones) are the sweetest, but those (ones) taste best.
[127.11] Note: some people think 'those ones' is incorrect, particularly in formal English.
[127.12] We can leave out one/ones after either, neither, another, each, the first/second/last, etc.
(the forms without one/ones are more formal):
Karl pointed to the paintings and said I could take either (one), (or ...either of them.)
She cleared away the cups, washed each (one) thoroughly, and put them on the shelf.
[127.13] We don't leave out one/ones after the, the only, the main, and every:
When you cook clams you shouldn't eat the ones that don't open.
After I got the glasses home, I found that every one was broken.
[127.14] We don't leave out one/ones after adjectives:
My shoes were so uncomfortable that I had to go out today and buy some new ones.
[127.15] After colour adjectives we can often leave out one/ones in answers:
'Have you decided which jumper to buy?' 'Yes, I think I'll take the blue (one).'
So
[128] We can use so instead of repeating an adjective, adverb, or a whole clause:
The workers were angry and they had every right to be so. (= angry)
John took the work seriously and Petra perhaps even more so. (= seriously)
Bob should be the new director. At least I think so. (= that he should be the new director)
[129] We often use so instead of a clause after verbs concerned with thinking, such as be afraid,
appear/seem (after 'it'), assume, believe, expect, guess, hope, imagine, presume, suppose,
suspect, think, and also after say and after tell (with an object):
Paul will be home next week - at least we hope so. (= that he will be home next week)
I found the plan ridiculous, and said so. (- that I found the plan ridiculous)
[130] Notice that we don't use so after certain other verbs, including accept, admit, agree, be
certain, claim, doubt, hear, intend, promise, suggest, be sure:
Liz will organise the party. She promised (that) she would, (not She promised so.)
The train will be on time today. I'm sure (that) it will, (not I'm sure so.)
[131] In negative sentences, we use not or not...so:
Is the Socialist Party offering anything new in its statement? It would appear not.
They want to buy the house, although they didn't say so directly.
[132] We can use either not or not...so with appear, seem, suppose:
'I don't suppose there'll be any seats left.' 'No, I don't suppose so.'(or ...I suppose not.)
[133] We prefer not...so with believe, expect, imagine, think. With these verbs, not is rather
formal:
Had she taken a wrong turning? She didn't think so. (rather than She thought not.)
[134] We use not with be afraid, assume, guess, hope, presume, suspect.
'Do you think we’ll be late?" I hope not.' (not I don't hope so.)
[135] Compare the use of not (to) and not...so with say:
'Do we have to do all ten questions?' 'The teacher said not.' (= the teacher said that we
[136] didn't have to) or 'The teacher said not to.' (= the teacher said that we weren't to.)
'Do we have to do all ten questions?' 'The teacher didn't say so.' (= the teacher didn't say that
we should do all ten, but perhaps we should)
[137] We can use so in a short answer, instead of a short answer with 'Yes, ...', when we want to
say that we can see that something is true, now that we have been told, particularly if we are
surprised that it is true:
'Jack and Martha are here.' 'So they are.' (or Yes, they are.) (= I can see that, too, now)
'Mimi has cut her face.' 'So she has.' (or Yes, she has.) (= I can see that, too, now)
[138] In answers like this we use so + pronoun + auxiliary verb (be, have, do, can, could, etc.).
'Your bike's been moved.' 'So it has. (Yes, it has.) I wonder who did it.' (= I didn't know before
you told me)
'Your bike's been moved.' 'Yes, it has. Philip borrowed it this morning.' (= I knew before you told
me)
[139] We can use so in a similar way in short answers with verbs such as appear (after 'it'),
believe, gather, hear, say, seem, tell (e.g. So she tells me), understand. However, with these verbs,
the pattern implies 'I knew before you told me'.
'The factory is going to close.' 'So I understand.' (= I've heard that news, too)
T found that lecture really boring.' 'So I gather. (= I knew that) I saw you sleeping.'
Do so
[140] We use do so instead of repeating a verb + object or verb + complement when it is clear
from the context what we are talking about. We can also use does so, did so, doing so, etc.:
She won the competition in 1997 and seems likely to do so (= win the competition) again this year.
Dr Lawson said, 'Sit down.' Cathy did so (= sat down), and started to talk about her problems.
The climbers will try again today to reach the summit of the mountain. Their chances of doing so (=
reaching the summit of the mountain) are better than they were last week. (In very formal English
we can also use so doing.)
When he was asked to check the figures, he claimed that he had already done so. (= checked the
figures)
[141] Do so is most often used in formal spoken and written English. In informal English we can
use do it or do that rather than do so:
Mrs Bakewell waved as she walked past. She does so/it/that every morning.
Ray told me to put in a new battery. I did so/it/that, but the radio still doesn't work.
[142] We can also use do alone rather than do so in less formal English, especially after modals
or perfect tenses (see also B):
'Will this programme work on your computer?' 'It should do.'
I told you that I'd finish the work by today, and I have done, ('have' is stressed here)
[143] We can use do so instead of verbs that describe actions (dynamic verbs), such as vote and
confess. We don't use do so with verbs that describe states, such as like and remember.
Such
[144] We can use such + (a/an) + noun to refer back to something mentioned before, with the
meaning 'of this/ that kind'. We use such + noun when the noun is uncountable or plural, and
such + a/an + noun when the noun is countable:
They needed someone who was both an excellent administrator and manager. Such a person
was not easy to find.
We allow both men and women to have time off work to bring up children. We were the first
department to introduce such a scheme.
The students refer to teachers by their first names and will often criticise them for badly
prepared lessons. Such behaviour is unacceptable in most schools.
When asked about rumours that the company is preparing to shed more than 200 jobs, a
spokeswoman said: 'I know of no such plans.'
[145] Such is used in this way mainly in formal speech and writing. More informally we can use,
for example, 'A person like this...', '...a scheme of this kind.', 'This sort of behaviour...', etc.
Leaving out words after auxiliary verbs

[146] To avoid repeating words from a previous clause or sentence we use an auxiliary verb (be,
have, can, will, would, etc.) instead of a whole verb group (e.g. 'has finished') or instead of a verb
and what follows it (e.g. 'going to read it', 'like to come with you to Venice').
[147] If there is more than one auxiliary verb in the previous clause or sentence, we leave out all
the auxiliary verbs except the first instead of repeating the main verb. Alternatively, we can use
two (or more) auxiliary verbs:
Alex hadn't been invited to the meal, although his wife had. {or ...had been.)
'They could have been delayed by the snow.' 'Yes, they could.' (or ...could have (been).)
[148] If there is no auxiliary verb in the previous clause or sentence, or if the auxiliary is a form
of do, we use a form of do instead of repeating the main verb:
I now play chess as well as he does, (instead of ...as well as he plays chess.)
'I didn't steal the money.' 'No-one thinks that you did.' (instead of ...that you stole it.)
[149] If be is the main verb in the previous clause or sentence, we repeat a form of the verb be:
'The children are noisy again.' 'They always are.'
'I'm not happy in my job.' 'I thought you were.'
[150] If have is the main verb in the previous clause or sentence, we usually use a form of either
do or have:
'Do you think I have a chance of winning?' 'Yes, I think you have.' (or ...you do.)
Even if he hasn't got a map himself, he may know someone who has. (or ...who does.)
[151] For particular emphasis, we can also use do have, etc.
I think you do have.
[152] However, if we use have + noun in the previous clause or sentence to talk about actions
(have a shower, have lunch, have a good time, etc.) we prefer do:
I wasn't expecting to have a good time at the party, but I did.
[153] If we use have as an auxiliary verb, we can follow it with done:
The restaurant is to ban smoking, just as many other restaurants in the city have (done).
'She's never made a mistake before.' 'Well she has (done) this time.'
[154] In a similar way, after a modal auxiliary verb (can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall,
should, will, would) we can use do, particularly in spoken English:
'Will you see Tony today?' 'I might (do).'
'Mat's operation next week is worrying him a lot.' 'Yes, I suppose it would (do).'
[155] If we use be as an auxiliary verb in the previous clause or sentence, we can use be after a
modal:
'Is Ella staying for lunch?' 'Yes, I think she will (be).'
[156] However, if be is used as a main verb in the previous clause or sentence, or as an auxiliary
verb within a passive, we don't leave out be after a modal:
Shannon isn't a great footballer now and, in my view, never will be.
The book was delivered within a week. The shop had said it would be.
Leaving out to-infinitives

[157] We can sometimes use to instead of a clause beginning with a to-infinitive when it is clear
from the context what we are talking about:
I wanted to come with you, but I won't be able to. (instead of ...to come with you.)
'I can't lend you any more money.' 'I'm not asking you to.' (instead of...to lend me more money.)
It might have been better if Rosa had asked for my help, but she chose not to. (instead of ...chose
not to ask for my help.)
[158] However, when we use parts of the verb be in the previous sentence or clause the infinitive
form of the verb (to be) is repeated after to:
Simon was frightened - or maybe he just pretended to be. (not ...just pretended to.)
The report is very critical and is clearly intended to be. (not ...clearly intended to.)
[159] We sometimes leave out a to-infinitive clause or use to after certain adjectives and nouns:
'Could you and Tom help me move house?' 'Well, I'm willing (to), and I'll ask Tom.'
I'm not going to write another book - at least I don't have any plans (to).
[160] We can also leave out a to-infinitive or use to with the verbs agree, ask, expect, forget,
promise, refuse, try, wish:
Robert will collect us by 10 o'clock. He promised (to).
'You were supposed to buy some sugar.' 'Sorry, I forgot (to).'
[161] However, when we use negative forms of expect and wish we don't leave out to:
We saw Maggie in Scotland, although we didn't expect to. (not ...we didn't expect.)
[162] After some verbs we don't leave out to:
I admit that I took her watch, but I didn't mean to.
'Please suggest changes to the plans if you want.' 'I intend to.'
[163] Other verbs like this include advise (+ noun), be able, choose, deserve, fail, hate, hope,
need, prefer.
[164] After want and would like in if-clauses and wh-clauses we can leave out a to-infinitive or
use to:
You're welcome to dance if you'd like (to).
You can do whatever you would like (to).
Call me Fred if you want (to).
Take what you want (to) and leave the rest.
[165] ln other cases we include to:
I was planning to see you tomorrow, and I would still like to.
They offered to clean your car because they want to, not because they hope to be paid.
[166] After like we leave out a to-infinitive:
Say anything you like. I won't be offended.
You can have one of these cakes if you like.
[167] However, we include to with negative forms of want, would like, and like, including in if-
clauses and wh-clauses:
'Shall we go and visit Joan?' 'I don't really want to.'
I should have phoned Jo last night, but it was so late when I got home I didn't like to.
'He won't mind you phoning him at home.' 'Oh, no, I wouldn't like to.'
Articles
Articles in sentence pattern:
DETERMINER MODIFIER HEAD QUALIFIER
the tall girl with black hair
A/An
I. nominating function
II. aspective function
 We use a before a consonant and an before a vowel.
 А/an has no plural.
They 're farmers.
We use a/an:
 with singular countable nouns when we talk about them in general. “Any example of particular
type or class”
I want to buy a dress, (any dress)
 when we talk about somebody or something for the first time
 with the verbs to be and to have (got).
Mary has (got) a dog. It’s a German Shepherd.
 to describe or give information about something that has already been introduced with verbs like
'be', 'seem', 'look', or 'sound'
This seemed a logical approach.
You look an idiot.
 in descriptions, with descriptive adjectives.
He’s got a long nose, (NOT ... the long nose.)
A beautiful sky.
She's got an interesting face, (NOT ... the interesting face.)
Note: hair is singular, and has no article.
When we have a descriptive adjective and a description with of, a/an is preferable.
 before Mr/Mrs/Miss/Ms when we refer to an unknown person.
A Mrs Jones called you this morning. (A person that we don’t know.)
 to show:
a) price in relation to weight (two pounds a kilo)
b) distance in relation to speed (80km an hour)
c) frequency (twice a week)
 to say what kind of thing somebody or something is.
She's a farmer.
 to say what job a person does.
He worked as a taxi-driver.
 to say what something is used as.
Don't use the plate as an ashtray.
 А /an can mean ‘a particular one’, if you don’t say exactly who or which. In the plural, we use
some or no article.
A man called while you were out.
Some men called.
James married a doctor.
They both married doctors.
 In exclamations with what
What a pity! (NOT What pity!)
 (aspective function) with abstract uncountable nouns can be used with a/an when an adjective
is used with them.
...working up a passing anger./He had almost a supernatural courage.
 usually after quite, rather and such
Our vacation was such a grand experience.
 with the days of the week to identify one day of the week in general.
Don't do it on a Monday.
It was always washing on a Monday and baking on a Wednesday.
 You can use the definite or indefinite article with qualification or modification to refer to one
particular day.
...Monday April 17, an ordinary Monday. /...not later than the second Monday in May.
 day, week, month, year can be used with both the definite and indefinite articles.
She had loved him for over a year. /A week later she woke up screaming.
 with lunch and dinner to mean a special formal occasion.
Afterwards, Her Royal Highness attended a dinner at the Castle Hotel.
 with some names of illnesses a cold (простуда), a chill (простуда), a cough (кашель), a
headache (головная боль), other words ending in '-ache'
...when someone has a cold./One morning she developed an earache.
 With grammatical terms to describe or to pick out one particular instance
He used an indefinite article where I would have used a definite article.
 with a family name to pick out one member
If there were always an England there would always be a Rothermere.
 Converting proper nouns
a) when you want to suggest that someone or something is similar to someone or something
famous
She's a proper Shakespeare, the buying power of an IBM.
b) talking about a copy or instance of something, especially a newspaper or magazine 'a Times'
means 'a copy of the Times'
c) referring to a product or a work by someone
Would I recognise a Renoir?
d) when you want to pick out a particular 'version' of something
...if there were always an England.
 before ‘best’, but only when ‘best’ and the noun after it together form a fixed expression, such
as ‘best friend’ or ‘best seller’.
You ought to write a novel about it, could be a best seller.
 before 'only' when it is used in the expressions 'only child', 'only son', and 'only daughter’
 in 'of’-phrases to express:
a) quality (A question of importance.)
b) quantity - measure (A distance of 10 km.)
c) composition (A group of children.)
d) material (A wall of glass.)
e) content (A cup of tea.)
f) age (A boy of five.)
g) size (A sailor of middle height.)
h) comparison (An angel of a wife.)
 with few, little in negative meaning
He left after a few moments.
 With a second (a third) when we mean - another
Now it seemed, there might be a third choice.
 In a number of when we mean many
His father and a number of his relatives were in the dining-room.
 With Another
a) If there are more than 2 objects of the same description the indefinite article is used.
Could I have another cup of coffee?
 In the classifying (descriptive) genitive case which refers to a whole class of objects.
…a doctor's degree / ... a mile's distance
A(n)/One
 We use a/an to refer to an unspecified thing with the meaning 'any one’. We use one when we
are counting, to put emphasis on number.
He bought a tie. (We are not talking about a specific tie.)
He bought one tie. (He didn’t buy two ties.)
 We use one with the words day, week, month, year, winter, morning, night, etc. or with a specific
day or month to say when something happened, usually in narration.
One summer, the family decided to go to Tahiti.
 We can use one day to refer to the future.
One day, you will regret this.
 We use one or one of ... when we mean one person/thing out of many. It usually contrasts with
another/other (s).
One bus was full, but the others were empty. One of my colleagues is from Italy.
 'One' must be used when using two words referring to measurements
'It's one foot ten inches long'.
When using just one word referring to a measurement, you use a unless you want to show you
are being precise.
'It's a foot long'.
 We use a/an or one with no difference in meaning when counting or measuring distance, weight,
time, etc.
I paid a/one hundred pounds for this bracelet.
We bought а/one carton of milk.
They spent а/one month cruising down the Nile.
One/Ones
 We use one in contrast with another or other(s)
One girl wanted to go out. But the others wanted to stay at home.
 We use one in the expression one day
One day I’ll take you to meet my family.
 We use one with hundred and thousand when we want to sound precise
‘How many are there? About a hundred?’ ‘Exactly one hundred and three.’
 We use one in expressions like only one and just one.
We've got plenty of sausages, but only one egg.
 We use one in the singular and ones in the plural to avoid repeating the noun when it is clear
what we mean.
My house is the one with the red front door.
 We use a/an with one when there is an adjective before one.
I want to buy a jacket. I want a leather one.
But: I want to buy a jacket. I want one with a fur collar.
 We use one/ones with this/that.
I don't like this pair of shoes, but I like that one.
 We use one when being precise or emphasizing that only one thing is involved
I have two younger brothers and one sister.
 We use which one(s) in questions.
I like the yellow blouse best. Which one do you like?
The
I. The individualizing function
II. Generic function
We use The:
 with nouns when we are talking about something specific
 when the noun (or synonym) is mentioned for a second time (referring back or anaphora)
 when the noun is already known.
In other words, when we can answer the question ‘Who?’ or ‘Which?’
I bought a shirt and a dress. The dress is blue and the shirt is green.
 When we talk about things associated with a previous mention
I went to the window again to try to smash the glass.
He needed a whisky, but the bottle was empty.
 in generalizations with singular countable nouns, to talk about a whole class of things. This is
common in scientific and technical language.
Who invented the telescope?
 In surrounding situation
'I can only apologize for the roses. The whole lot should be pulled out.' (being in a garden)
'Pass the salt. '/'Where's the phone?'
 when a description with of follows the noun.
She’s studying the history of China.
 with nouns which are unique.
the sun, the Eiffel Tower, the record, the earth, the sky, the universe, the devil, the equator,
the moon, the north pole, the planets, the pope, the solar system, the south pole, the stars,
the sun, the weather, the world
 certain nouns which refer to a part or characteristic of something are followed by an 'of'-
phrase very frequently, and have unique reference.
back, end, middle, top, beginning, front, price, weight, bottom, height, size, edge, length, title.
...after the beginning of the tax year. /Picture5 at the top of page 43.
 With qualified nouns. Nouns could be qualified:
a) by prepositional phrases
Of course he knew the answer to that one.
b) by relative clauses
... to set back to the hotel where he was staying.
c) by clauses with non-finite verbs
Power at work is the power to set decision implement.
d) by apposition (using one noun group to qualify another)
And he wrote a book with the title 'The Summing Up'
 with the names of
cinemas (the Rex);
hotels (the Carlton);
theatres (the Globe);
museums (the British Museum);
newspapers/magazines (the Times, the Guardian, the Independent, the Daily Telegraph, the
Financial Times, the Daily Mail, the Daily Mirror, the Sun, the Star but: Time magazine, Today);
ships (the Mary Rose);
organizations (the EU);
galleries (the Tate Gallery)
universities including ‘of’ (the University of California at Los Angeles, University of London)
ships, trains, and spacecraft (the Titanic, the Queen Elizabeth, the Exxon Valdez);
sporting events (the Superbowl, the Olympic Games, the World Cup, the Cup Final);
well-known organizations (the United Nations (the UN), the BBC, the Labour Party, the FBI)
political institutions (the Kremlin, the House of Commons, the House of Lords, the House of
Representatives, the Senate, the Department of Trade and Industry, the State Department,
the Cabinet but: Parliament (but the Houses of Parliament), Congress)
some musical groups (the Beatles, the Supremes, the Rolling Stones, the Shadows, the
Eurythmics, the Doors)
rivers (the Nile);
seas (the Caspian Sea);
sea features (the English Channel, the Straits of Dover, the Gulf of Mexico, the Firth of Forth,
the Straits of Hormuz)
groups of islands (the Canary Islands);
mountain ranges, group of hills (the Alps, the Himalayas, the North Downs);
deserts (the Sahara Desert);
oceans (the Atlantic):
canals (the Panama Canal);
regions (the Midlands, the Middle East, the Crimea, the South of England)
countries when they include words such as state, Kingdom, republic, -land, united, federation,
etc. (the United Kingdom the Netherlands, the Lebanon, the Sudan, the Vatican City)
some streets (the High Street, the Strand, the Mall, the London road, the A19, the M6
motorway)
names or nouns with ‘of’ (the Leaning Tower of Pisa).
some countries (the Netherlands, the Lebanon, the Sudan, the Vatican City);
some streets (the High Street, the Strand, the Mall, the London road, the A19, the M6
motorway);
some bridges (the Bridge of Sighs, the Humber Bridge; The Golden Gate Bridge);
some cities (The Hague - Гаага)
bays when the name is separated by ‘of’ (the Bay of Biscay)
some lakes (the Great Salt Lake, the Lake of Geneva (also Lake Geneva)
some individual isles with ‘of’ in their names (the Isle of Man, the Isle of Wight)
some individual mountains (the Matterhorn)
 Geographical oppositions. You use the definite article before a number of nouns which
indicate geographical alternatives
the city , the desert , the land , the sea , the country , the forest , the mountains , the seaside ,
the countryside , the jungle , the plains , the town, the land,
There are compensations in the town, particularly for older children.
...tourists who take their holidays in the mountains rather than at the seaside.
 When you refer back to a particular building, you can use the definite article in front of the
word for the building, which keeps its capital letter.
And so round to the north side of the Cathedral.
 Directions. Nouns indicating directions, such as 'north', 'south', 'east', and 'west', and 'left' and
'right'.
Then circle to the left.
 With the names of musical instruments and dances.
the piano, the tango
 with the names in plural of families (the Windsors);
 nationalities ending in -sh, -ch or -ese (the French, the Scottish, the Japanese, etc.);
Other plural nationalities are used with or without the (the Americans, the Greeks)
 to refer generically to nations or racial groups
The Chinese, in their turn, became the bitter enemies of the Russians.
It is our treatment of the old which most shocks students of our culture.
 with names of people to mean someone famous
'I met Paul McCartney the other day.' 'You mean the Paul McCartney?'
 with titles (the King, the Prince of Wales, the President)
BUT: ‘The’ is omitted before titles with proper names. Queen Victoria
 with adjectives/adverbs in the superlative form.
He’s the most respected man in the firm.
BUT: When ‘most’ is followed by a noun, it does not take ‘the’.
Most children like cartoons.
 with the words morning, afternoon, evening, night, day, nighttime, daytime.
We eat dinner in the evening.
but: at night, at noon, at midnight, by day/night, at 4 o'clock, etc.
 during the week = 'on the days between weekends'.
People used to come at the weekends, but during the week I was alone in that huge house.
 day, week, month, year can be used with both the definite and indefinite articles.
...the day after the trial.
 with historical periods, events, names of decades, centuries.
the Middle Ages, the sixties, the nineteenth century, the Crimean War (but: World War II)
 with past, present, and future
...plans for the future.
 with unique adjectives only, last, first, following, last, main, next, , opposite, present, principal,
right, same, sole, ultimate, usual, wrong.
He was the first person to arrive.
 with the words beach, station, cinema, theatre, opera, ballet, coast, country(side), ground,
jungle, seaside, world, shop, library, city, sea (BUT to be at sea = to be sailing)
Let’s go to the beach.
We spent the weekend in the countryside.
The ballet is awful today.
 With shops and other businesses. baker's, bank, barber's, dentist's, doctor's, greengrocer's,
hairdresser's, post office, butcher, pub
He might have been to the barber's to please his mother.
 With institutions in society. With such words as hospital, court, church, court, jail, school, college,
hospital, prison, university
He was finally admitted to hospital with an ulcerated leg.
 The is optional with seasons.
My favourite season is (the) spring.
 We use the + adjective to refer to a group of people usually with the adjectives: aged, blind,
brave, dead, deaf, disabled, educated, elderly, free, handicapped, homeless, hungry, injured,
living, mentally ill,, needy, old, oppressed, poor, powerful, rich, sick, starving, strong, uneducated,
unemployed, weak, wealthy, wounded, young.
The young are usually impatient.
 When we refer to a group of people, animals or things we use:
a) a/an or the with singular countable nouns.
А/The dolphin is a clever creature.
b) plural countable nouns without a/an or the.
Dolphins are clever creatures. (NOT: The dolphins are clever creatures.)
 at the beginning of stories (a stylistic device)
The boy with fair hair lowered himself down the last few feet of rock and began to pick his way
towards the lagoon.
 Stressed 'the' meaning 'best' (with the pronounced [ði:])
Billiards is the game.
 Proper nouns made up of two nouns separated by 'of' tend to have the.
the House of Commons
 before the original numbers (порядковые числительные)
the third hospital
 with nouns with qualification. Nouns can be qualified in a number of ways:
a) by prepositional phrases (The only way to learn the price of something is to pay for it.)
b) by relative clauses (What about the argument that reality isn't like that?)
c) by clauses with non-finite verbs (that is, infinitives or participles) (Power at work is the power to
get decisions implemented.)
d) by apposition (using one noun group to qualify another) (And he wrote a book with the title 'The
Summing Up'. )
 with some names of illnesses flu/the flu, measles/the measles, mumps/the mumps,
chickenpox/the chickenpox
She's coming down with the flu.
 a day in the week you are talking about.
It got under way at two o'clock on the Tuesday, having been meant to start on the previous
Friday.
 Media and communications: (the) television, (the) telly, (the) TV, the box the telephone, (the)
radio the phone, the news, the newspapers, the press, the papers, the paper, the post (Br), the
mail (Am).
We gather facts and attitudes from the press, the television and the radio.
 You speak of 'the newspapers' or 'the papers' when referring to newspapers as a form of media.
The meaning is similar to 'the press'.
The papers are saying how unusual it is.
Sometimes 'the paper' is also used to mean newspapers generally, not one particular
newspaper.
This is what we read in the paper.
 When using 'telephone' or 'phone' to refer to a means of communication, you use the definite
article.
A large part of Linda's day is spent on the telephone.
 with 'post' (American equivalent 'mail') as a system of communication
One morning there arrived through the post an amazing letter.
 When we refer means of transport as a whole transport system, rather than to an individual
one. (boat, hovercraft, bus, plane, ferry, subway (Am), train, tram, tube,(Br), underground (Br)
BUT: ‘Taxi', 'car' and 'bicycle' do not offer a systematic means of transport.
How long does it take on the train?
 with parts of the body
a) with parts of the body not as separate organs or limbs but as locations on the body
They might dash out later and stab them in the back.
b) with a singular noun even when there are two possible parts
Stein took Breslow by the arm.
c) after a verb of touching or injuring ('shake', 'bite'), and the person whose body you are
referring to has just been mentioned
He was wounded in the leg too.
d) when referring to a touch, blow, or pain.
I have a pain in the side.
BUT: after verbs such as grab, step on, touch we use a possessive determiner
Robert touched her cheek.
 With grammatical terms such as the past participle, the present tense, the active voice, in the
singular, the definite article and the indefinite article, etc
In clauses like these you use a verb which is in the present tense.
 in front of an adjective to mean something with that quality
bizarre, inevitable, possible, unbelievable, unthinkable, exotic, new, ridiculous, unexpected,
impossible, obvious, sublime, unknown, incredible, old, supernatural, unreal
People asked him the impossible. (People asked him to do things which were impossible.)
 with comparative adjectives and adverbs
a) to indicate how a difference in something involves a difference in something else.
The simpler the motion or operation, the better the worker will perform it.
b) fixed expressions like:
'the more the merrier' (you want as many people as possible),
'the sooner the better' (you want something as soon as possible),
and others where the second part is '...the better' (which mean that you want something
with as much of a particular quality as possible).
c) in front of one comparative adjective or adverb, especially after 'all', to emphasize that
something will affect a situation.
You'll sleep the better for it.
 Converting proper nouns
a) referring to a product or a work by someone
The trip had taken two days in the shiny new Ford.
b) to talk about one branch of a shop or business
...to make room for the new Woolworth's.
c) when you want to pick out a particular 'version' of something
'This isn't the London I used to know'
 with few, little when we mean: те немногие, то немногое
You need not fear to hear the few remaining words we have to say.
 With the two, when we mean those two
The two friends traveled together.
 With the number of when we mean an amount
The number of mistakes he makes is startling.
 With Other
b) with a singular noun modified by 'other’, if there are only two objects of the same
description.
He pulled the other glove.
c) with a plural noun modified by 'other’, if there is a definite number of objects divided into 2
definite groups.
Of the three people invited one had already arrived. The other guests were expected.
Zero article
the nominating function
We use no article:
 with abstract nouns education, happiness, music
 with uncountable nouns or plural countable nouns. We use some instead of a/an.
We need some milk and some flour.
They bought some flowers.
 before an adjective if it is not followed by a noun.
This ring is expensive.
But: This is an expensive ring (description).
 with possessives.
(NOT a my friend)
 after a type of, a sort of, a kind of, a variety of
a kind of tree (N0T: a kind of a tree)
 with uncountable and plural countable nouns when talking about something in general, that
is, when we cannot answer the question ‘Who?’ or ‘Which?’.
Fish live in water.
 in generalizations with plural and uncountable
I like music. (NOT ... the music.)
 in generalizations with plural and uncountable nouns, even if there is an adjective before the
noun.
She’s studying Chinese history. He collects antique clocks.
BUT we use the when a description with of follows the noun.
She’s studying the history of China.
 representing a job or a profession after ‘as’
She was engaged as governess.
 with proper nouns
Mark lives in Brighton.
 with the names of sports, games, activities, days, months, celebrations, colours, drinks, meals
and languages (when they are not followed by the word ‘language’),
I often play chess. We speak German. BUT: The German language is difficult to learn.
countries (Italy, Ivory Coast, but: the Netherlands, the Lebanon, the Sudan, the Vatican City);
cities, towns, villages (Paris);
streets (Oxford Street, but: the High Street, the Strand, the Mall, the London road, the A19,
the M6 motorway);
squares (Trafalgar Square);
bridges (Tower Bridge but: the Bridge of Sighs, the Humber Bridge);
parks (Hyde Park);
railway stations (Victoria Station);
mountains (Ben Nevis);
individual islands (Tahiti);
lakes (Lake Geneva);
continents (Africa);
political and administrative regions of countries (California, Hampshire, Bavaria);
bays (San Francisco Bay but: the Bay of Biscay);
stations (Euston);
airports (Heathrow);
schools, colleges and universities (Manchester Grammar School, Dartmouth College,
Cambridge University, Kent State University);
churches, cathedrals and abbeys (Canterbury Cathedral, Westminster Abbey);
with names which are taken from the place where the event occurs (Wimbledon (for tennis),
Ascot and Epsom (for horse-racing events), Henley (for rowing)
festivals (Christmas, Easter, Lent, Carnival, Corpus Christi, Ramadan, Midsummer's Day,
Mother's Day, New Year's Day, St Valentine's Day)
some names of charities (Oxfam, Christian Aid, Mencap)
newspaper Today
foreign newspapers (Pravda, Le Monde, Der Spiegel)
some periodicals such as magazines and journals (Punch, Newsweek, ELT Journal)
some political institutions Parliament (but the Houses of Parliament), Congress,
names of councils: Kent County Council, Leeds City Council.
locations and buildings that are used to refer metaphorically to political institutions
(Whitehall, Westminster, Downing Street, Washington)
some musical groups (Queen, Dire Straits, the Supremes, Fleetwood, Mac)
 in abbreviations of organizations which are pronounced as a word: Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries 'OPEC' [əupek], 'NATO' [neitəu], 'UNICEF' [ju:nisef]
...as a member of NATO.
 in abbreviations of organizations which are not pronounced as a word BP [bi:pi:] (British
Petroleum), KLM, BA, ICI, IBM and so on.
...corporations like IBM,RCA and Xerox.
 with businesses and chains of shops General Motors, Sony, Woolworths, Shell, Nissan,
Singapore Airlines, Woolworths, Collins
 with possessive adjectives or the possessive case.
That is my car.
 with two-word names when the first word is the name of a person or place
Gatwick Airport, Windsor Castle
BUT: the White House (because ’White’ is not the name of a person or place)
 with names of pubs, restaurants, shops, banks and hotels named after the people who started
them and end in -s or -’s.
Lloyds Bank, Harrods, Dave's Pub
but: the Red Lion (pub) (because ‘Red’ is not the name of a person or place); the Queen’s
Arms Pub.
 with the words bed, church, college, court, hospital, prison, school, university when we refer
to the purpose for which they exist.
Sarah went to school. (She is a student.)
BUT: Her father went to the school to see her teacher yesterday. (He went as a visitor.)
 with the word work (= place of work).
He is at work.
 with the words home, father/mother when we talk about our own home/parents.
Father is at home.
 with by + means of transport: by bus/car/train/plane/air/cab/road/taxi/
bicycle/sea/bike/rail/ship etc
She travelled by bus.
BUT: She left on the 8 o’clock bus this morning.
 with the names of illnesses (AIDS, diarrhoea, malaria, tuberculosis, anaemia, hepatitis,
pneumonia, typhoid, appendicitis, herpes, rabies, yellow fever, cancer, influenza, rheumatism,
cholera, laryngitis, smallpox, diabetes, leukaemia, tonsillitis)
He’s got malaria. BUT: flu/the flu, measles/the measles, mumps/the mumps, chickenpox/the
chickenpox.
 with the word television (a form of entertainment)
I like watching television in the evenings.
BUT: Turn on the television, please. (the television set)
 in the expressions 'by telephone' and 'by phone' in which 'telephone' and 'phone' refer to the
system of communication, although there is no article.
...an attempt to reach her at the camp by telephone.
 in the expressions 'by post' which refers to the service.
He acquired the necessary reference books by posts.
 to refer generically
zero article + plural count noun
It's astonishing what dogs can know.
 to refer generically
zero article + uncountable noun
Passion, whether it's love or hatred, can involve a lot of suffering.
 ‘Man’, meaning all human beings rather than all male human beings.
...while modern man was evolving.
 If you want to talk about roles in a musical group or in a piece of music
...making up an unusual trio of trumpet, guitar, and drums.
 when we refer to a group of people, animals or things we use:
plural countable nouns without a/an or the.
Dolphins are clever creatures. (NOT: The dolphins are clever creatures.)
 with months and days of the week
 with present and future used after at and in
...since there is no certain answer at present.
Try to remember it in future.
 with meals: to/at/after breakfast, lunch, dinner
Tim had dinner in the hotel.
 With special roles: author, chairman, king, queen, best, man, chairperson, leader, secretary,
boss, director, manager, treasurer, captain, goalkeeper, president, centre forward, head, prime
minister
It was nearly 40years before she became Queen.
...Mr John Hume, leader a/the Social and Democratic Labour Party.
 With Other
a) If some objects are divided into 2 groups and either one of the groups or both of them are
indefinite.
I was thinking of other people in the same position
 'Next' and 'last' in time expressions (for example, ’next week')
 Some expressions with no article:
He was elected President.
She became Queen.
They made her Manager.
What’s on TV?
Let’s watch television. (BUT on the radio, listen to the radio)
This is Alice's house. (NOT... the Alice's house)
to / in(to) / out of hospital prison, bed;
to/in(to) /from town;
on holiday;
by car/bus/plane etc (BUT on foot);
at night (BUT in the mowing /afternoon/evening);
on Monday etc;
in spring, summer etc (OR in the spring etc);
at Easter, Christmas etc;
to/at/from school university, college, church, work;
at/from home;
World War II
Earth also possible as the Earth
Leaving out articles

Articles can be left out:
 when two nouns (or adjectives), both acting as head of a noun group, are joined together with
'and' or 'or'; the second head can be without its article.
They had enhanced the reliability and quality of radio reception.
 in language which has to be shortened for reasons of space, such as telegrams, instructions,
notes and newspaper headlines;
a telegram message like 'Send report immediately' would mean 'Send the report immediately'
or 'Send a report immediately'
Ukraine divisions deepened by Party's failure to condemn coup.
 when nouns referring to two contrasting people or things are joined by 'and'
The independent allowances for husband and wife will both be available.
 in introductory phrases like 'Fact is ...', 'Thing is ...', 'Trouble is ...', 'Truth is ...'
Fact is, it's getting serious.
This use is informal and occurs mainly in spoken English.
 with count nouns which are being used to address a person or animal (sometimes called
vocatives).
Good grief, man, what are you doing here?
Using indefinite article, definite article or zero one with difference in meaning
With Other-Another
b) with a singular noun modified by 'other’, if there are only two objects of the same
description.
c) If there are more than 2 objects of the same description the indefinite article is used.
d) with a plural noun modified by 'other’, if there is a definite number of objects divided into 2
definite groups.
e) If some objects are divided into 2 groups and either one of the groups or both of them are
indefinite there is no article.
 Using indefinite article, definite article or zero one with difference in meaning
Indefinite article Definite article Zero article

She works as a cook in the She's in prison.
prison.
(= She's a prisoner.)
I found chewing gum in the You should be in bed.
bed again.
(= resting)
to be at the sea to be at sea = to be sailing
(= to be at the resort)
a golf (=match) golf (=type of sport)
a football (=ball) football (=type of sport)
a noise noise
a light light
she went the school (as a she went to school (as a pupil
visitor) or teacher, for purpose)
A world (any other reality) The world (our reality)
the Whitehall (a theatre) Whitehall (a street)
 With Other-Another
a) with a singular noun modified by 'other’, if there are only two objects of the same
description.
b) If there are more than 2 objects of the same description the indefinite article is used.
c) with a plural noun modified by 'other’, if there is a definite number of objects divided into 2
definite groups.
d) If some objects are divided into 2 groups and either one of the groups or both of them are
indefinite there is no article.

English Grammar

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What is GRAMMAR? ............................................................................................................................ 3

Parts pf the speech (J. Eastwood) Traditional classification

Nouns – are names of objects.

Types of words in sentences

Word order and Sentence Pattern

actor – actress [ˈæktə] – [ˈæktrɪs] актер – актриса

NOUN TRANSCRIPTION PLURAL TRANSCRIPTION TRANSLATION

army; fall (падение); press;

A question An auxiliary All other parts of

Why are his parents watching this film?

When did Jack buy his car?

The normal adjective order:

1-syllable adverb (early, fast, hard, high, (the) -est

Free (бесплатно)-freely (свободно); hard (тяжело)-hardly (вряд ли); high (высоко)-highly

The position of the adverbs

The past continuous is used with the following time expressions:

The rules of adding -ing:

Note: the past perfect is the equivalent of the present perfect.

We use the future simple:

The future simple is used with the following time expressions:

We use the future continuous:

The future continuous is used with the following time expressions:

We use the future perfect:

The future perfect is used with the following time expressions:

We use the future perfect continuous:

The future perfect is used with the following time expressions:

We use future forms:

NOTE for future tenses:

be to + infinitive (formal English).

be due to + infinitive (timetables).

The future in the past

was on the point of + Ving

Verbs of feelings Verbs of

1. I think he’s lying (=believe)

Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect continuous

6. Negative logical assumption

3. Logical assumption (conclusion)

2. Lack of necessity in present:

2. Lack of necessity in past:

2. Asking for suggestions

4. Asking for Suggestions

Rules for the direct speech:

Changing certain words and time expressions

Modals which do not change in indirect speech

Type 2 & 3 Conditionals do not change.

Cases when we change tenses:

Cases when we either change tenses or remain the same:

Cases when we remain the same:

e) after too and enough.

f) after it + be + adjective (+ of + noun/pronoun)

g) after would like/would love, prefer (to express specific preference).

h) after only to express an unsatisfactory result.

a) Help is followed by either the to-infinitive or the bare infinitive.

i) after begin, start, continue without changing in meaning

k) after need + passive infinitive

m) after the constructions be made/be heard/be seen + to-infinitive (passive)

d) after the verbs let, make,

but: be made/be heard/be seen + to-infinitive (passive)

e) after had better and would rather.

f) Help is followed by either the to-infinitive or the bare infinitive.

Tenses of the Infinitive