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Jerusalem, The Old City, Wilson’s Arch and the Great Causeway: Preliminary Report
Author(s): Alexander Onn, Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah and Rachel Bar-Nathan

Source: Hadashot Arkheologiyot: Excavations and Surveys in Israel / ‫חדשות‬
‫ כרך‬,2011 ,‫ חפירות וסקרים בישראל‬:‫&ארכיאולוגיות‬lrm; 123 (2011)
Published by: Israel Antiquities Authority / ‫רשות העתיקות‬
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Jerusalem, The Old City, Wilson’s Arch and the Great Causeway
Alexander Onn, Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah and Rachel Bar-Nathan 15/08/2011
Preliminary Report
From May 2007 to April 2010, archaeological excavations were conducted continuously
underneath the vaults of an ancient bridge, adjacent to Wilson’s Arch (hereafter, the ‘Great
Causeway’), as well as in the Secret Passage and inside an ancient building with several
rooms south of the ‘Great Causeway’ (Permit Nos. A-5124, A-5431, A-5570, A-5805; Figs.
1, 2). The excavations, on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority and at the initiative of
the Western Wall Heritage Foundation, were directed by A. Onn, with the assistance of A.
Solomon, T. Grunwald, L. ‘Oz, Y. Rapuano and R. Be’eri (area supervision), V. Essman,
M. Kipnis and Y. Shemidov (surveying), S. Mandrea, D. Amit and the authors (field
photography), N. Zak and E. Belashov (drafting), C. Amit and A. Peretz (studio
photography), J. Bukengolts and O. Shorr (pottery and glass restoration), R. Vinitsky, L.
Kupershmidt and G. Beiner (metallurgical laboratory) and O. Raviv (stone laboratory). The
excavations were accompanied by engineering supervision (R. Kutchmark and O. Cohen)
and by a performance contractor and laborers on behalf of the Avner Gilad Company. The
finds were treated in the IAA laboratories and the processing and publications of the finds
involve the following researchers: A. Onn and S. Weksler-Bdolah (architecture and
stratigraphy), R. Bar-Natan (ceramics), D.T. Ariel (numismatics), Y. Gorin-Rosen and N.
Katsnelson (glass) and D. Amit (plastered installations from the Second Temple period).
Preliminary conservation of the architectural remains was carried out by the IAA
Conservation Department, headed by Y. Ivanovski. Our thanks are extended to the
Western Wall Heritage Foundation and its director Mr. Mordechai (Solly) Eliav, as well as
to Mr. Chen. Kanari, for providing all the technical assistance that enabled the excavations
to be carried out.
History of the Research
The Great Causeway was first documented and described in studies by scholars of the
Palestine Exploration Fund in the second half of the nineteenth century (Warren C. and
Conder C.R. 1884, The Survey of Western Palestine III: Jerusalem, London, pp. 193–209;
Wilson C.W. 1865. Ordnance Survey of Jerusalem, London, pp. 28–29, Pl. XII; Wilson
C.W. 1880. The Masonry of the Haram Wall, PEQ 13:22–30). Warren’s research included
an excavation of two deep shafts to the level of virgin bedrock in the cavity beneath
Wilson’s Arch. To the west of Wilson’s Arch and beneath the arches of the ‘Great
Causeway’, Warren documented a monumental public hall from the time of the Second
Temple, which he called the Masonic Hall (Warren C. 1876. Underground Jerusalem.
London, pp. 370–371; Warren and Conder 1884:200–202). This hall was investigated again
in the twentieth century (Stinespring W.F. 1967. Wilson's Arch and Masonic Hall,
Summer 1966, Biblical Archaeologist 30:27–31), and once again by D. Bahat and A.
Maier (Bahat D. 1994. The Western Wall Tunnels. Qadmoniot 101-102:38–48 [Hebrew];
Bahat D. 2007. Innovations in the Research of the Western Wall Tunnels. Qadmoniot
133:41–47 [Hebrew]). After 1967, the Ministry of Religious Affairs conducted work in the
cavities of the Great Causeway and the Secret Passage, which have since come to be
known by the popular name of ‘The Western Wall Tunnels’. This work included removing
soil, as well as repairing and supporting the ancient vaults. M. Ben-Dov accompanied the
work of the Ministry of Religious Affairs in the Western Wall tunnels until 1985 (Ben-Dov
M. 1982. The Underground Vaults West of the Western Wall. Qardom 21-23:102–105
[Hebrew]; Ben-Dov M. 1983. The Fortifications of Jerusalem: The City Walls, the Gates
and the Temple Mount. Tel Aviv, p. 146 [Hebrew]). D. Bahat directed the archaeological
research in the Western Wall tunnels during 1986–2007 (Bahat D. 1994; 2007; Bahat D.
and Solomon A. 2002. Innovations in the Excavations of the Western Wall Tunnels. In:
Judea and Samaria Research Studies, Vol. 11:175–186 [Hebrew]; Bahat D. and Solomon
A. 2004. An Ancient Miqve in the Western Wall Tunnels. In E. Baruch, U. Leibner and A.
Faust (eds.) New Studies on Jerusalem, Ninth Volume, Ramat Gan, pp. 83–105
[Hebrew]). Since 2007, A. Onn, on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, has been
responsible for the work undertaken inside the Western Wall tunnels. Since this report
was submitted, other excavations were undertaken in rooms 4, 9, 10 of the Great

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Causeway and in room 22, under rooms 9, 10. The finds from these excavations will be
published in the future.
During the twentieth century, several small-scale excavations were conducted north and
south of the Great Causeway, as well as below it. Most of these excavations were related
to repairs of the municipal drainage system, extending along the main roads that cross
the area: Ha-Gāy Street (El-Wad) and the Street of the Chain. R.W. Hamilton and C.
Jones excavated on Ha-Gāy Street, next to where the street passes beneath the vaults of
the Great Causeway; they exposed the pavement of a street that has been identified with
the eastern Roman–Byzantine cardo (Hamilton R.W. 1932. Street Levels in Tyropoeon
Valley. QDAP 1:105–110; Hamilton R.W. 1933. Street Levels in Tyropoeon Valley, II.
QDAP 2:34–40; Johns C.N. 1932. Jerusalem: Ancient Street Levels in the Tyropoeon
Valley within the Walls. QDAP 1:97–100). Other remains of the eastern Roman–
Byzantine cardo were recently discovered in Ohel Yizhaq and in the Western Wall Plaza,
north and south of the Great Causeway (Barbe H. H. and De‘adle T. 2006. Jerusalem—
Ohel Yizhaq. In E. Baruch, Z. Greenhut and A. Faust (eds.) New Studies on Jerusalem
11:19*– 29*; HA-ESI 121; Weksler-Bdolah S., Onn A. and Rosenthal-Heginbottom R.
2009. The Eastern Cardo and Wilson’s Arch in Light of the New Excavations: The
Remains from the Second Temple Period and the Roman Period. In L. Di Segni, Y.
Hirschfeld, R. Talgam and Y. Patrich (eds.). Man Near a Roman Arch. Studies Presented
to Professor Yoram Tsafrir. Jerusalem, pp. 135–159; Weksler-Bdolah S. and Onn A.
2010. Remains of the Eastern Roman Cardo in the Western Wall Plaza. Qadmoniot
140:123–132 [Hebrew]). Street remains paved with flagstones that date to the Roman
period were exposed on the Street of the Chain, above the top of the Great Causeway,
(ESI 10:134–136; ESI 16:104–106). The street has been identified with the decumanus
from the time of Aelia Capitolina (Tsafrir Y. 1999. The Topography and Archaeology of
Aelia Capitolina. In Y. Tsafrir and S. Safrai [eds.]. The Jerusalem Book, The Roman and
Byzantine Period 70–638 CE, p. 146 [Hebrew]; Kloner A. 2006. Dating the Southern
Lateral Street [the Southern Decumanus] of Aelia Capitolina and Wilson’s Arch. New
Studies on Jerusalem 11:239–247 [Hebrew]). Part of a monumental staircase from the
Second Temple period was exposed above the top of Wilson’s Arch and above its western
pier (ESI 16:104–106).
Description of the ‘Great Causeway’

The arch bridge discussed in this article had been referred to in the past by
various names, including ‘The Giant Viaduct’, ‘The Great Causeway’, and ‘Wilson’s
Arch and the Causeway Vaults’ (Warren and Conder 1884:193–209, Wilson
1880:24, Plan 8). M. Avi-Yonah called it Wilson’s Bridge (Avi-Yonah M. 1957 [a].
The Archaeology and Topography of Jerusalem in the Second Temple Period. In
M. Avi-Yonah [ed.]. The Jerusalem Book. The Nature, History and Development of
Jerusalem from Its Earliest Times until the Present. Volume 1. The Natural
Conditions and the History of the City from its Beginning until the Destruction of
the Second Temple. Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, pp. 305–319, Map 10: Jerusalem in
the Second Temple period [Hebrew]), and that is the name the authors of this
report adopted in previous reports (Onn A., Weksler-Bdolah S, and Avni G.
2009. "Wilson’s Bridge" in Light of New Excavations, Innovations in the
Archaeology of Jerusalem and its Surroundings 2:55–63 [Hebrew]; Weksler-
Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom 2009).
The length of the Great Causeway, extending between Ha-Gāy Street in the west
and the western wall of the Temple Mount in the east, is c. 100 m; its overall width
is 10.8–11.0 m and it passes above the Tyropoeon Valley, next to the confluence
with the Transverse Valley (Nahal Ha-‘Arev). Today, the Street of the Chain,
leading to the Chain Gate of the Temple Mount, is borne atop the causeway. The
Great Causeway is composed of several units that were built in different time
periods; these units are referred to below by the letters: A, B, C, D1 and D2 (Figs.

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2, 3). The beginning of the causeway in the east is the monumental Wilson’s Arch
(below: C), which is supported up against the western wall of the Temple Mount.
Extending westward, the Great Causeway consists of two rows of narrower arches,
or vaults: a northern row (D1) and a
southern row (D2), which are adjacent to each other and founded atop buildings
that date to the Second Temple period (Fig. 3). The northern (D1) and southern
(D2) rows of arches are quite similar in their overall appearance; however, a
significant discrepancy along their contact line, and the variable width and height
of adjacent vaults indicate that they were built at different times (Fig. 4). The walls
enclosing the arches to the north and south were built during the Roman period
and thus created enclosed spaces inside the archways. These enclosed spaces
were numbered in ascending order from west to east (below, arch/vault or room
No. 1, 2, 3 etc.). The arches in the eastern part of the Great Causeway were
founded on a monumental building composed of three halls, which dated to the
Second Temple period (below, Building B). The arches in its western part were
founded on a massive foundation wall (max. width c. 14 m), which to the best of
our knowledge today, also dates to the Second Temple period (below; W5006,
Building A). Remains of the eastern Roman cardo, generally oriented north–south,
were exposed beneath what is known today as the westernmost arch of the Great
Causeway. Large buildings (below E, F, G) that were constructed in a later period
south of the Great Causeway had survived by a narrow route (H) between them,
known by the name of the ‘Secret Passage’.
The current excavations (2007–2010) were conducted in the northern part of

Room 3 (Vault 304), Room 5 (Vaults 502, 504), Room 6 (Vaults 602, 604), the
northern part of Room 8 (Vault 804), and in Room 21, located on a lower level
beneath the southern part of Room 8 (Vault 802) and below the Secret Passage.
A later blocking wall (W400) that had sealed off the entrance from the Secret
Passage into Room 4 of the Great Causeway (Vault 402) was breached. In
addition, a cistern that was installed inside the northern vault (Vault 404) of Vault 4
was partly cleaned. Furthermore, two areas were excavated along the Secret
Passage (Onn A. and Solomon A. 2008. A Window to Aelia Capitolina in the
Western Wall Tunnel Excavations, Innovations in the Archaeology of Jerusalem
and its Surroundings 1: 85–93; Onn, Weksler-Bdolah and Avni 2009; Weksler-
Bdolah, Onn and Rosenthal-Heginbottom, 2009; Onn A. and Weksler-Bdolah S.
2011a. Wilson’s Arch in Light of New Excavations and Past Studies. In D. Amit, O.
Peleg-Bareket and G.D. Steibel [eds.], Innovations in the Archaeology of
Jerusalem and its Surroundings Wilson’s Arch and the Great Causeway in the
Second Temple Period and in the Roman Period – In Light of New Excavations.
Qadmoniot 140:109–122 [Hebrew]). 4:84–100 [Hebrew]; Onn A. and Weksler-
Bdolah S. 2011b.
The finds identified in the excavation of the Great Causeway are ascribed to
sixteen archaeological strata, listed below:
Stratum Period Principal Finds Century or Year

(CE)
1 Modern, post 1967 Removal of soil fill, repairs Twentieth–twenty-first
and concrete castings centuries, post 1967
2 Modern, Cisterns, cesspits Nineteenth–twentieth
Mandatory and centuries
Ottoman
3 Mamluk–Ayyubid Installations Thirteenth–fifteenth
centuries
4 Crusader Pillar in a Crusader building Twelfth century
5 Early Islamic Installations Ninth–tenth centuries
6 Umayyad Covering the top of the Seventh–eighth

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Secret Passage with a centuries
barrel vault and
the installation of a
staircase linking the Secret
Passage to the Street of the
Chain
7A Late Byzantine Installations and floors Sixth–seventh
centuries
7B Early Byzantine Installations Fourth–fifth centuries
8 Late Roman-Aelia Expansion of the building E Third–fourth century
Capitolina into a large structure with
rooms (F), construction of
another building to the west
(Building G), and formation
of the Secret Passage (H)
between the Great
Causeway (D) and Buildings
F and G
9 Late Roman Construction of the Second–third
southern line of arches in centuries
the Great Causeway (D2).
Completion of the causeway
structure and paving the
decumanus on top of it.
Construction of the latrine
structure south of the Great
Causeway (E)
10 Late Roman Construction of the northern Early Second century

line of arches (D1) in the
east in the east in the Great
Causeway.
11 Late Roman Industrial ovens and Late First–early
installations second centuries
12 Destruction of the Destruction layer 50 m west 70 CE
Second Temple of the Temple Mount and
further west. No damage
was caused to Wilson’s Arch
and the arches adjacent to
it.
13A Second Temple Ritual baths and First century, before
installations 70 CE
13B Early Roman, Renovation of Wilson’s Arch First century, before
Second Temple and completion of Staircase 70 CE
Period C (‘the interchange’)
connected to it
13C Early Roman, Buildings next to Wilson’s First century, before
Second Temple Arch 70 CE
Period
14(?) Early Roman, Collapse—destruction, 33 CE (presumed)
Second Temple possibly by an earthquake.
Period Damage to Wilson’s Arch
15 Early Roman, Expansion of the Temple First century BCE
Second Temple Mount during Herod’s reign,
Period Wilson’s Arch (C)
16 Late Hellenistic– Wide foundation wall First century BCE

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Early Roman (W5006, A) and a (Hasmonean or
monumental public building Herodian period),
(B) before the expansion
of the Temple Mount
The finds from the excavations conducted in the cavities of the Great Causeway
and its vicinity (the Secret Passage and the buildings south of it) are presented
below according to chronological phases, from the earliest to the latest.
Remains from the Second Temple Period: First Century BCE–First Century
CE, until the Year 70
The remains from the Second Temple period are ascribed to two main
construction phases. The early phase occurred prior to the expansion of the
Temple Mount by Herod, probably in the first century BCE, in the Late Hasmonean
period or the beginning of Herod’s reign. The late phase is connected to the
construction that took place next to the western wall of the Temple Mount, when
the latter was enlarged during Herod’s reign (c. 20 BCE), until 70 CE. The
buildings of the early phase were adapted to the natural topography, particularly
to the channels of the Transverse and the Tyropoeon Valleys, and their main axes
corresponded to the ordinal directions of the compass. Unlike the early phase, the
buildings of the late phase were usually aligned to correspond with the western
wall of the Temple Mount, and they were perpendicular or parallel to its general
north–south orientation.
Stratum 16. The Second Temple Period, the Early Construction Phase:
First Century BCE
The early construction phase included a broad foundation wall (W5006; below, A;
Figs. 5, 6) and a monumental public building (below, B), which consists of three
halls (21, 22, 23). The northern part of Building B is integrated in Foundation Wall
A. The main axis of Foundation Wall A and Building B is aligned perpendicular to
the Tyropoeon Valley and extends from southwest to northeast.
Foundation Wall 5006 (Building A). The top of W5006 was discovered in
excavations currently situated 50–100 m west of the western wall of the Temple
Mount, in Rooms 5 (502, 504), 6 (602, 604) and 8 (804), as well as in the Secret
Passage, in front of the entrance to Room 5. It has a maximum width of c. 13 m in
the area exposed so far, whereas beneath Room 804, in the area north of Hall 21
of Building A, its width was reduced to just c. 6 m. The foundation wall is built in the
opus caementicium, which uses a casting of small and medium stones bonded with
hard mortar (Figs. 7, 8, 9). The top of the foundation wall is uniform, at an
elevation of c. 730 m above sea level. The southern side of W5006 was
discovered beneath Room 804 of the Great Causeway; where it is built of courses
of square, roughly hewn stones and small stones between them (Fig. 10, section
2–2). Here the foundation wall is erected on two elongated arches built of dressed
stones (230, 240, Fig. 11). It seems that the construction of the vaults and casting
of the foundation wall above them in this phase were done in a single construction
phase; however, final conclusions would be drawn only after the excavations in
Vaults 230 and 240 are completed.
The location of Foundation Wall 5006 (Building A) across the Tyropoeon Valley
channel, the solid method of its construction, its great width and flat uniform top
allow us to assume that it was used simultaneously as a dam and as a road. At the
point where it crosses the stream channel it was probably also used as a bridge.
The presumed starting point of the road borne atop Wall 5006 was in the Upper
City. It most likely led to the western gate of the Temple Mount, whose location at
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that time was most likely several dozen meters northeast of the current Gate of the
Chain.
The top of the wall was damaged by installations coated with gray hydraulic
plaster, one of which has been identified as a ritual bath (L6157). These
installations (L5060, L6157, L6158, L8042 in Rooms 5, 6, 8) were discovered
blocked with earth and stone collapse that contained a wealth of artifacts,
including fragments of pottery vessels, stone vessels and coins, dating to the end
of the Second Temple period, probably when Jerusalem was destroyed in 70 CE.
These finds prove that the foundation wall was built prior to the year 70 CE. The
top of the foundation wall was sealed by the vault piers of the Great Causeway
and it therefore predated them as well.
Monumental Public Building (Building B). Three halls (21, 22, 23; Fig. 5) were
revealed in Building B. The currently known walls of the structure were built of
ashlars with delicate margin dressing. The main entrance to the building was a
double monumental doorway, set in the eastern side. The interior walls of Halls 21
and 23 were decorated with a molded cornice that protruded from the line of the
wall about a third of the way up from the floor. Above the cornice, engaged pillars
at set intervals protruded from the line of the wall (Fig. 12). The capitals
incorporated in the tops of the pillars and the ceilings of the original halls were not
preserved, except for one capital in the corner of Hall 23, whose original shape is
unknown because it was severely damaged. The eastern Hall 23 was first exposed
by Warren who named it the ‘Masonic Hall’ (Warren 1876:370–371; Warren and
Conder 1884:200–202). It was further studied by Stinespring (1967) and by Bahat
and Maier (Bahat 1994; 2007), and since then has been referred to as the
Hasmonean or the Herodian Hall. Hall 21 was recently investigated by A. Onn, who
ascertained its ascription to the building. Building B was damaged at some point
during the Second Temple period. Its original ceiling was removed and the tops of
its walls were damaged. It was repaired in the same period, probably in Stratum
13.
Plastered Installation 3260. A plastered installation (L3260) is also attributed to

this stratum. It is connected to white-plaster floors and was discovered in Room 31,
south of the Great Causeway.
Strata 15–13. The Second Temple Period: The Late Construction Phase
The beginning of this phase (Stratum 15) is related to the expansion of the Temple
Mount during Herod’s reign and it continues until the destruction of the city in 70
CE (Figs. 13, 14). Extensive building activity occurred at the foot of the Temple
Mount’s western wall at this time and Wilson’s Arch (Building C; see Fig. 3) is the
principal structure belonging to this phase. The arch is part of an ‘interchange’
that is similar in its general shape to the ‘interchange’ at Robinson’s Arch. At some
point in time, which cannot be dated with certainty (Stratum 14), destruction that
resulted in the collapse of building stones with drafted margins (known as
Herodian stones) had occurred. So far, this collapse has been documented near
the Wilson’s Arch pier. The destruction can be ascribed to an earthquake that
struck Jerusalem in the year 31 BCE, or more likely, in the years 30 or 33 CE; it
may have been caused by some other, unknown reason. Subsequent to this
earthquake event, construction was resumed and the damaged buildings were
repaired (Stratum 13). The tops of the walls in Halls 21 and 23 of Building B were
completed and new vaulted roofs were placed above them. Toward the end of this
phase (Stratum 13), plastered installations were added, several of which have
been identified as ritual baths in the vaulted spaces (C) of Wilson’s Arch

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‘interchange’ and at the top of Foundation Wall A.
Wilson’s Arch ‘Interchange’ (Building C). Wilson’s Arch is built of 23 courses

of rectangular stones that are the same size as the stones in the Western Wall.
The surfaces of the stones are smoothed and many have drafted margins along
their four edges. The length of the arch (from north to south) is 14.8 m, its width
(diameter) is 12.8 m and its height above the springing line in the walls (= radius)
is 6.4 m. The western side of the arch is founded on a pier, whose top is only
exposed at present (see Fig. 3). The dimensions of the pier in Wilson’s Arch are
similar to that of Robinson’s Arch. In its bottom part, which Warren saw and
documented in the narrow shaft he dug alongside it, he described a compartment
whose shape somewhat resembled the compartments incorporated in the pier of
Robinson’s Arch, which are customarily identified as shops. Wilson's Arch is
completely integrated in the stone courses of the Western Wall (Fig. 16, 17). The
courses of the arch are similar in size and shape to those of the Western Wall and
stones that are part of both the wall and the arch were incorporated in the spot
where the springing of the arch emerged from the Western Wall. All the arch’s
stones that are visible on its western side above the current prayer plaza are
dressed with drafted margins, characteristic of Herodian construction. The manner
in which the arch joins the western pier (W417) is identical to its integration in the
Western Wall. This data shows that Wilson’s Arch was constructed together with
the Herodian Western Wall and with the western pier. The incorporation of
Wilson’s Arch in the stone courses of the Western Wall was already noted in the
nineteenth century by Wilson and Warren (Fig. 15), but they themselves, and
other scholars in later periods, suggested that the current Wilson’s Arch was built
at a different time, in the location of a similar arch from the Second Temple period
that had been destroyed in 70 CE. Kloner proposed ascribing the current arch to
the time of Hadrian’s reign; Warren attributed it to the time of Constantine or
Justinian and Bahat and Ben-Dov claimed it dated to the Umayyad period. The
arch’s appearance, its method of construction, its total integration in the Western
Wall and the archaeological finds from the current and past excavations all
support the conclusion that the current arch was erected in the Second Temple
period, prior to 70 CE; it was not damaged in the destruction of that year and
remained complete and in situ.
Two small, narrower arches were exposed west of Wilson’s Arch in the past (Bahat
2007; Vaults 25, 26); above them was an additional level of arches (see Fig. 3).
These arches, together with new roof vaults that were built in this phase above the
halls in Building A: 21, 22 (presumably) and 23, and walls from the Second Temple
period (W321, W323), located today at the base of a Roman building constructed
south of the Great Causeway (E), are all attributed to the system of vaults that was
built west and south of Wilson’s Arch for the purpose of supporting a staircase
atop them. We proposed identifying the staircase that was exposed in the past
above the top of the pier of Wilson’s Arch (Kogan-Zehavi 1994) as part of the
steps that went up toward the entrance gate to the Temple Mount, where the
Chain Gate is located today (Figs. 3, 18). One option says that the staircase
began on the street near the Western Wall (whose presumed elevation was c. 722
m above sea level) and Wilson’s Arch interchange was essentially similar to
Robinson’s Arch interchange. Another option suggests that the staircase
ascended from west to east. The presumed top of it was the top of Foundation
Wall 5006 (A), whose elevation is c. 730 m, and it rose toward the plaza that was
above Wilson’s Arch at an elevation of c. 736 m above sea level. The renewed
roofing on the three halls in Building B (21, 23 and presumably also 22) was most
likely designed to link these elements.

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Plastered Ritual Baths and Installations of the Second Temple Period.
Ritual baths were installed in this phase inside the vault cavities adjacent to
Wilson’s Arch (Rooms 24–26) and inside Hall 21 of Building B. The baths in
Rooms 24–26 had previously been exposed by D. Bahat (Bahat 1997). Three
coins dating to the years 54–59 CE (IAA 135020–022) were discovered in the
foundation of the recently exposed Bath 20059 in Room 21 (Fig. 19). They
indicate that the construction of the ritual baths occurred between the years 54–59
and 70 CE. Other installations from this phase (L5060, L6157, L6158, L8046; Fig.
13) were dug into and damaged the top of Foundation Wall A. These plastered
installations were apparently used for collecting water or intended for storing
products. One of the installations was identified as a ritual bath (L6157; Fig. 20). A
coin (IAA 134975) struck in the year 54 CE was discovered in the plaster of
Installation 5060, indicating that the installation was built after this date. All the
installations were blocked with soil and stone fill that contained finds from the late
Second Temple era or the beginning of the Roman period.
Stratum 12. Destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE

The meager archaeological evidence of the destruction in the year 70 CE is
primarily located in the western parts of the Great Causeway. The collapse of
building stones, including fragments of pottery vessels, stone vases and coins that
were minted in the years 41–42 CE (IAA 134974), 51–52 CE (IAA 134972) and
until Year 2 of the Great Revolt (IAA 134973), were discovered in the fill of
Installation 5060 (Fig. 19). The fill in Ritual Bath 6157 also contained similar finds.
A partition of building stones in secondary use was constructed inside Installation
6158; the fill on either of its sides included finds dating to the Second Temple era
and the beginning of the Roman period. Wilson’s Arch and the arches next to it,
which in our opinion, belonged to a staircase from the Second Temple period (C),
are intact and well-preserved; apparently, they were not destroyed during the
Great Revolt. In addition, no burnt fill, such as that known from the residential
quarters in the Upper City, was discovered. This situation is, to a great extent,
different than the destruction collapse discovered at the foot of Robinson’s Arch.
We can assume that Wilson’s Arch and the arches nearby (those belonging to
Interchange C) survived and were not damaged because the Romans made use of
it during the Great Revolt and afterward.
Remains from the Late Roman Period

Stratum 11. Late First–Early Second Centuries CE
The remains that can undoubtedly be attributed to undertakings of the legion’s
soldiers after 70 CE point to industrial activity in the area (Fig. 22). A partially
preserved, black burnt level (L5029) was discovered in Room 504. Two industrial
furnaces with a bellows that may have been used to manufacture iron tools
(L6156, L6159) were uncovered in Room 602 (Figs. 4, 23). The floor of another,
slightly earlier furnace (L6162) was exposed beneath one of them. The furnaces
were founded on destruction collapse and soil fill that was deliberately deposited
inside plastered installations from the Second Temple period (L6157, L6158). Soil
fill (L8042) in Room 804, which contained vessels dating to the years 70–130 CE,
blocked Installation 8046 of the Second Temple period. The sides of the
installations were sealed beneath the northern piers of the bridge (W804). Meager
remains of installations and a small section of a plastered floor from this phase
were also discovered in Room 31, south of the Great Causeway. The exposed
remains, especially the installations, attest to the industrial activity of the Roman
legion’s soldiers in this region, following the destruction of 70 CE. No buildings
from this phase were discovered.

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Aelia Capitolina: Second–Fourth Centuries CE
At some point, probably early in the second century CE, new buildings were
constructed west of the Temple Mount. The main structure is the Great Causeway
(Building D)—a long bridge of arches designed to carry a straight-line road at a
high elevation into the Temple Mount (Figs. 22, 24). The level of the new road was
determined according to the elevation at the top of Wilson’s Arch from the Second
Temple period, which was incorporated into the new bridge. Following the
completion of the bridge, large public structures (E, F, G) were built to its south.
Strata 10–9. The Great Causeway (Building D): Second–Early Third

Centuries CE. The Great Causeway complex (D) is composed of Wilson’s Arch,
supported up against the Temple Mount in the east, and two rows of arches to its
west: a northern row (D1) and a southern (D2) one that were built one after the
other, with a short time lapse between them. They were built of regular courses of
large rectangular limestone blocks whose outline is either round barrel-shaped or
slightly pointed. A wide arch, longer than the other arches, is built at what we
currently know as the western end of the Great Causeway (below Arch 100; Figs.
2, 3, 26). The Eastern Cardo was exposed beneath this arch.
For a distance of c. 80 m, in the western part of what we currently know as the
Great Causeway, a structure (D) was founded on the broad foundation wall (A) of
the Second Temple period or on the vaulted roofs of the halls of the monumental
building (B), which are incorporated in it. The Great Causeway (D) was built to
conform to the axes of Buildings A and B. Its overall width (10.8–11.0 m) is
narrower than that of Foundation Wall A (c. 14 m), which protruded below it c. 1.6
m to the north and south, beyond the causeway sides. The orientation of the
Great Causeway (D) changes c. 20 west of the Western Wall; it turns east toward
Wilson’s Arch, joining it to the western wall of the Temple Mount. Here its width is
identical to that of Wilson’s Arch, c. 14.8 m. The eastern vaults of the Great
Causeway were founded on vaults dating to the Second Temple period (21–26;
Figs. 2, 3, 24), which were first built as part of the original Wilson’s Arch
interchange (Building C).
The total length of what is currently known of the Great Causeway (D) stands at c.
100 m. The bridge’s arches built between Ha-Gāy Street and Wilson’s Arch are
bounded on the north and south by long walls, extending from west to east, and
another wall in the same direction separates between the two rows of arches, D1
and D2. A narrow covered passage (the Secret Passage, below H) to the south
separates the Great Causeway from a complex of large public buildings (E, F, G),
about which we know little at this time. Today, the Street of the Chain is borne atop
the Great Causeway (D) and the Secret Passage (H).
To date, excavations have been conducted in three of the arches in the northern
row D1 (in Rooms 504, 604, 804) and in two arches in the southern row D2
(Rooms 502 and 602). Two previous excavations had been conducted in Arch 100
(Hamilton 1933; M. Magen, 2.3.1979. Jerusalem, the Western Wall Tunnel. Israel
Antiquities Authority Archive. Excavation Folder A-808/1979 [discussed by A.
Kloner and R. Bar-Natan 2008. The Eastern Cardo of Aelia Capitolina. Eretz Israel
28:204, Footnote 12]). The finds from these excavations, which allow us to date
the construction of the Great Causeway, are described below.
Stratum 10. The Northern Row of Arches, D1. The piers of Row D1 in Rooms
504, 604, 804 were founded directly on top of Foundation Wall A (Fig. 25, and
also 7, 8, above). They seal, in two places, installations dating to the Second
Temple period, which were dug into the foundation wall (L5060, L8046) and were

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blocked with the destruction collapse of 70 CE (L5042) or with fill that accumulated
in the years 70–130 CE (L8046). Ovens were installed in Rooms 504 and 804
(L5002, L8016; Fig. 27) after the row of arches was built. A coin dating to 222–235
CE (IAA 135079) was discovered in the foundation of Oven 8016 (Room 8) and
another coin dating 40–270 CE (IAA 134948) was found in the foundation of Oven
5002 (Room 5). It has therefore been ascertained that the northern Row D1 was
built after 70 CE and before the end of the third century CE.
Stratum 9. The Southern Row of Arches, D2 and Arch 100. The more
complete condition of the arches in the southern Row D2, along the seam between
them and the northern Row D1, indicates that they are later than Row D1 and
were built in Stratum 9, at the earliest. From a stratigraphic perspective, Vaults
502 and 602 of the Southern Row of Arches D2 were founded on top of
Foundation Wall A. They sealed and damaged installations of Stratum 11 (L5037,
L6159, L6162). Several ruinous installations were found inside Room 502, which
contained coins of the second and third centuries CE. These were overlain with a
white earthen layer, doubtfully a floor (L5035, L5036, L5038, L5046), which
contained sixteen coins (IAA 134958–968, 134977–981); the three latest coins
were minted in the years 324–408 CE, and about eleven other coins were struck in
the fourth century, prior to the year 363 CE. The white earthen layer abutted the
walls of the room and attests to the eaistence Vault 502 in this period. A white
plaster floor of the third or fourth centuries CE, which abutted the walls of Vault
602, was discovered too.
Based on these findings, the Southern Row of Arches D2 was built after the year
130 CE and prior to the end of the fourth century CE.
Arch 100 is significantly different than the arches in Rows D1 and D2, located to its
east. Its overall length (c. 11.5 m) is equal to the shared length of Rows D1 and D2
together and its width (c. 8 m) is greater than the average width of Rows D1 and
D2. At the north and south ends, Arch 100 is integrated and aligned with the
arches of the Great Causeway; it is obvious that it was built as part of the Great
Causeway for the purpose of carrying the decumanus on top of it. The time of its
construction is therefore contemporary with that of Row D2. The piers of Arch 100
were built in accordance with the direction of the eastern cardo, whose remains
were exposed between them at an elevation of 727.5 m above sea level; therefore,
the angle between the piers of Arch 100 and the axis of the Great Causeway is
different from the right angle between the other arches to the axis of the bridge.
The top of Foundation Wall A, on which the piers of Arch 100 were founded, was
lowered by c. 3.5 m from its uniform elevation because of the eastern cardo level
in this spot, and this indicates that Arch 100 was built at this time or slightly later
than the eastern cardo; we suggested that it was paved in the first third of the
second century CE, during the reign of Hadrian at the very latest (HA-ESI 121;
Weksler-Bdolah and Onn 2011).
Construction Date of the Great Causeway. Four components were discerned

in the Great Causeway, from east to west: Wilson’s Arch, the northern row of
arches—D1, the southern row of arches—D2 and Arch 100. The latest
components in the construction of the Great Causeway are Row D2 and Arch 100,
which were erected at the same time (Stratum 9). Row D2 postdates 130 CE and
antedates the fourth century CE. Arch 100 makes it possible to reduce this
chronological range to the first third of the second century CE or slightly
thereafter. The adaptation of the cardo and the piers of the Great Causeway in
the place where the cardo and the decumanus pass within a distance of c. 8.5 m

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above each other (elevation of the cardo 727.5 m, elevation of the decumanus c.
736 m above sea level) is, in our opinion, an indication of their sensible planning
at the same time. At this time, Aelia Capitolina was designed as a Roman colony
and the network of main roads was paved. We suggest that the relatively narrow
width of the cardo beneath the Great Causeway (c. 8 m compared to 11 m south
of the bridge) is a result of this interchange.
Stratum 9. Building E, Roman Latrine. Remains of the structure were

discovered in an excavation that was conducted in Room 31, which is located in a
building south of the Great Causeway. A room (32) to the east of Room 31 had
been excavated in the past (Bahat and Solomon 2004). The finds indicate that the
structure was built in the second or third centuries CE (Stratum 9). Building E
included a central rectangular space, whose area was identical to or greater than
the shared area of Rooms 30–32 (length c. 20 m, width 8.5 m). The walls of the
building stand to a height in excess of 10 m, an indication that the structure was
probably built two stories high. The ground floor of this building was used as a
Roman latrine and drainage channels were exposed in the foundation level
running alongside the structure’s northern, eastern and southern walls. One can
assume that the building was initially incorporated in a large complex of buildings
that may be related to a bathhouse.
Stratum 8. Construction in the Great Causeway and South of It: Third-

Fourth Centuries CE. A closing wall was built south of Row D2 in the late third–
fourth centuries CE. The latrine building (E) was enlarged and converted to a
building with rooms; and another structure (G) was built west of Building F. This
created a narrow alley-like passage between the Great Causeway and the
complex of buildings (F, G) to its south, which is today known as the ‘Secret
Passage’ (H).
Building F. Interior walls that were built in this phase divided the inside of Building
E into three square rooms (above, 30–32). The building was enlarged and Room
33 was added to it on the east. In this phase, Building F was c. 35 m long and at
this stage in our excavations, we know it is 8 m wide. Its foundation level included
about six square rooms arranged along the northern side of the structure, of which
Room 31 was excavated. The latrine from the early phase continued to be used
and it attests to the public nature of the building, and perhaps to its being part of a
bathhouse (Fig. 28). The foundation trench of the northern wall of Room 33
(W413), which was built in this phase, provides a clue concerning the time when
Building F was erected. The foundation trench cut through layers of soil and ash
fill that were deposited south of Wilson’s Arch pier in the third century CE, and
yielded a coin minted during the reign of Aurelian, in the years 270–275 CE (IAA
135852). Coins from the third century CE (IAA 135845–846) were retrieved from
the foundation trench. It therefore seems that the construction of Building F
postdated the year 275 CE and it occurred in the last quarter of the third century
or in the fourth century CE. This data is also consistent with the artifacts of the
third and fourth centuries CE that were discovered below the floor of this phase in
Room 31 (L3211).
Building G. At some point, another building (G) was established west of Building
E/F; it has not been excavated so far and its dating is uncertain. The northern wall
of Building G (W1103) extends 39 m west of the corner of Building F. The upper
part is today exposed along the southern side of the Secret Passage. The

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northwestern corner of Building G is located c. 10 m east of the tunnel on Ha-Gāy
Street, along the same axis where it constitutes the border of the eastern stoa of
the Roman cardo that has recently been discovered in the Western Wall Plaza
excavations (HA-ESI 121). We can assume with a high degree of certainty that this
building was constructed east of the Roman cardo and was adapted to it. Wall
1103 is built of regular courses of ashlars that have smoothed surfaces and no
drafted margins and which are arranged lengthwise and widthwise in no particular
order. Incorporated within the stones of the wall is a stone bearing an engraving of
the name of the Tenth Legion—FRET. In Bahat’s opinion, the inscription was
integrated in the wall in secondary use (Bahat 1994).
Closing Wall South of Row D2. A ‘closing wall’ was built south of Row D2 at
about the same time as Buildings F and G, south of the Great Causeway, or
shortly thereafter. Sections of the wall in front of each room were identified by a
different name, W100, W200, W300, and so on to W900. The closing wall
retreated from the vaults of the Great Causeway east of W900 and turned
eastward parallel to the outer wall of Building F. Two sections of drainage
channels were discovered alongside it (L11007 along W500 in front of Vault 502
and L1531 in front of Wall 3108).
The Secret Passage (H). A narrow passage, probably not an alley, was created
between the Great Causeway (D) and Buildings F and G to its south. In all
probability, the narrow passage led from the cardo toward the Temple Mount. The
axis of the passage turned from the cardo to the northeast along the Great
Causeway and then east along Building F. The original route and destination of
this passage cannot be determined, nor if it reached the western wall of the
Temple Mount. Today, it is known to reach c. 20 m west of the Temple Mount. The
passage was not covered in its earliest phase and at some later point, the vaulted
roof was constructed above it. The presumed level of this passage, based on the
elevations of the doorways incorporated in Walls 500 and 600 to its north and in
Wall 3102 to its south, is 730.0–730.3 m above sea level—c. 2.5 m above the level
of its intersection with the eastern cardo.
Stratum 7. The Byzantine period: Fifth-Sixth Centuries CE

Floors and installations that were discovered in the spaces of the Great Causeway
point to the activity undertaken inside them during this phase. The earliest remains
are industrial pools in Hall 21 (L20031, L20032), which were probably built in the
late fourth century CE or slightly thereafter and were used in the fifth and sixth
centuries CE. Earthen and plaster floors and a drainage channel, which are likely
dated to the sixth century CE, were discovered in Vaults 5, 6 and 8. Other than the
installations, walls were built in this phase or slightly later inside the southern wall
of Row D2; it is presumed that they were designed to support the arches, e.g.,
W501 north of W500 and W601 north of W600. The construction of these walls is
probably related to the building of the vaulted roof above the Secret Passage,
whose northern side was supported on the vaults of the southern bridge. Changes
to the plan of Building F occurred during the transition from the Roman to the
Byzantine periods; the latrines were demolished and the rooms were paved with a
white mosaic.
Strata 7–6. The Byzanto-Umayyad period: Sixth–Eighth Centuries CE

The main buildings in this phase are connected to the Secret Passage. A roof
vault (W1150; length c. 50 m) was built above the main part of the Secret

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Passage. It began c. 10 m east of the tunnel on Ha-Gāy Street. Its northern side
was founded on the wall that was built in front of Row D2 (W100, W200, W300 and
so on) of Stratum 8, which damaged Row D2 from Stratum 9. The southern side of
Vault 1150 was founded on the northern walls of Buildings F and G, also of
Stratum 8. Its construction postdated these buildings and occurred in Stratum 7 or
6.
At that time or slightly thereafter, an impressive staircase ascending from west to
east across the Secret Passage, was built east of Vault 1150 (L1515; length c. 4
m, width 2.9 m, overall height 3.5 m; Fig. 29). The center part of the staircase was
damaged some time later; six of the stairs were preserved in its western part and
another seven stairs survived in its eastern part. A square upper landing (L1506,
1.95 × 2.50 m) was discovered at its eastern end; where the ascent turned north
toward the Street of the Chain. The southern side of another step is visible north
of Landing 1506. The rise of the steps is c. 0.2 m and the average tread depth is
0.75–0.80 m. The steps were built of stone slabs, including numerous reused
architectural elements.
The eastern part of Secret Passage H, east of Staircase 1515, is covered with a
‘half vault’ (W417) that rests on the northern wall of Building F in the south and on
Wilson’s Arch in the north.
The construction of Vault 1150, Half Vault 417 and Staircase 1515 between them,
had probably occurred within a short time of each other and they were probably
part of the overall network of roads and the passageway between them. We
suggested ascribing their construction to Stratum 6, most likely to the Umayyad
period, between the seventh and eighth centuries CE.
Stratum 5. The Early Islamic period: Eighth–Tenth Centuries CE

A thick ash layer was discovered in two of the excavated rooms (21 in the Great
Causeway and 31 in Building B). The layer contained numerous fragments of
pottery vessels that likely originated from the debris of two pottery kilns (L2000 in
Room 21 and L3203 in Room 31). The location of these rooms in the bottom
stories of the Great Causeway and Building F indicate that the spaces in this level
were converted for use as refuse pits. Sections of floors (L5011, L6132) and
meager installations (L6146) were discovered in Rooms 5, 6 and 8 of the main
level of the bridge.
Strata 4–3. The Crusader and Ayyubid period: Twelfth–Thirteenth

Centuries CE
Pillar 3202 in Room 31, found leaning at an angle of c. 75°, was surrounded by
the collapse of building stones. It seems that the pillar belonged to a building that
had previously been studied by D. Bahat and was identified as Crusader (Bahat
and Solomon 2002:177–181). The falling of the pillar is associated with an event
that probably caused the stone collapse around it, perhaps an earthquake or
deliberate destruction. The collapse contained finds dating to the Ayyubid period,
which enables to attribute the destruction to this period.
Strata 3–2. The Mamluk period, Thirteenth–Fifteenth Centuries and the

Ottoman Period, Fifteenth–Nineteenth Centuries
The al-Tankiziyya madrassa was constructed in 1329 by Emir al-Tankiz, governor
of Israel and Syria, above the Crusader building in the location of Building F
(Burgoyne M.H. 1987. 'Al-Tankiziyya' in: Mamluk Jerusalem, an Architectural
Study. London. Pp. 223–240). The place is known as the ‘Mahkame’ and was
used in the Mamluk and Ottoman periods as a courthouse. Today the building
serves as a base for the Israel Border Police.

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Drainage channels (L6101) and a cesspit (L6100) that were installed in the cavity
of the northern bridge were discovered in Room 6 of the Great Causeway. These
and other installations (L6130, L6147) are connected to the urban life that was
conducted on a higher level, on both sides of the decumanus (The Street of the
Chain). Layers of soil fill that accumulated during the period blocked the cavities of
the Great Causeway.
Stratum 1. The Modern Period

Several of the cavities in the Great Causeway were cleaned by workers of the
Ministry of Religious Affairs after 1967. At the same time, the upper part of the
vault of Ha-Gāy Street tunnel was cleaned and a small-scale salvage excavation
was conducted there in 1979 by M. Magen (see A. Kloner and R. Bar-Natan 2008).
In addition, the Secret Passage (H) was cleaned and obstructions were removed
from it. Concrete supports were poured in several places to retain the soil fill.
Unstable vaults and walls were reinforced and lighting was installed. The work was
done as part of preparing the site for public visits.

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1. Location map, the Great Causeway, Wilson’s Bridge.

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2. The Great Causeway excavations (Alexander Onn, 2007–2010), general plan.

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3. The Great Causeway, section, looking north.

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4. Room 6, plan and sections.

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5. Stratum 16, Buildings A and B, plan.
6. Stratum 16, isometric reconstruction, drawing: Y. Shmidov

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7. The top of the foundation wall in Room 5, looking east, an oven (L5002) is above it.

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8. The top of the foundation wall in Room 6, looking west. Wall 604 of the northern bridge is above it.

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9. The top of the foundation wall in Room 8, looking north. Wall 804 of the northern bridge is above it.

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10. Room 8, plan and sections.

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11. Vault 230, looking north.

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12. Room 21, view toward Wall 2001e, looking east. Engaged pillars above a cornice that was removed.
13. Strata 15–13, plan.

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14. Wilson’s Arch interchange (Building C), isometric reconstruction, drawing: Y. Shmidov
15. Wilson’s Arch (after C.W. Wilson and C. Warren 1871. The Recovery of Jerusalem. London, facing p. 76).

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16. Wilson’s Arch, looking southwest.

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17. Wilson’s Arch incorporated in the construction of the Western Wall, looking west.

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18. Staircase from the Second Temple period above the pier of Wilson’s Arch, looking north.

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19. Room 21, Ritual Bath 20059, looking south.

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20. Room 602, looking east, Installations 6157 (bottom), 6158 (top).
21. Room 504, destruction collapse (L5042) inside Installation 5060, looking west.

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22. General plan of the Roman period, Strata 11–8.
23. Room 602, view looking up, Ritual Bath 6157 and a legion oven (L6156) above it.

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24. The Great Causeway, isometric reconstruction.

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25. Room 5, plan and sections of Strata 11–7.

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26. Ha-Gāy Street tunnel, the Great Causeway vault above the cardo, looking north.
27. Room 504, Oven 5002, looking west.

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28. Room 31, Roman latrine, looking west.

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29. Staircase across the Secret Passage, looking east.

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Jerusalem, The Old City, Wilson’s Arch and the Great Causeway: Preliminary Report

Author(s): Alexander Onn, Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah and Rachel Bar-Nathan

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26595086

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Description of the ‘Great Causeway’

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The current excavations (2007–2010) were conducted in the northern part of

Stratum Period Principal Finds Century or Year

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10 Late Roman Construction of the northern Early Second century

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Plastered Installation 3260. A plastered installation (L3260) is also attributed to

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Wilson’s Arch ‘Interchange’ (Building C). Wilson’s Arch is built of 23 courses

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Stratum 12. Destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE

Remains from the Late Roman Period

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Strata 10–9. The Great Causeway (Building D): Second–Early Third

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Construction Date of the Great Causeway. Four components were discerned

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Stratum 9. Building E, Roman Latrine. Remains of the structure were

Stratum 8. Construction in the Great Causeway and South of It: Third-

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Stratum 7. The Byzantine period: Fifth-Sixth Centuries CE

Strata 7–6. The Byzanto-Umayyad period: Sixth–Eighth Centuries CE

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Stratum 5. The Early Islamic period: Eighth–Tenth Centuries CE

Strata 4–3. The Crusader and Ayyubid period: Twelfth–Thirteenth

Strata 3–2. The Mamluk period, Thirteenth–Fifteenth Centuries and the

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Stratum 1. The Modern Period

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6. Stratum 16, isometric reconstruction, drawing: Y. Shmidov

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13. Strata 15–13, plan.

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27. Room 504, Oven 5002, looking west.

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