UNIT 6 NATURE OF INDIAN SOCIETY

Structure

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 lndian Social Structure: Its Nature
6.3.1 The Caste System
6.3.2 The Class System
6.3.3 The Family
6.3.4 Keligion
6.3.5 Pluralism
6.4 Inter-relationship among the Structures
6.5 Proble~nsof Indian Society in the Context of National Development
6.5.1 Ilacial Probleni
6.5.2 I'roblem of Maintaining Secular State of the Country
6.5.3 lipholding De~nocraticIJrincipIes
6.5.4 Linguistic Diversities
6.6 Role of Education for National Development
6.7 Let Us Sum Up
6.8 Unit-end Activities
6.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
6.10 References and Suggested Readings

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit you will study about the nature of Indian society with detailed references on
caste, class, religion, family and pluralism. The purpose of this IJnit is to bring into focus,
the description of the Indian social structure and its nature, to discuss the inter-relationship
between various structures and the problems of Indian Society in the conrext of nati,onal
development such as maintaining secular status, upholding democratic principles, linguistic
diversities, pluralism and patriotism. The role of education for national development has been
discussed in detail. From this point of view education assumes an inevitable and important
responsibility to effect the national development. At the end the unit suggests inter-cultural
education for better understanding and improved human relationship. This Unit will help
teachers to inculcate in their students tlre values contemporary Indian society stands for.

6.2 OBJECTIVES
Atier going through this unit, you will be able to:

describe the structure of lndian Society;

identify the characteristics of Indian Sociery;
explain the relationship between the various social structures;
d i s c ~ ~ the
s s problems of lndian Society;
describe the role of education tor national development.

6.3 INDIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE : ITS NATURE

hincz ancieilt times, the social structure of triiditional lndian society has been based mainly
o n the hereditary principle. The members were divided into hereditary caste groups, each
iaste with its traditional occrlpa~ion.Tlic actions of any individual in ancient Indian society
ivere inher-e!~tly structured on a r~or~nalibc, teleological socio-culrural group pattern. The
~lorlnativesrl-ucture consisted ofpurlr.~hul-/ho-D17ar1n, Artha, Kurna and ~Mnkshu.A person in
this sche~ni:of lilk was expected ro behave in a pattern laid out for a religious sect and caste
Education in the Indian
Societal Context i
and achieve the goal of self-realisation. This ideology of Indian ociety was followed in the
ancient period through a synthesis of system described in the Gita, t e Smritis and Arthasastra.
This was, in fact, the model of Sanatan Dharm, the eternal r e ~ i ~ i b n .

In modem Indian society, the Indian Constitution now upholds the democratic principle of social
organistion. Democracy stands for equality among individuals in sobiety. Social equality may be

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broadly divided into two types, equality of co~lditionsand equalil of opportunities. The main
aim of Indian democracy is limited towards securing equality of , pportunity whereby citizens
should have social rights and privileges according to their capaciQ, ability and functions.

The main aspects of social structure of Indian society are the caske and the class system.

6.3.1 The Caste System

I
The Caste system may be defined as an integration of interactirg endogamous groups into a
structure of status hierarchy. In the traditional Indian society, a oommunity was divided into a
number of endogamous groups of intermarrying circles called castes. Members in each caste
group followed the same hereditary occupation and were soc o-economically homogenous.
These groups were graded in a hierarchy of social prestige. The cs ste stratification is found even
now in almost every Indian community defined in terms of locality, but the degree of its rigidity
varies from community to community. Even today, caste is an institution of great strength and
is considered as an important component of the social structure particularly in rural areas.

6.3.2 The Class System

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food processing) and tertiary (services, medicine).

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6.3.3 The Family i

but if the forces of modernity continue to operate effectively,( the family structure in this area
would also change.

6.3.4 Religion

may eat and drink, who may prepare their food etc.
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In a broad sense, religious outlook on life is the same as spiritbal outlook. In India, religion does
6.3.5 Pluralism Nature o f Indian Society

The attitude of pluralism may be traced to the ontological make-up of the Hindu world-view.
It is a method of allowing each individual or group to get the ultimate truth in his own
tradition by means of discipline of mind and morals. The Bhagwad Gita calls this 'Swadharma'.
Nothing is good which is not self-chosen and no determination is valuable which is not self-
determination. In another outlook pluralism is the value of adjustment to the reality. Often,
it is felt that, the fundamental drive in the thought and activities of the group seems to be
towards the goal of adjustment of the individual to the universe.

The theme of pluralism in Indian culture is borne out from historical necessity and has strong
basis in the Hindu religious practices supported by the Hindu ontology. Apart from the
polytheistic manifestations this configuration of values reflects in the life of the averages
Indian the following cluster of values:

1. Multiplicity of approaches to social problems as a social value.

2. Tolerance as a valued concept both in religious and secular life.
3. Unity in diversity as an underlying value, along with pluralistic approach.
4. Swadharma as adirectional value toward self-chosen and self-determined social behaviour
within the purview of unity in diversity.
5. Adjustment as a value leading to non-controlling the universe but towards establishing a
passive balanced recording of the environment. 4

Check Your Progress

Notes : a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1. Define the term caste system.

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
2. What are the main aspects of the structure of Indian society.
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
3. Define the concept of pluralism.
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6.4 INTERRELATIONSHIP AMONG THE

STRUCTURES
India is a multiracial, multireligious, multicaste, multilingual and multicultural country. The
pages of history are full of the fragrance of communal harmony as well as the venom of
communal discord. Contrary to the expectations of our national leaders who waged the
struggle for freedom, the post-independence era of our country has seen innumerable
communal riots and endless quarrels and tensions on various. issues like state boundaries,
language, sharing of river waters as well as industrial enterprise, atrocities on scheduled caste
or a minority community etc. A keen observer of the Indian society Prof. M.N. Srinivas
(1966) correctly reports:-

"India is not only vast, and culturally and religiously divhse, but its population is also very
sharply stratified, socially as well as economically. A crucial consequence of the- divisions
which 'characterise Indian society everywhere is widespread minority consciousness".
19
Education in the Indian Different terms related to social structure such as 'caste', 'class', 'fanhily', 'village', 'community'
Societal Context
and 'kinship' are defined as segmentary entities. Relationship betwebn these segmentary entities
are developing in situations that are taking place in wider society. Fbr example, Surjit Sinha has
delineated the process of assimilation of some particular castes intd the present class of Indian
civilisation through the adoption of agricultural technology and linkuistic and cultural norms.

G.S. Arora, who has worked among the Bhil and Bhila tribals of the region of Alirapur in the
district of Jhabui of Madhya Pradesh, discusses the trend of social ndrm and relationships among
the tribals. He proposes his thesis in terms of tribe->caste->class, so$ial formation. He observes:
J

"If we study the ritual relations between the two landowning Jatis -1 Bhils and Bhilas - they act
towards each other almost as equals. Whereas, the rituals of social these land-
owning Jatis, and Balais - who own very little land - do follow pattern' somewhat
rigorously."
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The present-day society is witnessing a lot of change in these structurbs due to modernisation and
flexibility. For example, D.N. Majomdar envisages three stages in t e process of sanskritisation
among the Garos of the north-east India. In the first stage, the trib Is give up habits like beef
eating, keeping of pigs and foul. This is both a sign that the tribe kvants acceptance in Hindu
1
society and a claim to belong to it. The second stage is the abanddnment of tribal deities and
performing of rites to a god from the Hindu pantheon such as the! celebration of ceremonies
associated with Hindu deities. The third stage is the relinquishing of kribal clan organisation and
replacing it by Hindu clan system. To crown the entire process, Maju dar hints that the adoption
of an Aryan language would complete de-tribalisation in its totality. Most of the tribals and the
ph
other backward castes people are affected by technological change. for example those who live
in or near the cjty of Jamshedpur, are especially apt to be part of the working force in the steel
mills there leading to a change in their entire pattern of existance.

This indicates that the forces of education and economic moderbisation have changed the
direction of social change among the people. They are moving frotn a rigid caste system to an
occupational class system - agricultural labourers, wage earners, factory workers, officers,
administrators, educationalists etc. The emerging pattern of peoples polity presents a heterogeneous
way of integration. The peasants who have acquired land and proprty and better means of
production are united with the upper strata of regional society thrbugh the capitalist market,
money, education and competitive politics. Another group belonging to landless peasantry or
wage owners has united with the lower strata of the wider society. ?he national model remains
the ideal for both strata of the society.

b c k Your progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of [the unit.

4. How is India's population stratified? I

..................................................................................................1 . . ...............................
6. In what ways are people improving their rank in Indian soc/ety?
 Nature of Indian Socicl)
6.5 PROBLEMS OF INDIAN SOCIETY IN THE?
CONTEXT OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
The problems of Indian society in the context of national development are rather complicated
is nature. India's history. its geography and its heritage racially, linguistically and culturally
have made the country diverse in habits, customs and other aspects of living. Though this
makes lndia a very interesting and culturally rich nation, it also leads to a number of
problems peculiar to this country. These problems can be broadly classified into two main
areas:-

(i) Conflict arising due to religious, linguistic. economic, political and cultural diversity;
(ii) Protection and maintenance ofacomplicated social fabric while preserving it's uniqueness.

The most characteristic feature of the Indian civilisation is thc processes by which diverse
elements are related to one another to form the civilisation. Therefore, the problem of
national development in India needs to be seen against this characteristic diversification. Let
us now study these problems in detail.

6.5.1 Racial Problem

The people of India can be viewed as essentially comprise six racial groups occupying
specific blocks of territory :

1. Indo-Aryan (Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Kashmir)

2. Saytho-Dravidian (Gujarat, Maharashtra)
3. Aryo-Dravidian (Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar)
4. Mongolo Dravidian (Bengal, Coastal Orissa)
5. Mongoloid type (Himachal Pradesh, Assam North-East, Sikkim), and
6. Dravidian (Tamil Nadu, Andhra, Kerala)

There are professed beliefs of racial superiority and inferiority in certain situations of
difference in the country. Though colour has not been associated as a distinguishing feature
of any group of people, a certain amount of 'shade-complex' is identifiable in the social
relations of people, which is sonletimes tied to racial characteristics of a family or a group.
The fairer shade of a person is at times attributed to the Aryan stock. Such beliefs in the
origin of colour shades of people quite often lead to social discrimination with its concomitant
hostilities of mutual groups. Similarly, the hierarchical positions of castes are also believed
to have their origin in the racial characteristics. The Brahmins and other higher castes believe
themselves to be of the Aryan race and those of the lower castes of the Dravidian race.

6.5.2 Problem of Maintaining the Secular Status of the Country

In India the meaning of intercultural education has to be consistent with the ideals of
democratic pluralism upheld by the Indian Constitution which are :-
JUSTICE (Social, economic and political);
L,IBEKI'Y of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and opportunity;
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity of the nation.
In other words, intercultural education in lndia has to be based upon the five basic principles:

1. Every individual in lndia has a worth and dignity of his own.

2. Society exists for the individual and not the individual for the society.
3. Equality and majority rule ought to work in a ~nutuallysupplementing and not in
supplanting manner.
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I
1.
I duration in the Indian
s~~cletrlContext
4.

5.
Discrimination on grounds of religion, race. caste, sex or language is repugnant to societal
living.
Every group in India has a right to protect, conserve and pr&mote its own culture.

'The principles derived from the Indian Constitution imply that differences in ideology and
cultural patterns that characterise groups should be tolerated and hoooured. Therefore, the scope
of inter-cultural education in India should embrace muchmore than /nstilling love and regard for

‘i
one's own sub-culture or a measure of respect for members of her sub-cultures. It should
include the formation of an intellectual understanding and appreciati n of the real purpose, ideals
and contr~butionsof all sub-cultu~e\ Ihe they religious, li~iguisticof socio-economic. Particular
attention has to be obviously given to groups which may not coine within the conventional
framework of the majority or the dominant group in a societal sitdation.

Some Indologists feel that Democracy, as a value, is a part of the traditional heritage of India.
It is supposed to have been operating and guiding the lives of peopl in their working of village

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republics from time immemorial. Examples of the behaviour of king like Rama are quoted from
the epics to show how the king respected the common man's opinio about his own conduct and
how the king decided even to send away his dear wife to the fore t to respect public opinion.
But whatever may be the force of these isolated instances in th epics of India, one wouId
hesitate to assume tlie operation of democracy for educating the pe ple of lndia for an enduring
national solidarity. In lndia there is a problem of maintaining a sedular state of affairs. In fact,
secularism is often referred to as a qualification to Indian democraci, in order to provide greater
universality of religious and spiritual attitudes. The people of India have accepted the theme of
secular~snias a guiding value.
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It may also be pointed out that verbalisations and to some exteni adherence to the theme of
secularism have become emotionally charged in certain sections bf the national body politic.
After the bitter experiences of partition In the country, based on the bligious minority claims and
after Pakistan has adopted a theocratic Constitution, the importanc of the theme of secularism
F
has greatly increased and the people and the body politic react sharply against non-secular
elements of the country.

6.5.3 Upholding the Democratic Principles

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Article 46 of the lndian constitut~onlays down the following dir ctive principle in regard to
social justices: "The state shall promote, with special care, the educa ional and economic Interests
of the weaker sections of the people and in particular of the sch duled castes and scheduled
tr~bes;shall provide them social justice and shalI protect then1 froln all forms of explo~tation."
The concept of social justice as enunciated by the above directjve principle has led to the
I

formation of many voluntary organisations to safeguard the interdsts of the members of these
backward castes. Under the context of democracy, these organisations assume a strong political
power in the lndian society. 1
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4
d
The greatest force of modern lndian democracy is the spirit a d provisions of the Indian
constitution. Also, the theme of democracy is gradually becoming ore and more comprehensive
in its scope and application in the country. Probably, the most sighificant introduction into the I
lives of lndian citizens are the recent attempts of the governmtnt of the country to affect
Panchayati Raj, or progressive democratic decentralisation in the $phere of local governments.
1
A study of conte~nporaryevents in Indian social and political life inqicates a strong trend towards
1
tlie theme of tlemocracy percolating down to the bases of Indian cplture and therefore, it has to
be a great unifying force in the country today. 1 i!
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6.5.4 Linguistic Diversities

One of the most dividing features of Indian national life today 1s the situation of difference 1

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caused by the languages. Although, there are many bilingual an multilingual groups in the
country. it is possible to classify the people of India into distirlct 1 nguage groups, where one or
the other of the Indian languages IS dominantly spoken by the pedp~eof one particular area. In
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lndia there are about 85 languages or dialects including 720 Indian languages spoken by less than
a lakh of persons ezch and 63 lion-Indian languages. The people o f lndia may be broadly divided
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32 I

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I into four linguistic groups, namely. the Into-Aryan, the Dravidian, the Austro-Asiatic and the Nature of 111dia11Socirc?
Sino-Tibetan. All these broad linguistic groups are divisible at lower levels into dialects or
colloquial fonns, according to areas called regional standards. For example, Bihar is divided
into three regional standards, namely, Bhojpuri, Maithili and Magadhi. Similarly, Marathi is
divisible into Desi and Konkani and so on. Dravidian language include 1 I distinct languages,
namely Tamil, Telgu, Kannada, Malayalam, Telu, Kodagu, Gond, Khond, Oraoh and
Rajmahal. The Austo-Asiatic languages which are spoken by over 50 lakhs of people
including- Santhali, Mundarai, Khasi and Nicobarese. The Sino-Tibetian languages
- are used -

I by small groups of Indians living along the southern slopes of the Himalayas in North Bengal
and Assam. The principal ianguages of this group are Newari and Meitheli. Besides, these
four main linguistic groups, there are 63 non-Indian languages spoken by Indians. Chief
among them is English, Persian, Chinese. Arabic. Burmese, Portuguese, French and so on.

I Thus in lndia there are literally hundreds of linguistic groups each with its own characteristic
sub-culture. However, 97 percent of Indian population falls under one or the other of the
fourteen major linguistic ciassifications >is~nentioiied,in the schedule of the Indian Constitution.
'Phe linguistic distance between Hindi alici ~ ~ i i i languagzs
er ha> lelt a social cleavage betuecn

I the northern and southern parts of i~ldia.arld a feei~ngof being handicapped for effective
citizenship in the country among tht! i.;eopie.

The varieties of Indian languagi.5 posc sitt,ations of dilkrence in :hc !ndian social life. As
Karve points out "In all discussions G I rsgionalism either poiiiical or culr~lral.language has
been a consistent and prime facioi- i l i incjia"

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in L ~ I L;pace gven below.

b) Compare your answ-ri \; i:ii rhose given at the end of the unit.

7. What are :he lnalr pro ill:!;^^ c i Ilidian society in rhe contzsr of natior~aldevelopment?
......................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
8. What are the b:is~c principles o : ~which the intercultural rduc:!tion in lndia should
be based?
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9. Which Article of the Indian Constitution lays down the directive principles in
regard to social justice?

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6.6 ROLE OF EDUCATION FOR NATIONAL

DEVELOPMENT
In Indian Society today, it has pointed out thar there are fundame:ital changes taking place
in social conditions and patterns of life and bases of power. New institutions are springing
up and a new hope and aspiration for better Living have been generated. But the restless
society f i ~ ~ itself
d s unprepared to grasp the new spirit so that it can steadily rise along with
it. Either t!le people want to get the benefits of the new age too soon or they find themselves
It)st in the sweeping changes thar are made for those that remain from an earlier pattern of
culture. Thus the stability of society is affected and forces of disunity are showing up.

flie remedy for this malady is the education of the young snd re-education of the old. l'here
I,,a lag between rhe aspirai-inns of' !he people and their preparedness to use and create
lcsources to achieve thein. P,L.;,;T-~ t I i ltend to stick to stzreotyped notions and look for
~rnrnediateindividual gair~s.7hih rcsults in the rcii~iii)rceme~ir of the rmegional loyalrizs and
z~luationsof widening differertccs hetwcen the subculiarzs. Our a~tiiuclesarid ~~fidcrstandirlg
reflect an age th:tt 1s gone. 23
Education in the Indian
Societal C.wtext

and of lnorality that will open up 'new horizons' in India. Here lied the role o f education for
national development.
!

and promotion of educational development in India is as follows:

I
Improving the status of people I
i)

It must be stated at the very outset that education is inherently an intekrating tool. Education in
a country which is fifty percent illiterate has tlie tremendous potentiality of creating an equality
of opportunity and of cutting across the traditional, rigid caste stratificktions in society. In fact,
, providing a [nobility potential to a caste-ridden society is both a qual/tative and a quantitative
role of education in a traditional society. Rural Indians have the expectlations of getting a job to
improve tlie family economy, of reducing the population pressure on family land and of securing
a tool for survival and adjustment in the changing democratic society1 through education. It is
obvious that even the people feel that education provides a scope for ilbproving their economic
and social position. Providing compulsory, universal and useful edudation may therefore, be
mentioned as the first step towards building nationhood. Obviously, this stcp meets with the
problem of special endeavour to educate tlie traditionally backward pdrts of the society in the
context of constitutional directive of social justice.

The Backward and the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Indian $ociel> 11;rve traditionally
been neglected so far as the provision for economic and social growth is concerned. This
situation has led to a considerable ariiount of hostilities between Mihat may bc called the
'forward' and tlie 'backward' com~nunitiesof the Indian society. Merely providing an equality
of educational opportunity to all classes of people ill India may tlierefore. be considered
inadequate in bridging the gap between the privileged and non-privilegelj communities. 'There is
no doubt that national integration by tlie process of education will be: incolnplzte uiithout an
attempt to raise the econornic and educational levels of sorne scctions of the .;ociety who have
been kept at a backward level for centuries hy traditions of tlie Indiati society. fiow best to
provide an equality of educatio~~al opportunity taking into considesadion thc existing social
injustice and tlie educability of people, is a delicate attempt to b ~ ~ i tlld
l d 10111idat1onof national
education on which alone, tlie superstructure of national developmen( dan I-W.

ii) Accelerating the pace of national development

Education and its concomitant equality of opportunity is capable of ~ . o u n c ] i oft'

~ r ~the ;t!~:;~~lilritieb
of these sub-cultures. Under the present conditions of democl-atic pluralisrti tlic .~rilyLea! to briny
about overall national development is to create bridges among the differerit s:~bcultures nt- the
nation. From this point of view education assumcs an inevitable and i~igrentr~>porl\ibilityto
effect the development of the nation.

iii) In~provingcross-cultural understanding and appreciation

cultural understanding and inter-group education are a greater necessity for effecting national Nature of Indian Soelety
development alongwith the development of sentiment. The curricula of schools and colleges
have to reflect tlre harmonious blending of cross-cultural influences. Attempts should be
made to provide an understanding of inter-cultural differences and commonality among the
different sub-cultures and evolve techniques of group living and action in schools and
colleges, based upon objective and scientific investigation in the social foundations of
education. Inter-cultural education is taken to mean instruction and training designed to
promote better understanding and improved human relationships among individuals of many
sub-cultural groups. -
Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit?

10. Discuss the main role of education for national development.

.......................................................................................................................................
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11. In what way are researches and studies based on inter-cultural understanding a
prime necessity for natio~~al
~ltvelopmentin India?
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6.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have studied the concept of Indian social structure, its nature and inter-
relationships between the various units of the social structure. The unit also analyses
problems of Indian society in the context of national development and role of education for
national development. The concepts of language, caste, religion etc. in varied forms
determine the social structure of the different regions of India. Through this unit you have
learnt about the role of education to solve problems of Indian society in the context of
national development and the improvement of human relationship among individuals through
better understanding and tolerance.

6.8 UNIT-END ACTIVITIES

1. As a teacher, how can you tackle caste and language disparities in a school?

2. Do you feel that tribal and folk cultures need to be encouraged in today's schools? Why?

3. How can a teacher play an active role in national development? Discuss with suitable
examples.

4. Why is adult education an important component of bringing about social change in India?
How can you, as a teacher, contribute to adult education?

5 Why is tolerance an important value in Indian society? Discuss in the light of your
experiences.

6.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Integration of interacting endogamous groups into a structure of status hierarchy.

2. 'The main aspects of social structure of Indian society are the caste and the class system.
tducation in the Indian 3. Diverse cultural attitude and behaviours which may be categoricajly divided into the values.
Socictal Context
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4. India's population is stratified \ocially and economically. i

5. Transfonnation of the caste system is due to social and educatio al changes that are taking
place in the wider Indian society.

6.
t
People are improvingtheir ranks in ~ndiansociety through enterpr neurship, capitalist market.
education and competitive politics.

7. Related to the heritage of conflicts: religious, linguistic, econom(ic, political and cultural

Or related to the heritage of cultural unity. I

8. Five basic principles: 1
i) Every individual has a worth and dignity
ii) Society exists for the individual
iii) Equality and majority rule
iv) Discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex language in repugnant to
societal living
v) Every group in India has a right to protect it's identity. I
9. Article 46 1
10. Education of young, reduction of old, new orientation of ou education and encouraging
innovations.

1 1. For cross-cultural understanding and appreciation.

I

Aurora, G.S. (1972); Tribe, Caste and Class Encounters, Admini rative Staff College of India,
Hy derabad. I ?
Chatterjee, S.K. (1945); Languageandthe Linguistic Problem. Oxfo d Pamphlets on Indian Affairs,
No.11, London.

Dube, S.C., ('1955); Indian Village, Cornell University Press, 1t11acs

Karve, Irawati. Kinship Organization in India, Decan College ~ o / l o g r a Series,

~ h ~ 11 Pona, 1 (53
p p 1-10). I
Majumdar, D.N. (1969); "A Study of. Tribe-Custe Continuwn and the Proce.cv of.Sc~n.skritizution
among the Bodo-Speaking Tribes of'the Gar Hills". Tribal situatid~~
in India, Simla.

Preamble of Indian Constitution.

Radhakrishnan, (1957); The Hindi View oflife, George Allen and Unwin, New York.

Risley, H.H. ( 1915); The People ofindiu, W . Crooke. Calcutta. I

Ruhela, S.P..(1969); Social Determinants of'Educabili~in Jain Brothers, New Delhi.

Shah, B.V. (1964); Social Change in College M.S. University, Baroda.

Shermerhorn, R.A. (1978); Ethnic Pluraliv in India, Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizoni~.

Shrimaii, K.L. (1970); The Prospmsfir Democracy in lndja, douthero Illinois University Press.
26 USA.
Srinivas, M.N. (1966); Social Chunge in Modern Indja, Allied Pub., Bombay. Nature of Indian Society

Thirtha. N.V. (1 960); "Rural Expectations Concerning Education in India" in Teacher Education,
New Delhi, Nos. 7 & 8 July - Aug.

Whitehead Henry (1 924); Indiun Problems in Religion Education, Politics, Constable and Co.
Ltd. London.
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