7.

CRANKSHAFT, CROSSHEAD & BEARINGS

1. CRANKSHAFT CONTRUCTION

1. CRANKSHAFT CONSTRUCTION

 The working of other components of the engine, such as camshaft for fuel
timing, firing order of units etc; depends upon the correct rotation of the
crank shaft. Failure of the crankshaft can stall the engine/ship.
 The material for construction: Slow speed marine diesel engines have
crankshafts forged of plain carbon steel (0.2 to 0.4% of carbon) but the
medium and high-speed engines use Alloy Steel.
 The crankshafts on the large modern 2 stroke cross head engines can weigh
over 300 tons. They are too big to make as a single unit and so are
constructed by joining individual forgings. Crankshaft manufacture is a
complex and elaborate process and the exact procedure would vary with
the type and size of the crankshaft.
 Note: Flyweights were used in the older models of the generator, where
they were fit to the crank webs (in place of flywheel).

2. CRANKSHAT TYPES

1. Fully-built – Everything is separate, more commonly used for M/E &

generators.
2. Semi-built – Crank pin + crank web = one part, more commonly used
for M/E & generators.
3. Welded (latest) – Separate parts are welded together, more
commonly used for ME.
4. Fully Forged or Solid Single Piece – Single piece crankshaft, for
small engines.

3. CRANKSHAFT STRENGTH
 If the metal-grains in the parts of the crankshaft are all in the same
direction more strength against creep/fatigue loads is provided. So,
 1. Fully Forged – High strength, but one defect leads to replacement of
the whole shaft.
2. Semi-built – Medium strength, internal boring for lubrication is
provided (so better).
3. Fully-built – Low strength, external pipes for lubrication needs to be
provided (weight is also more to give more strength).
4. Welded – Strength is high than semi-built crankshafts but lower than
fully built (bore size is more, weight is less).

4.1. FULLY BUILT CRANKSHAFT

 Are those in which all the various components are shrink-fitted after
separate fabrication.
 On older engines the so called fully built method was used. This consisted
of forging separate webs, crank pins and main journals.
 The crank pins and journals were machined, and matching holes bored in
the webs, which were slightly smaller in diameter.
 The webs were heated up and the crank pins and journals fitted into the
holes (which due to the heat had expanded in size). As the webs cooled
down, so the diameter of the bored holes would try and shrink back to their
original size.
 In doing so, the crank pins and journals would be gripped tightly enough to
stop them being able to slip when the engine was being operated normally.
One way to ensure that the shrunk fit is stable is to have a dowel pin, but
this would act as a stress riser and is unacceptable.
4.2. SEMI BUILT CRANKSHAFTS

 Are those in which several parts such as crank-throw and pins are
case out of a single piece. Today, crankshafts for large 2 stroke cross
head engines are of the semi-built type.
 In this method of construction the crankshaft “throws” consisting of
two webs and the crank pin are made from a single forging.
 The webs are bored to take the separately forged and machined main
journals which are fitted into the webs using the shrink fitting method.
 The advantages of this method of construction is that by making the
two webs and crank pin from a single forging the grain flow in the
steel follows the web round into the crank pin and back down the
other web.
 Because the crank pin and webs are a single forging, the webs can be
reduced in thickness and a hole is sometimes bored through the
crank pin, reducing the weight without compromising strength.
 But the hoop stress developed due to shrink fitting of main journals,
can lead to cracks if enough material is not there. Hence there should
be a balance.
 After the main journal is fitted in the crank web, witness marks are
marked in journal and web. These should be checked during
crankcase inspections
 These types are assembled from separate journal pins and complete
crank throws. A crank throw comprises of crank pin and webs. Shrink
fits are used for assembly. These types are also found in some of the
 larger medium speed engines. The crank throw is manufactured by
continuous grain forging methods.
 Note: Earlier for shrunk fit we use to heat the web and then fit the pin
and the journal but it use to cause thermal stresses. Now, we cool the
Pin and the Journal instead.

4.3. WELDED CRANKSHAFTS

 In this type, each forging is made up of webs with crank pins and half of
main journal on both sides. Based on the Units, number of such forgings are
made.
 These forgings were then welded together using a submerged arc welding
process and stress relieved then machined to form the crankshaft.
 These have the advantage of continuous grain flow, the webs could be
made thinner, leading to a lighter shorter crankshaft.
 Due to high Capital costs, only a few crankshafts of this type were made
and used successfully
 Note: In designs Ball-like curves (Fillets) are used to give them more
strength. For e.g. Beginning of threads in a screw, boiler, air compressor
manhole, etc.
4.4. SOLID SINGLE PIECE

 These crankshafts are forged or cast as a single piece. These are

used in small medium speed engines as well as high speed engines.
 Another version tried out is for engines with a greater number of
cylinders, it is made in two or three parts and bolted together with
fitted bolts at integral flanges.
 The crankshafts are designed to withstand the load during firing and
cyclical stresses. The crankshaft is stressed due to
1. Misalignment of main bearings.
2. Torsional vibrations.
3. Axial vibrations.
5. SEMI-BUILT VS. WELDED CRANCKSHAFTS

 Disadvantages of Shrunk Fit (Semi-built) crankshafts,

1. If they are loose, they slip
2. If they are too tight cracks can appear
3. You need a specialist to fit them.
 Advantages of Welded crankshafts,

1. No slip/cracks
2. You don’t need a specialist.
3. Bore size is more, so more cooling and less weight.
4. Can be inspected just by looking at the welding quality.
5. Grain direction is matching for Web, Pin and ½ Journal which gives it
25-30% strength improvement against creep/fatigue loads.
 Even though welded have significant advantages over semi-built
crankshafts due to high Capital costs, only a few crankshafts of this
type were made and used successfully

2. CRANKSHAFT FAULTS

1. CRANKSHAFT DEFLECTION

 Crankshaft deflections are measured to detect the misalignment of main

bearings. The misalignment occurs due to bearing wear or deflection of
crankshaft. The horizontal and the vertical misalignment are checked.
 Crankshaft deflections are measured by measuring the distance between
the webs of a throw at various positions of the crankshaft using a dial
gauge. The deflections measurements are taken when the ship is in even
keel. The trim of the ship affects the deflection readings.
 The webs open out or close in depending on the bearing height. The
opening of the web is recorded as positive values and the closing as
negative values. The maximum values obtained are compared with the
maximum allowable values given by the engine manufacturer.
2. CRANKSHAFT MISALIGNMENT REASONS

1. Damage or wipe-out of the main bearing

2. Loose engine foundation bolt leading to vibration
3. Deformation of ship’s hull
4. Crack in the bearing saddle
5. Loose main bearing bolt leading to damage of main bearing
6. Very high bending moment on the crankshaft due to excessive force
from piston assembly
7. Grounding of the ship
8. Crankcase explosion or fire
9. A defective or worn out stern tube or intermediate shaft bearings
10. Loose or broken chokes in the foundation
11. Bearing pockets cracked
12. Bedplate deformed – transverse girder damaged
13. Tie bolts slack or broken
14. Weakening of structure due to corrosion

3. CRANKSHAFT DEFLECTION AND ALIGNMENT

 The crankshaft deflection is measured to ascertain the alignment of

the crankshaft. It is measured in a similar way as described for the
auxiliary engines.
 It should be ensured that the propeller is clear before turning the
engine for deflection measurement. The trim and list of the ship will
affect the readings. The ship should be upright and at even keel while
taking the deflection measurements. All the readings should be taken
at the same trim.
 While taking the readings of the unit next to turning gear, the pinion
should not lift the flywheel. This will give false readings. It is a good
practice to take the load off the turning gear pinion, by turning the
gear back in opposite direction.
  Vertical and horizontal deflection readings are calculated, and the
maximum deflection value should not exceed the maker’s
recommendation.
 A curve is drawn with the values of the vertical misalignment
obtained at each crank. Starting from one end. The deflection at each
crank is progressively added and the points are plotted. If the
deflections are uniform. The curve drawn through the points is
smooth. The curve is allowed to deviate at each crank position by an
angle proportional to the deflection measured at that crank. The
curve displays an unequal deviation. The curve is used to isolate the
faulty bearing.
 Note: In Crankshaft deflection we check the alignment of crankshaft
with respect to the propeller shaft of the ship.

4. RECORDING CRANKCASE DEFLECTIONS

4.1. WHY ARE CRANKSHAFT DEFLECTIONS TAKEN?

 The entire weight of the crankshaft is taken by the main bearing and
any wear of the main bearing will cause the crankshaft to bend either
upwards or downwards.
 The crankshaft alignment would be affected if there is an uneven
wear of the main bearings and this wear of main bearings will cause
the deflection measured between the webs to vary.
 Crankshaft deflections are taken to check if the crank shaft alignment
is within the limits set by the maker.
 To have a true representation ensure that external forces do not
influence the findings and thus the crank shaft deflections are taken
when the vessel does not have a trim.

4.2. CHECKS BEFORE THE RECORDINGS

 1. Checking the dial gauge: Check the dial gauge or the deflection gauge
for its proper operation by pressing the spring-loaded contact point
for its full travel and return. Any sluggishness will give an incorrect
reading. Bear in mind that clockwise rotation of the gauge needle
indicates closing of the web and anticlockwise rotation indicates
opening of web and hence the readings would be negative for the
former and positive value for later, as per convention.
2. Vessel to be at even keel or as close as possible. Check and record
forward and aft draft
3. Ensure all procedures are followed consistent with shipboard SMS
procedures for entering an enclosed space.
4. Immobilize engine as per company procedures indicated in the SMS
operational manual.
 

4.3. PROCEDURE TO TAKE CRANCKSHAFT DEFLECTION READING

1. Turn the engine but First ask for propeller clearance in writing.
2. Stop the lube oil pump and be comfortable.
3. Open both the crankshaft doors (don’t be in a hurry and ventilate the
area properly).
4. Lock turning gear and keep the remote in hand (never take the
reading alone).
5. Secure the area by a rope or something so that no one may enter and
fall by oil or something.
6. Fit the dial gauge between the crank webs at a position marked by
the engine manufacturer. This position is generally marked because
the deflection results obtained are compared to the last readings and
would be used for reference in the subsequent measurements and
hence any change in position of dial gauge while measuring
crankshaft deflection would be an added variable and would
therefore not be a true reflection of the prevailing conditions.
7. In the dial gauge the readings come opposite,
→ Closing of webs = (+ve) but we take as (-ve)
→ Opening of webs = (-ve) but we take as (+ve)

 Sagging of crankshaft
→ At TDC – webs are opening – reading comes (-ve)
→ At BDC – webs are closing – reading comes (+ve)
 Hogging of crankshaft
→ At TDC – webs are closing – reading comes (+ve)
→ At BDC – webs are opening – reading comes (-ve)
8. The deflection readings should ideally be taken at four crank positions
i.e. at top, bottom, port and starboard. However the measurements at the
bottom position would not be possible due to the connecting rod position,
instead two readings are taken on either side of bottom crank position and
averaged. Thus readings are taken at five angular positions in a crank.
 X → is taken as zero, initial reading (in actual all readings should
come zero for the crankshaft to be straight).
 The first reading is taken 10-15 degrees after the crank in has passed
BDC and last readings to be taken will be at position before the crank
pin reaches BDC (position just before the con rod touches the dial
gauge).
 It is not necessary to start the measurements from No 1 unit and
instead the unit closest to the first reading position (where the gauge
is to be fitted) should be chosen and continue to move to the next
unit which is in line.
 However it is important that the position at which first reading is
taken should be checked on the flywheel so that readings for all
subsequent units are begun from the same angle (crank position)

9. Now turn the engine with turning gear so that the readings can be
taken when the dial gauge passes starboard, bottom, port positions.
Last reading would be taken when the crank is nearing the BDC again
and just before the con rod touches the dial gauge. See figure below
which indicates the crank pin positions at which the readings are
taken.
  Difference between P & S will provide the alignment in horizontal
plane and difference between TDC and BDC will provide the
alignment in vertical plane. Check and compare the findings with the
maker’s allowable limits.
 BDC = (X + Y)/2
 Deflection in crankshaft = TDC – BDC (the amount of allowed
misalignment will be given in the manual).

10. A graph is also plotted at times, and sudden change in the

gradient of the graph indicates a wear down in the particular bearing
which follows the high deflection readings. The details of plotting this
graph and interpretation of the particular bearing(s) which has / have
worn-down are beyond the scope of these contents.

5. REASONS FOR FAILURE OF CRANKSHAFT

 1. Due to crack developed in any of the sections crank-web, crank-pins
and journals which can at time very quickly prorogate causing rupture
2. Due to slip shrinks which would be problematic.
3. Due to heavy deflections beyond permissible limits which can cause
a fatigue failure
4. Due to fatigue failure, which may originate at the change of cross-
section such as at the lip of oil hole bored in the crankpin.
5. Due to heavy torsional vibration, it may lead to crack in the crankpin
and journal
6. Due to Insufficient lubrication of bearings, leading to wipe out
(bottom half of the bearing has worn out).
7. Due to water leakage causing a hydraulic lock inside the cylinder
especially when the safety valve also fails
8. The bedplate area has sagged down.
9. Long running in rough weather
10. Long running at max continuous rating
11. Impact due to scavenge fire
12. Tie rods broken

PRECAUTIONS TO PREVENT FAILURE

1. Check on the crankshaft alignment which helps to detect any major defects
that are in the process of development.
2. If the differences in the bearing wear are substantial this means that the
cause for the same needs to be rectified.
3. Proper treatment and maintenance of Lube oil, which will not allow the
bearings to be damaged
4. The foundation bolts should be regularly checked and tightened if need be
5. Avoid operating the engine in critical speed range.

3. ENGINE BEARING CONSTRUCTION

1. FORCES ON BEARINGS
  A ship engine comprises of heavy rotational parts which exert different
forces on various parts of the engine crankshaft. One of the significant load-
bearing parts of the crankshaft system is the main bearings.
 The bearings in a marine engine are subjected to multiple forces which
include:
1. Gas pressure generated inside the liner
2. Dynamic Inertial forces due to different reciprocating and rotating motion
of the engine parts
3. Centrifugal forces due to different reciprocating and rotating motion of the
engine parts
4. Friction between the crankshaft and bearing due to engine vibration

2. BEARING METALS

1. TIN BASED WHITE METAL

 An alloy with minimum 88% tin, the rest is a composition of antimony,

copper, cadmium, and small amounts of other elements. Lead content in
this alloy composition is an impurity as the fatigue strength deteriorates
with increasing lead content which should not exceed 0.2% of the cast alloy
composition.
 Tin based white metal is used in the main bearings, crankpin bearings,
crosshead bearings, guide shoes, camshaft bearings and thrust bearings
because of its excellent load carrying capacity.
2. TIN ALUMINIUM (AlSn40)

 A composition of aluminium and tin where the tin is trapped in a 3-

dimensional mesh of aluminium. Tin content is 40%. The sliding
properties are similar to above, but the loading capacity is higher.
Aluminium is a good load absorber.
 Used in main bearings and crosshead lower bearing shells.
3. OVERLAYERS
  This is a galvanic coating of 90% lead and 10% tin which is applied
directly on to the white metal/tin aluminium sliding surface. The
thickness is 0.02 to 0.03 mm. It is a soft and ductile coating with the
main objective to ensure good embedability.

4. FLASH LAYER

 This is a 100% tin layer which is applied galvanically. Thickness 2 microns to

5 microns. Primarily to prevent corrosion. Also acts as an effective dry
lubricant when new bearings are installed, and the engine is barred.

5. DESIGN

 Tin Al bearings are always of the thin shell design while the white metal
bearings can be either thick shell or thin shell. Thick shell bearings have a
steel back with the required stiffness.
 Thin shell bearings have a wall thickness between 2% and 2.5% of the
journal diameter.
 The steel back does not have the sufficient stiffness to support the cast
white metal alone. The bearing must therefore be supported rigidly over its
full length.
 It is manufactured with a circumferential overlength (crush/nip) which will
produce the required radial pressure between the shell and the bearing
housing. The max top clearance in this shell is predetermined.
6. MAIN BEARING TYPES

6.1. LEAD BRONZE BEARING

 These bearings consist of the following layers

 Flash layer: It is the topmost layer with a thickness of 0.035mm made

up of tin and lead. It is used to protect the bearing from corrosion and
dust when not in use. This layer flashes off when a bearing is running.
 Nickle Barrier: It is the second layer made up of nickel with a
thickness of 0.02mm. Its main function is to prevent corrosion and
avoid diffusion of tin into bearing metal.
 Lead Bronze: The third layer composed of lead bronze which has an
excellent anti seizing property and is the principle component which
acts as a bearing out of all layers.
 Steel back: Steel back is the last and backing part of the bearing used
for shape and support over which all the layers are bonded together.
  Gudgeon Pin bearing in a 4-stroke engine is usually made of lead
bronze bearing and also used for the main bearing for smaller
engines.

6.2. BI-METAL BEARING

 Aluminium Tin: The first layer of bi-metal consists of Al and Sn with a

thickness of 0.5 to 1.3mm and this is the main element of this type of
bearing.
 Bonding Layer: The bonding layer consists of aluminium and it is
0.1mm thick. The main function of the bonding layer is to obtain a
good bond between the shell and the top layer.
 Steel Back: The backing part used for shape and support.
 This type of bearings is used in 4 stroke engine main bearings

6.3. TRI-METAL BEARING

 These bearings are called tri-metal bearing because they consist of

three main layers (excluding flash layer as it flashes off) and steel
back. It consists of-
 Flash Layer: It is the topmost layer with a thickness of 1 micron made
up of tin and lead and used to protect the bearing from corrosion and
dust when not in use. This layer flashes off when bearing is in
Running in the period.
 Overlay: The second layer made up of white metal (Tin Antimony
Copper) which is the main component in this type of bearing. Its
thickness is 20 microns.
 Interlay: It is the third layer used as an anti-corrosive layer for overlay.
It is of 5 microns thickness.
 Lining: It is the lining layer between interlay and steel back with a
thickness of 1 mm made up of lead and bronze.
 Steel Back: The backing part used for shape and support.
 
7. CROSSHEAD

 In the crosshead, thin shell bearings are used. The lower shell is a tri-
metal shell (i.e., with a steel back with cast-on white metal and an
overlay coating. The upper shell is bimetallic as it does not have an
overlayer. Both have a tin flash layer.
 Main bearings can be thick shell or thin shell.  Crankpin bearings are
thin shell.

4. ENGINE MAIN BEARING

1. MAIN BEARINGS FOR CROSSHEAD ENGINES

 Thin shell bearings have a wall thickness between 2% and 2.5% of the
journal diameter. The steel back does not have the sufficient stiffness to
support the cast-on white metal alone. The bearing must therefore be
supported rigidly over its full length to prevent fretting between shell and
housing and failure of the bearing material.
 The bearing is manufactured with a circumferential over length to produce
the required radial pressure between the shell and the bearing housing.
The maximum/minimum top clearance in thin shell bearings is
predetermined and is nonadjustable.
 Plain bearings are manufactured as steel shells with a bearing surface of
white metal or tin aluminium. The bearing surface is furnished with a
centrally placed oil supply groove and other design features such as
tangential run-outs and bore reliefs. The tangential run out prevents an oil
scraping effect and reduces the resistance to the flow of oil towards the
loaded area of the bearing.
 The bore relief is to compensate for misalignment which could result in a
protruding edge of the lower shell’s mating face to that of the upper shell.
Such a protruding edge can act as an oil scraper and cause oil starvation.
 The lower bearing shell rests in bed plate transverse girder, the upper
bearing shell is held down by the bearing cover. Shoulders on each end
prevent axial shifting. Possible rotation of the bearing shell is prevented by
 screws in the transverse girder (see sketch opposite) or by a locating pin in
the bearing cover.
 The lubrication of the bearings is through the oil connection on the bearing
cover-through a pipe to the bearing cap The oil is distributed to the whole
diameter by a radial groove in the bearing cover, reaches the bearing
through bores in the bearing shells and lubricates bearing & journal.

2. MAIN BEARING-FOR 4 STROKE TRUNK PISTON ENGINES

  Medium speed trunk piston engine main bearings that hold the
crankshaft use thin walled tin aluminium or lead bronze bearings with
an electroplated or galvanized overlay. The top half of the bearing has
a circumferential oil groove with a series of holes that leads a flow of
oil into the bearing. Oil is carried round to the loaded lower half and
runs out tangentially. The lower bearing half is positioned in the
bearing cap with locating lugs which prevent rotation of the shell. The
 oil supply is via holes drilled on the engine block going to the top
bearing housing.
 

3. CLEARANCE MEASUREMENT

 A marine engine comprises of several types of bearings which

support the rotating and reciprocating crankshaft, camshaft, and
cross head of the engine, enabling the marine engine to perform the
desired operation of power generation. It is very important to
maintain a good quality and quantity of lubricating oil to all these
bearings in order to avoid breakdown of the engine.
 The main bearing of a marine engine supports the long running
crankshaft throughout the engine length. This makes it imperative to
check the condition of the bearing at regular interval of time.
 The clearance measurement of the main bearing determines the
amount of wear down the bearing has been subjected to.
 Approximate idea of clearance value = 0.3 to 0.4 mm
 There are various types of methods adopted by different marine
engine manufacturers to measure the clearance of main bearing of
marine engine. Following are some of the most prominent methods
used onboard ships to measure the clearance of main bearing:

3.1. BRIDGE WITH DEPTH GAUGE

 This method is used in SULZER 2-stroke marine engines where the

bearing’s shell is removed along with the keep (the bearing shell is
lined with the keep).
 After that a bridge is fitted over the top of journal pin, from port to
starboard, making a bridge over the crankshaft with two ends
supported on the cross girder.
  A simple Vernier type depth gauge is then inserted in the hole provided on
the bridge and the scale of depth gauge is rested on the crankshaft pin.
 The total depth on the scale is measured and compared with the previous
reading and the reading in the manual for calculating the wear down of
bearing. In old model SULZER engines, a collar is provided in the bearing
shell along with a small hole. Thus without removing the keep, the bridge is
fitted adjacent to the keep and the depth gauge is used from the hole
provided in the shell to measure the shell wear down.

3.2. BRIDGE WITH FEELER GAUGE

 In some engines, after removing the shell and the keep, the bridge is
installed as explained in the above point.
 Also, in place of depth gauge, a feeler gauge is used to measure the
clearance between the journal pin top and the bridge bottom.
 The bridge used here is different in terms of height and the gap
between the pin and the bridge is very less as compared to that of the
bridge used in the above-mentioned method.

3.3. TELESCOPIC OR SWEDISH FEELER GAUGE

  In engines like MAN B&W, this is the most common method used to
measure the bearing clearance of the top shell.
 In this method there is no need to remove any connection or keep for
measuring the clearance.
 The telescopic gauge is inserted between the gap of the crank web
and the bearing keep. When the tip reaches the shell top, the feeler is
inserted between the shell and the pin to check the clearance.

3.4. DIAL TYPE DEPTH GAUGE

 This method is used in new MAN B&W engines (SMC-C) which does
not require the top keep being removed.
 The lube oil pipe connection screw hole is in the bearing keep which
can be accessed from the hole on the bearing shell.
 The dial gauge is inserted in this screw hole and the reading is taken
as the clearance for upper shell. For complete bearing overhaul
procedure pleased
  Note: In case of Auxiliary engines feeler gauge is used to take main
bearing clearance.

4. MAIN BEARING OVERHAUL PROCEDURE

 The procedure for opening of the main bearing (MAN B&W) is as

follows:
1. Inform company and take permission. Take immobilization certificate
from port state Authority stating that the main engine will not be
available for a particular period of time. Read the manual and have a
toll box meeting with everyone involved in the job. Discuss the
procedure. Prepare important tools and spares to be used in
operation. Prepare risk assessment with the personnel involved in
operation. Prepare enclosed space entry checklist.
2. Shut starting air valve for main engine. Open indicator cocks of all the
units. Engage turning gear and put it in remote control. The remote-
control switch to be operated by in charge of the operation. Stop
main lube oil pump. Open crank case doors. Put blower and ventilate
it thoroughly. After sufficient ventilation, wearing proper PPE enter
the C/C.
3. Open the screws of lube oil pipe connection and take earing
clearance using any on the above-mentioned methods.
4. Compare this reading with the earlier reading in the record or the new
bearing reading.
5. Now disconnect the lube oil pipeline.
6. Turn the crank throw so that it is towards the exhaust side.
7. Now mount the hydraulic jacks and loosen the main bearing stud
nuts.
8. Mount the lifting tool for main bearing keep and lift the keep using a
pulley and a wire rope.
9. Note the marking on the main bearing keep before lifting for correct
direction of the keep.
10. Guide the keep safely outside with a help of another chain block
and place it on a wooden base once it is out.
11. Mount the tool for lifting the upper bearing shell and place it
safely outside.
12. Place the strong back (cross piece) support on the bed plate so
that its ends rest on the cross girders.
13. Mount the hydraulic jack on the cross piece placing it such that
it lies beneath the crank webs.

14. Mount a dial gauge on the adjacent main bearing so that the lift
of the crank shaft can be recorded.
15. Now with hydraulic pressure (1500-1650 bar) lift the crankshaft
corresponding to the main bearing clearance to the adjacent main
bearing and check the lift with the help of a dial gauge.
16. Remove the lock screws from the lower shell.
17. Place the dismantling tool on the lower bearing shell such that
the flap enters the oil groove.
18. Pull the bearing shell round and up so that it lies on the journal
and take it out safely.
19. Note: Top Main bearing clearance: maximum = 0.58mm,
minimum = 0.40mm
20. In case of Auxiliary engines a bolt is placed on the shaft and
then the shaft is turned. The bolt when comes in contact with the
bearing shell it forces it to slide out.
21. Inspect the bearing shells,
– Check and record clearance of the bearing
– Check the condition of bearing metal
– Check for signs of squeezing, scoring, cracking, pitting etc.
– Check the surface shine of the pin – it should be shiny in
appearance
– If scoring, pitting, cracks etc. exist in the pin, same to be polished,
grinded, or reconditioned
– Replacement of bearings to be done as per maker’s instruction. For
e.g. if overlay alloy is wiped out or oil wedge in the bearing is reduced
in dimension etc.
– The pin and the bearing to be thoroughly cleaned and lube oil to be
put before fitting
– Take enough photographs while doing the maintenance or survey
 22. After inspection apply oil and put back the shells in the reverse
order.

5. ENGINE BOTTOM END BEARING

1. ENGINE BOTTOM END BEARING

 The Oil supply to the bottom end bearing comes down a drilling in the
connecting rod from the cross-head oil supply. It is led into the bearing via
drilled passages.
 The engine uses thin wall bearing shells lined with white metal or shells
lined with tin-aluminium and a fresh layer of tin for upper and lower
bearing halves.
 The shells are manufactured with a circumferential over length (crush/nip),
when the shells are mounted and tightened up, will produce the required
radial pressure between the shell and the bearing housing.
 The crank pin bearing shells are retained in position by means of screws
fitted in the bearing housings.
 Manufacturer’s guidelines to be followed before tightening the studs, to
avoid the twist of bearing caps with the mating face of the connecting rod
 The bottom end bearings for a modern trunk piston engine will be thin wall
tin aluminium or lead bronze shells with an electroplated or galvanized
overlay. The top half of the bearing is loaded for the majority of the cycle,
although for a short period between inlet and exhaust strokes the load is
transferred to the lower half.
 Oil is supplied to the bearing from the oil supply to the main bearing which
is led along drilling in the crankshaft and exits onto the crank pin surface via
a drilling in the crank pin journal. The oil then exits the bearing through the
holes in the shells and is fed round a groove in the bearing housing.
2. BOTTOM END BEARING OVERHAUL PROCEDURE

 The procedure for opening of the bottom end (MAN B&W) is as follows:
1. Inform company and take permission. Take immobilization certificate from
port state Authority stating that the main engine will not be available for a
particular period of time. Read the manual and have a toll box meeting with
everyone involved in the job. Discuss the procedure. Prepare important
tools and spares to be used in operation. Prepare risk assessment with the
personnel involved in operation. Prepare enclosed space entry checklist.
2. Shut starting air valve for main engine. Open indicator cocks of all the units.
Engage turning gear and put it in remote control. The remote-control
switch to be operated by in charge of the operation. Stop main lube oil
pump. Open crank case doors. Put blower and ventilate it thoroughly. After
sufficient ventilation, wearing proper PPE enter the C/C.

2.1. BOTTOM HALF OF THE BOTTOM END BEARING

3. Turn the engine to TDC and support the lower half of the bottom end
bearing with chain blocks, tackles, wire slings, etc.
4. Suspend the crosshead with guide supports or retaining pins or lifting
tackles, etc.
5. Remove the lower securing nuts hydraulically, cover and bearing shell will
come out. Lower the bottom half with a chain blocks and wire slings.

2.2. TOP HALF OF THE BOTTOM END BEARING

6. Now using chain blocks and wire slings pull the connecting rod to
one side of the crankcase as shown in the figure.
7. Now rotate the crankshaft, the crank pin will slide out of the upper
half and the upper shell will be visible.

8. Remove the top shell by removing the pinching screws securing the
shell on the cover.
 9. Inspect the bearing shells,
– Check and record clearance of the bearing
– Check the condition of bearing metal
– Check for signs of squeezing, scoring, cracking, pitting etc.
– Check the surface shine of the pin – it should be shiny in
appearance
– If scoring, pitting, cracks etc. exist in the pin, same to be polished,
grinded, or reconditioned
– Replacement of bearings to be done as per maker’s instruction. For
e.g. if overlay alloy is wiped out or oil wedge in the bearing is reduced
in dimension etc.
– The pin and the bearing to be thoroughly cleaned and lube oil to be
put before fitting
– Take enough photographs while doing the maintenance or survey
10. After inspection apply oil and put back the shells in the reverse
order.
11. Note: To measure the clearance between the crankpin and the
bearing shell for both (Main Engine & Auxiliary Engine) normal or long
feeler gauge is used.
12. Approximate idea of ME clearance value = 0.4 to 0.6 mm

6. ENGINE CROSSHEAD BEARING & CONNECTING ROD

1. CROSSHEAD, CONNECTING ROD

 In a marine two stroke diesel engine, due to angularity of connecting rod,

the side thrust by the piston is high. The side thrust, increases with the
increase in cylinder liner wear. Crossheads are used in large two stroke
marine diesel engines to ease this side thrust and reduce the liner wear.
 Crosshead allows concentric piston movement in cylinder liner. The side
thrust is transmitted from crosshead to crosshead guides. Crosshead guides
are attached to a frame of the engine. They are subjected to fluctuating
load from the transverse components of connecting rod. The ends of the
crosshead are fitted with guide shoes.
 The centre of the crosshead is designed as a bearing journal, which is
accommodated in the crosshead bearing. The bearing surfaces are white
metal lined bearing shells. The piston rod footrests on the crosshead. To
match different engine layouts, shims are inserted between the piston rod
and the crosshead. The piston rod is fastened to the crosshead by hydraulic
studs and nuts. The nuts are tightened by hydraulic tools.
 A telescopic pipe mounted on top of one of the guide shoes, supplies
lubricating and cooling oil to crosshead, crankpin and piston. The guide
shoe is fitted with a counterweight to balance the weight of the telescopic
pipe. The outlet pipe for piston cooling oil is mounted on top of the other
guide shoe.
 The outlet pipe slides within a slotted pipe inside the engine frame. Oil is
led through a control device for each cylinder. The control device checks
the temperature and flow before the oil is passed onto the lube oil sump
tank. The crosshead has bores for distributing the oil supplied through the
telescopic pipe. The connecting rod connects the crosshead to the
crankshaft. The crankpin bearings are white metal lined shell bearings.
2. BEARINGS

 The focus here is mostly to discuss the engine bearings fitted on

large 2 stroke engines and for smaller medium speed engines fitted
with gudgeon pin bearings.
 Engines’ reciprocating and rotary motions happen smoothly via these
bearings and the lubrication principle moves from boundary to
hydrodynamic based on engines’ rotational and reciprocating
motions and also the engine speeds.
 Certainly these bearings are heavily loaded and must sustain the load
under pressure for uninterrupted trouble-free running for a long
periods as the ships travel across the seas.
 

3. GUIDE SHOES
 The guide shoes mounted on the fore and aft ends of the cross head
reciprocate in the guides and transfer the side component of thrust
into the engine frame. Due to this, the reciprocating motion of
piston/piston rod via the connecting rod is converted into a rotational
movement of the crankshaft.
 The guide shoe has a screwed locating pin, which protrudes into a
hole in the cross-head pin, restricting the rotational movement of the
cross-head pin.
 The inner side of the guide shoes has the guide bolted guide strips to
ensure that the piston rod is in correct position in the fore-and-aft
direction.
 With the shims, this alignment and the clearance between the guide &
guide strips, is adjusted.
 White metal with machined oil supply grooves is used on the sliding
surfaces of the guide shoes and the guide strips.
4. CROSS-HEAD BEARING (OR, TOP END BEARING)
 Due to the swinging movement of the cross head, it is difficult to lubricate
and maintain a true hydrodynamic lubrication. To start with the boundary
lubrication occurs, with the increase in rubbing speed, the hydrodynamic
lubrication starts, but recedes, when the cross head decelerate after the
midway point and then the boundary lubrication takes over.
 Due to this, maintaining an oil film to separate the metal layers has always
been difficult. Previously an oil pump driven by the cross head to inject high
pressure oil in the lower bearing with some success. Due to the oscillating
motion, only the lower half of the bearing takes the load.
 The cooling oil must be injected between shaft (cross head pin) and lower
bearing at the correct time when the load on the bearing is low–
approximately 20 degrees before the TOC of the crank angle.
 To help with the distribution of oil over the loaded half of the bearing,
grooves are machined in the shell which also assists with the build-up of a
hydrodynamic film. Sometimes the grooves with reduced section at the
edge of the bearing is used to maintain the oil pressure to keep the
surfaces apart.
 To ensure minimum wear, the pin is ground and highly polished for a very
smooth finish. The pin is made of larger diameter to have a point contact.
The bottom half of the bearing is made continuous, to have a large surface
area hence reduce load per unit area
 Cross head bearing shells are of tin aluminium on a steel backing with a
white metal overlay.
 Modern cross head bearing clearances are non-adjustable. The bearing is
replaced when the clearance reaches a maximum.
5. AUXILIARY ENGINE CONNECTING ROD OVERHAUL

1. To overhaul connecting rod inspect the surface of piston pin and

connecting rod bush.
2. If the bush is worn out remove it using a special tool, replace it with a new
bush.

3. Check whether the connecting rod is bending or not. For that you need to
take a very fine rod and put that rod in the drill passage which was given for
the flow of oil. If it moves inside the passage without any restriction or it
goes freely then everything is okay.
4. Another method involves measuring the angle between the rod’s main
beam (centre part) and the transition fillet (the point where the bolts are
present) the big end, the angles should be in within the acceptable range
(more accurate method).
5. Remove the crankpin bearing shell and inspect.
6. Carry out dye penetrant test on the connecting rod serrations for any
cracks, it is a non-destructive method of testing.
(Note: Dye penetrant test may also shall be carried out on the connecting
rod bolts if found necessary according to the number of running hours or in
case  the engine went trough a rough-running phase).
7. Clean the serrations on the two faces of connecting rod with a soft cloth.

8. Connect the big end of the connecting rod without shells.

9. Fix the connecting rod bolts, tighten the nuts with the torque spanner
as specified by the manufacturer.
10. Measure the inner bore for ovality of the big end and using
inside micrometre and find readings in different positions (usually 3-4
equally spaced out).
11. If the readings are above the specified limit, replaced the
connecting rod.
12. If the ovality is within limits, dismantle the bottom end, fix the
bearing end, and keep it ready for assembling.
 13. Note: Auxiliary engine connecting rods (or piston rods) have
Piston pin with bush while Maine engine connecting rods have
Crosshead pin with bearing shells.

6. CROSSHEAD BEARING OVERHAUL PROCEDURE

 The procedure for opening of the crosshead (MAN B&W) is as

follows:
1. Inform company and take permission. Take immobilization certificate
from port state Authority stating that the main engine will not be
available for a particular period of time. Read the manual and have a
toll box meeting with everyone involved in the job. Discuss the
procedure. Prepare important tools and spares to be used in
operation. Prepare risk assessment with the personnel involved in
operation. Prepare enclosed space entry checklist.
2. Shut starting air valve for main engine. Open indicator cocks of all the
units. Engage turning gear and put it in remote control. The remote-
control switch to be operated by in charge of the operation. Stop
main lube oil pump. Open crank case doors. Put blower and ventilate
 it thoroughly. After sufficient ventilation, wearing proper PPE enter
the C/C.
3. Turn the crank throw to 90° before BDC.
4. Check the bearing clearance by inserting feeler gauge b/w bearing
cap and crosshead journal exactly next to the landing surface of the
piston rod foot.

5. The wear limit for a cross head bearing shell is limited to 50%
reduction of the oil wedge length (L). [ L=10mm]
6. Turn the crankshaft down enough to give access to nuts and screws
on piston rod.
7. Mount two chain blocks on the top of the crankcase for suspending
the piston rod.
8. Loosen and remove the locking wire and screws on the piston rod
foot.
9. Mount the lifting eye bolt on each side of the piston rod foot.
10. Turn the crosshead to TDC.
11. Hook the chain blocks to the eye bolt on the piston rod foot.
And turn the crosshead down so that piston is now suspended on the
chain blocks.
12. Turn to BDC.
13. Mount the hydraulic jack on the crosshead bearing cap nut and
loosen them. [pressure: 1500 – 1650 bars]
14. Mount the lifting attachment on the head of the connecting rod.
15. Suspend the two chain blocks from the lifting brackets in the
athwart ship direction.
16. Mount the 2 eye bolts on the top of the cross head bearing cap.
17. With the help of the two chain blocks lift the bearing cap. Take
it out of the engine and place it on a wooden base.
18. To check the upper bearing shell, remove the locking screws
(pinching screw) and push the shell out.
19. Mount the chain blocks to the lifting brackets on the frame box
wall.
20. Turn the crosshead up until the piston rod lands on the
crosshead. Ensure that the guide ring in the crosshead fits correctly
in the centre hole of the piston rod.
21. Do not remove the chain blocks or the lifting eye bolts.
22. Turn the crosshead to TDC and attach the chain blocks to the
lifting arrangement and haul it tight.
23. Mount the four supports for the guide shoes on the crosshead
guide.
24. Carefully and slowly turn the crankshaft towards to exhaust
side and make sure the crosshead guide sits on the supports.
25. Turn the crank throw towards BDC slowly while following with
the chain blocks, thus continuously supporting the connecting rod.
26. In case it is necessary to remove the lower bearing shell, tilt the
connecting rod towards the door on the cam shaft side with means of
chain blocks.
27. Dismount the locking screws and turn the bearing shell so far
up that an eye bolt can be mounted. Lift the bearing shell out.
28.Inspect the bearing shells,
– Check and record clearance of the bearing
– Check the condition of bearing metal
– Check for signs of squeezing, scoring, cracking, pitting etc.
– Check the surface shine of the pin – it should be shiny in appearance
– If scoring, pitting, cracks etc. exist in the pin, same to be polished,
grinded, or reconditioned
– Replacement of bearings to be done as per maker’s instruction. For e.g. if
overlay alloy is wiped out or oil wedge in the bearing is reduced in
dimension etc.
– The pin and the bearing to be thoroughly cleaned and lube oil to be put
before fitting
– Take enough photographs while doing the maintenance or survey
29.After inspection apply oil and put back the shells in the reverse order.
30.Note: Approximate idea of clearance values:
→ Pin and Shoe – 0.1 to 0.3 mm
→ Shoe and Rail – 0.4 mm
→ Plate and Rail – 1.5 mm
7. OTHER COMMON QUESTIONS

Q. 2-Stroke and 4-Stroke connecting rod differences

 

2-STROKE

1. 2 stroke connecting rod is of split type (means two halves for each small
and big end bearing)
2. Round mid-section changes to a rectangular palm section at the bearing
ends by means of the elliptical fillet shape
3. A round section is cheaper to manufacture
4. 2 stroke connecting rod have telescopic pipe
5. Only compressive forces are acting on 2 stroke connecting rod
6. Connecting rod connects to the piston rod through the cross-head pin.
4-STROKE

1. Only the big end bearing is of split type.

2. Oblique cut is provided in the crank pin side so that it can be taken out
easily with the piston from the cylinder head side because in previous
design it was not possible to take out the connecting rod directly from the
upward side because it width is more that was the reason we provide
oblique cut
3. The top end bearing may be of bush type bearing.
4. It is subjected to high compressive and low tensile stresses of bending as
well as axial type.
5. It connects the crank pin directly to the piston gudgeon pin.